Laboratory assignment #1

 Title
Modifications of legs, antenna and mouthparts

 Objective
To be familiar with the various modifications of insects.

 Introduction
Insects are all related, they share a common ancestor at the base of their family tree. From this
ancestor all insects inherited a basic anatomy and body plan. The diversity in form, and
ultimately function, found in insects is a result of changes made to basic anatomical elements
such as legs or mouthparts.

Legs
Insect have three pairs of legs, one pair on each of the three segments of the thorax and are
generally called the fore-, mid-, and hind legs. Any of the pairs of legs may be heavily modified
and are important for locomotion, prey capture, mating, etc. 

 Legs modified for running are called cursorial.

 Digging legs are called fossorial.

 Swimming legs are called natatorial.

 Jumping legs are called saltatorial.

 Grasping legs are called raptorial.

Antenna
The antennae are a pair of sense organs located near the front of an insect's head capsule. The
antennae of insects are modified in many ways.  Some of these modifications just provide
greater surface area for sensory receptors, while others are unique adaptations that bestow
special sensory capabilities, such as detecting sound vibrations, wind speed, or humidity. 
 Setaceous - There are many joints. The antenna tapers gradually from the base to the tip.

 Moniliform - The round segments make the antenna look like a string of beads.

 Serrate - This gives appearance of a saw edge.

 Pectinate -This gives the appearance of a comb.

 Clavate - gradually clubbed.

Mouthpart modifications

 Chewing/lapping- Mouthparts are modified to utilize liquid food, honey and nectar. A central
"tongue" is used to draw liquid into the body.
Piercing and sucking mouthpart- The prey is caught and pierced by the mandibles. Once the
stylets penetrate, a secretion is injected to dissolve tissue, act as a toxin in predacious species, or
as anticoagulant for mosquitoes.

 Siphoning- When feeding the proboscis is uncoiled and extended. Nectar is sucked up into the
mouth or oral cavity. The proboscis shows a capillary mechanism. E.g. butterfly

Sponging - During feeding the proboscis (modified labium) is lowered and salivary secretions
are pumped onto the food. The dissolved or suspended food then moves by capillary action into
the pseudotracheae (sponge) and is ingested.
 Conclusion

In conclusion, Where specialised food sources have been exploited, the mouthparts are
modified, sometimes very considerably, so that the food may be obtained satisfactorily.
 Laboratory assignment #3
 Title: Insect damage
 Objective:
To observe ten different type of insect damage.
To be familiar with the insect that caused the damage.

 Introduction
Insects are responsible for two major kinds of damage to growing crops. First is direct injury
done to the plant by the feeding insect, which eats leaves or burrows in stems, fruit, or roots.
For example lepidopterans, and dipterans. The second type is indirect damage in which the
insect itself does little or no harm but transmits a bacterial, viral, or fungal infection into a
crop. Examples include the viral diseases of sugar beets and potatoes, carried from plant to
plant by aphids.

 Insects with sucking mouthparts have strong mandibles that they move laterally to often cause
yellowing or browning on plants, and possible wilting. Examples include aphids, scales. They attack
edible and ornamental plants, including garden roses.

 Defoliate plants
They gobble up and skeletonize the foliage on plants in the nightshade family, including potatoes,
eggplant, peppers and tomatoes. Example Colorado potato beetle
 Gall makers insert all or part of their bodies into plant tissue—typically into leaves, stems, or twigs—
and cause the tissue to swell. Examples include blueberry gall midge larvae.

 Wood/phloem borers include twig girdlers and powderpost beetles that cause damage by feeding on
living wood and wooden structures.

 Damage from insects with chewing mouthparts typically appears on leaves or stems as ragged
edges, holes, or other missing tissue. Insects that often cause chewing damage include caterpillars
and Eastern lubber grasshoppers.

 leafminers, which burrow into the leaves of plants leaving tell-tale tunnels in the leaves. One well-
known leafminer is the citrus leafminer, which is actually a larval stage of a moth.
 Feed on the growing points of plants causes retard growth Eg : Grape vine beetle – Scelodonta
strigicollis

 Make small holes in the leaves by feeding Eg : Flea beetle causes this type of damage on radish and
Sunhemp
 Feed on a layer of surface tissue of the leaves Eg : Larvae of the diamond back moth, Plutella xystella
on Cabbage and Cauliflower

 Roll up the leaves and feed within Paddy leaf roller – Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Cotton leaf roller-
Sylepta derogota

Conclusion
In conclusion, Insects can become pests in the garden when they cause damage to garden plants.
The signs of damage vary, typically depending on the way that the insect feeds on the plant.