Inequalities

Brice Huang
April 20, 2014

1 Background
Often, contest problems require the student to prove an inequality or determine the extreme values that an
expression may attain. Though optimization is generally taught in classrooms only in the context of calculus,
there are methods involving only algebra that are more elementary, more intuitive, and more elegant; such
methods require a may greater degree of understanding to apply, but they usually lead to solutions that are
shorter, more natural, and less mechanical. The purpose of this lecture, therefore, is to introduce the reader
to such techniques.

2 No Square is Negative
2.1 Theory and Examples
We begin with a simple but powerful concept:
Fact 2.1.1. The square of any real number is nonnegative.

This is true because a negative number squared is positive, a positive number squared is positive, and 0
squared is 0. In fact, we can say more:
Theorem 2.1.2. For all real numbers x, x2 ≥ 0, and equality holds if and only if x = 0.
This result is known as the Trivial Inequality. The Trivial inequality gives us a valuable strategy to
prove an inequality: we can establish that an inequality is true by showing, through algebraic manipulations,
that it is equivalent to one or more squares (or other nonnegative quantities) being nonnegative. We now
use the Trivial Inequality to solve problems:
Example 2.1.3. Find the minimum value of x2 − 8x + y 2 + 6y as x, y range over all real numbers. When
is this minimum attained?

Solution: To apply the Trivial Inequality, we first complete the square. Notice that

x2 − 8x + y 2 + 6y = (x − 4)2 − 16 + (y + 3)2 − 9 = (x − 4)2 + (y + 3)2 − 25

. As (x − 4)2 ≥ 0 and (y + 3)2 ≥ 0, the minimum of the expression is −25 and is attained if and only if
(x, y) = (4, −3).
Example 2.1.4. Show that for all real numbers x, y, z,

x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≥ xy + yz + zx

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2.1 Theory and Examples Inequalities High School North Math Club 2013-14
Solution: We move all of the terms to the left to complete squares and apply the Trivial Inequality. It
suffices to prove the equivalent inequality

x2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − zx ≥ 0

. Observe that we may double this to obtain the equivalent 2x2 + 2y 2 + 2z 2 − 2xy − 2yz − 2zx ≥ 0, which
is true because it rearranges to

(x2 − 2xy + y 2 ) + (y 2 − 2yz + z 2 ) + (z 2 − 2zx + x2 ) = (x − y)2 + (y − z)2 + (z − x)2 ≥ 0

. We may then write our proof by following the above steps in reverse: (x − y)2 + (y − z)2 + (z − x)2 ≥ 0
is true by the Trivial Inequality. This expands to 2x2 + 2y 2 + 2z 2 − 2xy − 2yz − 2zx ≥ 0, which implies
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − zx ≥ 0, which in turn implies x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≥ xy + yz + zx. Equality holds if and
only if x = y = z because all the squares must equal 0 for equality to hold.
a b
Example 2.1.5. Prove that for all positive real numbers a, b, b + a ≥ 2.
Solution: Because a, b are both positive, we can multiply through by ab to clear denominators and get a
simpler inequality without changing the inequality sign. This yields the equivalent a2 + b2 ≥ 2ab, which is
true because a2 − 2ab + b2 = (a − b)2 ≥ 0 follows from the Trivial Inequality. We write our proof by retracing
these steps.
Example 2.1.6. Prove that for all positive real numbers x, y, z:
x3 + y 3 y3 + z3 z 3 + x3
+ + ≥x+y+z
x2 + y 2 y2 + z2 z 2 + x2
.
Solution: Clearing denominators, expanding, and applying the Trivial Inequality directly is too unwieldy
to be practical here. Instead, we observe that the left side has three symmetric terms - one involving only
x and y, another involving only y and z, and the last involving only z and x. If we can write the right side
in a similar way and show that each term on the left is larger than the corresponding term on the right, we
will have proved the inequality. This motivates us to write
x+y y+z z+x
x+y+z = + +
2 2 2
. We seek to prove
x3 + y 3 x+y
2 2
≥
x +y 2
. Now we can clear denominators to obtain: 2x3 + 2y 3 ≥ x3 + x2 y + xy 2 + y 3 ⇔ x3 − x2 y − xy 2 + y 3 =
3
+z 3
(x − y)2 (x + y) ≥ 0, which is true by the Trivial Inequality. Similarly, we can show yy2 +z 2 ≥
y+z
2 and
z 3 +x3 z+x
z 2 +x2 ≥ 2 , and add to obtain the desired inequality.
Example 2.1.7 (MOP 2013). Prove that for all positive real numbers x, y, z:
p p p √
x y 2 + yz + z 2 + y z 2 + zx + x2 + z x2 + xy + y 2 ≥ 3(xy + yz + zx)

.
Solution: Inspired by the previous example, we break the right side into three expressions because the three
square roots on the left are too unwieldy to manipulate together. We note that each term on the left has
one variable times an expression symmetric in the other two variables; this motivates us to write:
√ √ √
√ 3 3 3
3(xy + yz + zx) = x(y + z) + y(z + x) + z(x + y)
2 2 2

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2.2 Exercises Inequalities High School North Math Club 2013-14
. We want to prove √
p 3
x y2 + yz + z2 ≥ x(y + z)
2
3 2 y 2 −2yz+z 2
. Dividing by x and squaring yields the equivalent y 2 + yz + z 2 ≥ 4 (y + 2yz + z 2 ) ⇔ 4 =
(y−z)2 √ √
3
≥ 0. This is true by the Trivial Inequality. Similarly, we can prove y z 2 + zx + x2 ≥ 2 y(z + x) and
p4 √
z x2 + xy + y 2 ≥ 23 z(x + y), and add to arrive at the desired inequality.

2.2 Exercises
1. A rectangle has perimeter 20. Find, with proof, its maximal area.

2. Find the minimum value of (x2 − 2x + 5)(y 2 + 6y + 15) as x, y range over all real numbers. When is this
minimum attained?

3. Prove that for all real numbers a, b, c: a2 + 2b2 + 4c2 ≥ 2ab + 4bc.
1
4. Prove that for all positive real numbers x: 25x + x ≥ 10.

5. Prove that for all real numbers x, y, z: x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≥ −2xy + 2yz + 2zx.

6. If the real numbers x, y, z satisfy x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, determine the minimum value of xy + yz + zx.

2 2 2 1 1
7. Prove that for all real numbers x, y, z: x+y + y+z + z+x ≤ x + y + z1 .

8. Prove that for all real numbers x, y, z: x4 + y 4 + z 4 − 4xyz + 1 ≥ 0. When does equality occur?

9. [NIMO 2012] The positive numbers a, b, c satisfy 4abc(a+b+c) = (a+b)2 (a+c)2 . Prove that a(a+b+c) =
bc.

10. [HMNT 2013] Find the largest real number λ such that a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 ≥ ab + λbc + cd for all real
numbers a, b, c, d.

3 The AM-GM Inequality

3.1 Theory and Examples
Definition 3.1.1. The arithmetic mean (AM) of n numbers is their sum divided by n, and the geometric
mean (GM) of n numbers is the nth root of their product.
The AM and GM represent the ”average” of a set of numbers, in different senses of the word; generally,
they are not equal. Indeed, the following inequality relates the AM and GM of two variables:
Theorem 3.1.2 (AM-GM Inequality, 2-variable case). For any positive reals x, y,
x+y √
≥ xy
2
, with equality if and only if x = y.
x2 +2xy+y 2
This inequality readily follows from the Trivial Inequality: squaring yields 4 ≥ xy, which is
x2 −2xy+y 2 (x−y)2
equivalent to 4 = ≥ 0.
4
AM-GM states that the AM of two numbers is at least the GM of these numbers, and that AM=GM if
and only if the two numbers being averaged are equal. Intuitively, AM-GM states that knowing the sum of

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3.1 Theory and Examples Inequalities High School North Math Club 2013-14
two numbers (associated with their AM) provides an upper bound on their product (associated with their
GM), and knowing the product of two numbers provides a lower bound on their sum1 . In fact, more is true:
Theorem 3.1.3 (AM-GM Inequality, General Case). For any n positive real numbers a1 , . . . , an :
a1 + · · · + an √
≥ n a1 · · · an
n
.2
As we shall see, AM-GM is an effective and versatile problem-solving tool:
Example 3.1.4. If x, y are positive real numbers such that x + y + z = 24, find the maximum value of xy.
Solution: By AM-GM:
 3
x+y+z √ x+y+z
≥ 3 xyz ⇒ xyz ≤ = 83 = 512
3 3
. Equality holds at x = y = z, from which we can solve x + y + z = 24 to obtain x = y = z = 8.
a b
Example 3.1.5. Prove that for all positive real numbers a, b, b + a ≥ 2.
Solution: We saw earlier that this can be solved by the Trivial Inequality3 , but the AM-GM solution is
much faster: by AM-GM: r
a b
b + a a b
≥ · =1
2 b a
and the result immediately follows.
Example 3.1.6. Prove that for all positive real numbers x, y, z, (x + y)(y + z)(z + x) ≥ 8xyz.
Solution: We observe that that the left side contains three sums, each of which can be bounded with
x+y √ √
AM-GM. This motivates us to
√ √ apply AM-GM in the form 2 ≥ xy ⇒ x + y ≥√2 xy.√Likewise, √ we obtain
y + z ≥ 2 yz, and z + x ≥ 2 zx. Multiplying yields (x + y)(y + z)(z + x) ≥ (2 xy)(2 yz)(2 zx) = 8xyz,
as desired.
Example 3.1.7. If x, y are positive reals such that x + y = 10, find the minimum value of x2 + y 2 .
Solution: We don’t have a tool to bound x2 and y 2 directly, so we eliminate them by completing the square:
x2 + y 2 = (x + y)2 − 2xy = 102 − 2xy = 100 − 2xy. So, to minimize x2 + y 2 we must maximize xy, which
we can do with AM-GM:
√ x+y
xy ≤ = 5 ⇒ xy ≤ 25
2
Thus x2 + y 2 ≥ 100 − 2(25) = 50 . Equality holds at x = y, from which we solve x + y = 10 to find
x = y = 5.
By repeating terms, we can ”weight” certain terms in an AM-GM application, another testament to
AM-GM’s versatility:
1 Visualize the two numbers as the sides of a rectangle. If their sum is fixed, the rectangle’s perimeter is fixed, and their

product, the rectangle’s area, is larger when the rectangle is more like a square. If their product is fixed, the rectangle’s area is
fixed, and its perimeter is smaller when the rectangle is more like a square.
2 Outline of proof: Recall that moving two numbers closer together while holding their sum constant increases their product.

Consider any n positive reals. If they are all equal, clearly AM=GM. Otherwise, out of the n numbers, there must be one larger
than their AM and one smaller than their AM. While keeping their sum constant, move these two numbers towards each other
until one of them equals the n variables’ AM. Repeat this process until all n numbers are equal, at which point AM=GM. Each
step of the process keeps the n variables’ sun (and therefore AM) the same while increasing their product (and GM). Because
AM=GM at the end of the process, AM must have been larger than GM in the beginning.
3 This is no surprise, because AM-GM is based on the Trivial Inequality

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3.2 Exercises Inequalities High School North Math Club 2013-14
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Example 3.1.8. Find the minimum value of x2 + x as x ranges over all real values, and determine the
value(s) of x that attain this minimum.
Solution: Applying AM-GM directly would yield
√ √
r
54 54 54
x2 + ≥ x2 · = 3 6x ⇒ x2 + ≥ 6 6x
x x x
√
While this is true, it isn’t too helpful, because 6 6x is a variable, and does not give a constant bound. The
problem with this approach is that in the GM, the x in the denominator of 54 2
x does not cancel the x -
we need another x in the denominator to make them cancel. This motivates us to create another x in the
denominator by writing 54 27 27
x as x + x , and applying AM-GM in the form

x2 + 27 27
r
x + x 27 27 54
= 9 ⇒ x2 +
3
≥ x2 · · ≥ 27
3 x x x
27 27
. Equality holds at x2 = x = x , which we solve to get x = 3.
Example 3.1.9. Prove that for all positive reals x, y, z: x3 + y 3 + z 3 ≥ x2 y + y 2 z + z 2 x.
Solution: We use weighted AM-GM to get x2 y on the smaller side of an inequality. Because x2 y is the
geometric mean of x3 , x3 , and y 3 :
x3 + x3 + y 3 2 1
≥ x2 y ⇒ x3 + y 3 ≥ x2 y
3 3 3
2 3
. by AM-GM. Likewise 3y + 13 z 3 ≥ y 2 z and 2 3
3z + 13 x3 ≥ z 2 x. Summing these inequalities yields the
result.

3.2 Exercises
1. Find AM-GM solutions to Exercises 2.2.1, 2.2.2, and 2.2.4.
a b c d
2. As a, b, c, d, e range over all positive real values, find the minimum value of b + c + d + e + ae .

3. If x, y, z are positive real numbers satisfying xyz = 8, find the minimum value of x + y + z.

4. Show that for all positive reals a, b, c, d: (a + b + c)(b + c + d)(c + d + a)(d + a + b) ≥ 81abcd.

5. Show that for all positive reals a, b, c such that a + b + c = 1:

1+a 1+b 1+c
· · ≥8
1−a 1−b 1−c

6. Prove that for all positive real numbers x, y, z: x4 + y 4 + z 4 ≥ x2 yz + xy 2 z + xyz 2 .

7. Show that for all positive reals x, y, z: (x3 + 2)(y 3 + 2)(z 3 + 2) ≥ 27xyz. When does equality occur?

8. If positive real numbers x, y, z satisfy xy + yz + zx + 2xyz = 1, prove that xyz ≤ 81 .

9. [Mandelbrot 2007] Given that xy(x − y) = 3, what is the minimum of x2 + y 2 ?

10. [WOOT] Find, with proof, all solutions of positive real numbers (x, y, z) to the system of equations
xy + yz + zx = 12
xyz = 2 + x + y + z