MODULE 2

(CE 515 – Transportation

OVERVIEW
Engineering)
In this module, we will know and understand
TRANSPORTATION AS A concepts in the transportation system and its components
SYSTEM & PHILIPPINE giving emphasis on its inter-relation and interaction to
TRANSPORTATION different elements of the system. This module includes
SYSTEM also an overview about the Philippine transport system
.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. Define concepts of transportation systems.

2. Know the state of the Philippine transport system.
Engr. Leo M. Sauro, D.M.
(+63)-9451136579
leomsauro@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION

The transportation system in a developed nation is

an aggregation of vehicles, guide-ways, terminal facilities,
and control systems that move freight and passengers.
These systems are usually operated according to
established procedures and schedules in the air, on land,
and on water. The set of physical facilities, control
systems, and operating procedures referred to as the
nation’s transportation system is not a system in the sense
that each of its components is part of a grand plan or was
developed in a conscious manner to meet a set of
specified regional or national goals and objectives.

I. OVERVIEW OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

CHARACTERISTICS

Four Basic Elements/Components of the Physical

Plant of Most Transportation Systems:

1. Links – the roadways or tracks connecting two or

more points. Examples are pipes, beltways, sea-
lanes and airways.

2. Vehicles – the means of moving people and goods

from one node to another along a link. Examples
are motorcars, buses, ships, airplanes, belts and
cables.

Page 1 of 22
 3. Terminals – the nodes where travel and shipment
begins or ends. Examples are parking garages, off-
street parking lots, loading docks, bus stops,
airports and bus terminals.

4. Management and Labor – the people who

construct, operate, manage, and maintain the links,
vehicles and terminals.

These four elements interact with human beings, as

users or non-users of the system, and also with the
environment. The behavior of the physical, human, and
environmental subsystems is highly complex because it
involves interaction of people as drivers, riders, and non-
riders, using vehicles of differing character and
performance on links with diverse physical characteristics
in a myriad of environmental conditions.

Researchers have identified nine categories of

human behavior that are affected by transportation:

1. Locomotion (passengers, pedestrians)

2. Activities (e.g. vehicle control, maintenance,
community life)
3. Feelings (e.g. comfort, convenience, enjoyment,
stress, likes, dislikes)
4. Manipulation (e.g. modal choice, route selection,
vehicle purchase.
5. Health and safety (e.g. accidents, disabilities,
fatigue}
6. Social interaction (e.g. privacy, territoriality,
conflict, imitation)
7. Motivation (positive or aversive consequences,
potentiation)
8. Learning (e.g. operator training, driver education,
merchandising)
9. Perception (e.g. images, mapping, sensory
thresholds)

Page 2 of 22
 Similarly there are at least 11 properties of the
physical environment that have a direct impact on human
behavior.

1. Spatial organization – this dimension often

includes the shape, scale, definition, bounding
surfaces, internal organization of objects and
society, and connections to other spaces and
settings. Indeed, this is the dimension that most
people are referring to when they talk about the
physical environment. The degree of dispersion,
concentration, clustering, and proximity of facilities
is also included.

2. Circulation and Movement – this property

includes people, goods and objects used for their
movement – cars, trains, highways, and rails – and
also the forms of regulating them, such as corridors,
portals, turnstiles, and open spaces.

3. Communication – these are the properties of the

environment that gives users information and ideas.
Both explicit and implicit signals, signs or symbols
communication, required behavior, responses, and
meanings are covered by this dimension.

4. Ambience – this dimension usually includes such

items as microclimate, light, sound and color. Those
features of the environment that are critical for
maintaining the physiological and psychological
functioning of the human organism are included.
For instance, a passenger in a bus enjoys the
comfort of being protected from the weather but
may be subjected adversely by the noise level and
vibrations prevalent in the bus.

5. Visual Properties – the environment as it is

perceived by its users is generally implied by this
property and includes color, shape and other visual
modalities.

6. Resources – the physical components and

amenities of a transportation system – paths,
terminals and vehicles – could be included. The
measures of these resources could embrace such
dimensions as the number of lanes or the square
footage of the terminals.

Page 3 of 22
 7. Symbolic Properties – the social values, attitudes,
and cultural norms that are represented or
expressed by the environment fall into this
category.

8. Architectonic Properties – this refers to the

sensory or aesthetic properties of the environment.

9. Cons equation – this is that characteristic of the

environment that strengthens or weakens behavior.
Measures of cons equation include such items as
costs, risks, and congestions.

10. Protection – are safety factors in general.

11. Timing – all the items above are scheduled in time

and some of them fluctuate with various cyclical
rhythms, such as daily, weekly, or hourly timings.

Transportation systems can be evaluated in terms of

three basic attributes:

1. Ubiquity – the amount of accessibility to the

system, directness of routing between access
points, the system’s flexibility to handle a variety of
traffic conditions. Highways are very ubiquitous
compared to railroads, the latter having limited
ubiquity as a result of their large investments and
inflexibility. However, within the highway mode,
freeways are far less ubiquitous than local roads
and streets.

2. Mobility – the quantity of travel that can be

handled. The capacity of a system to handle traffic
and speed are two variables connected with
mobility. Here again, a freeway has high mobility,
whereas a local road has low mobility. Water
transport may have comparatively low speed, but
the capacity per vehicle is high. On the other hand,
a rail system could possibly have high speed and
high capacity.

3. Efficiency – the relationship between the cost

transportation and the productivity of the system.
Direct costs of a system are composed of capital
and operating costs, and indirect costs comprise
adverse impacts and unqualifiable costs, such as
safety. Each mode is efficient in some aspects and
inefficient in others.

Page 4 of 22
 II. The Systems Approach

The systems approach represents a broad-based

and systematic approach to problem-solving that
involves a system. It is a problem-solving philosophy
used particularly to solve complex problems. A system
is a set of interrelated parts, called components that
perform a number of functions in order to achieve
common goals.

System analysis is the application of scientific

method to the solution of complex problems. Goals are
desired end states. Operational statements of goals
are called objectives; these should be measurable
and attainable. Feedback and control are essential to
the effective performance of a system. The
development of objectives may in itself involve an
iterative process. Objectives will generally suggest
their own appropriate measures of effectiveness
(MOEs). An MOE is a measurement of the degree to
which each alternative action satisfies the objective.
Measures of the benefits forgone or the opportunities
lost for each of the alternatives are called measures of
costs (MOCs). MOCs are the consequences of
decisions. A criterion relates the MOE to the MOC by
stating a decision rule for selecting among several
alternative actions whose cost and effectiveness have
been determined. One particular type of criterion, a
standard, is a fixed objective: the lowest (or highest)
level of performance acceptable. In other words, a
standard represents a cutoff point beyond which
performance is rejected.

With reference to communities, we often find a set

of irreducible concepts that form the basic desires and
drives that govern our behavior. To these desires, the
term values are assigned. Values form the basis for
human perception and behavior. Because values are
shared by groups of people with similar ties, it is
possible to speak of societal or cultural values.
Fundamental values of society include the desire to
survive, the need to belong, the need for order, and the
need for security.

A policy is a guiding principle or course of action

that is adopted to progress toward an objective.
Evaluating the current state of a system and choosing
directions for change may be considered as policy
making.

Page 5 of 22

Fig. 1-4. The System Analysis
Process
Source: Lecture Notes, CITU
Fig. 1-5. Transportation System
Model: Transportation Processor
(NHI, 1980)
Source: Lecture Notes, CITU
Page 6 of 22
Steps in System Analysis
1. Recognize community problems and values.
2. Establish goals.
3. Define objective.
4. Establish criteria.
5. Design alternative actions to achieve steps 2
and 3.
6. Evaluate the alternative action in terms of
effectiveness and costs.
7. Question the objectives and all assumptions.
8. Examine new alternatives or modifications of
step 5.
9. Establish new objectives or modifications of step
3.
10. Repeat the cycle until a satisfactory solution is
reached, in keeping with criteria, standards and
values set.
A simplified system analysis process is shown in figure
1-4.
III. Transportation Policymaking
Transportation planners and engineers recognize
the fact that transportation systems constitute a potent
force in shaping the course of regional development.
Transportation encompasses a broad set of policy
variables, and the planning and development of
transportation facilities generally raises living standards
and enhances the aggregate of community values.
Engineers and planners also recognize that most
transportation issues can be characterized by great size,
breadth, complexity, diversity, cost, and uncertainty. An
example of a transportation system model is shown below
in figure 1-5.
It consists of inputs, such as land, labor and capital fed into
three subsystems: (1) the physical subsystem, (2) the
activity subsystem, and (3) the human subsystem.
1. Physical Subsystem – consists of vehicles,
pavements, tracks, right-of-way, terminals and other
manufactured or natural objects.
2. Activity Subsystem - includes riding, driving and traffic
control.

Fig. 1-5. Land Use / Transportation
Cycle
Source: Lecture Notes, CITU
Page 7 of 22
3. Human Subsystem – are individuals and groups of
people who are involved in the physical and activity
subsystems. Outputs from the system includes the
movement of people and goods and improvement or
deterioration of the physical environment.
IV. Movement and Transportation and Land Use
A city can be considered as a locational
arrangement of activities or a land-use pattern. The
location of activities affects human beings, and human
activities modify locational arrangements. Interaction
between activities is manifested by the movement of
people, goods, and information.
The reason that people and goods move from one
place to another can be explained by the following three
conditions.
1. Complementarity – the relative attractiveness between
two or more destinations.
2. Transferability – the desire to overcome distance,
measured in terms of time and money needed to overcome
this distance and the best technology available to achieve
this.
3. Intervening opportunities to competition among several
locations to satisfy demand and supply.
How people and goods move from an origin to a
destination is a matter of mode choice (a person might
choose to take the bus downtown rather than use her car).
This decision is made depending on such attributes as
time, speed, efficiency, costs, safety and convenience.
Geographers a trip as an event and travel as a process.
A simple connection between land use and
transportation is shown below in figure 1-6. Land use is
one of the prime determinants of movement and activity.
This activity, known as trip generation, will dictate what
transportation facilities, such as streets and bus systems
will be needed to move traffic. When such additional
facilities have been provided, the system will naturally
have increased accessibility.
 A change in accessibility will determine the change,
if any, in the value of land, and this change may affect the
way the land is currently used. If such change does occur
(e.g., residential neighborhood changes to a commercial
area), the trip generation rate (e.g., the number of trips per
acre of land) will change and a whole cycle of changes will
result. Note that this cyclical process is a highly simplified
representation of reality, and also that other land market
forces are not shown in the figure. It does, however,
illustrate the fundamental interconnection of transportation
and land use.

THE PHILIPPINE TRANSPORT SYSTEM

Transport is a key sector in the Philippine economy,

linking population and economic centers across the
islands. The transport system of the Philippines consists of
road, water, air, and rail transport. Water transport plays
an important role due to the archipelagic nature of the
country, but road transport is by far the dominant subsector
accounting for 98% of passenger traffic and 58% of cargo
traffic. While the transport infrastructure has been
developed and spread across the country (about 215,000
kilometers [km] of roads, 1,300 public and private ports,
and 215 public and private airports), the level of service
has not been sufficient due to the lack of sustainable
financing. Improving transport infrastructure is critical for
strengthening the investment climate and enhancing
economic growth. The Philippines has seen modest
improvement in the quality of its transport services, but a
large part of the road network remains in poor condition
and intermodal integration is generally weak. Poor sector
governance also impedes efficient operation of the sector.

Road Transport.

As of 2011, the country’s road system comprised

about 215,000 km, of which about 15% were classified as
national roads, thereby falling under the jurisdiction of the
Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH). The
remaining 85% of the network is defined as local roads and
falls under the jurisdiction of a variety of local government
units. As of November 2011, 79% of national roads and
only 18% of local roads were paved with either asphalt or
concrete. The percentage of national roads that are paved
has risen only slowly from 71% in 2001 and remains well
below the government’s original target of 95% by 2010.

Page 8 of 22
 Of the 31,400 km of national roads in the system,
only about 45% (14,200 km) were assessed as being in
good or fair condition in November 2011. This figure is
lower than the percentages in 1982 (about 52%) and 2001
(about 47%). For local roads, the 2009 figure was much
lower, at about 20% (about 35,300 km of 176,300 km).

The major cause of the overall low quality of the

road network is poor and inadequate maintenance. This is
the result of (i) insufficient financial resources being made
available for maintenance, and (ii) inadequate institutional
capacity of agencies responsible for road maintenance.
The high prevalence of overloading of trucks also
contributes to the low quality of the network. Axle-load
surveys conducted by the DPWH in 2005 showed that
11%–12% of all trucks were overloaded. Lax enforcement
of axle-load regulations compounds this problem. In
addition to the low quality of the road network, the poor
state of repair of much of the vehicle fleet and inadequate
enforcement of traffic regulations are also major
contributors to the unsatisfactory status of road transport
in the Philippines.

The poor quality of the road network is a

contributing factor to the rising number of road accidents.
There were 14,794 recorded road accidents in 2008, a
28% increase from 2007. Deaths from road accidents in
the first half of 2009 reached 624, which was 9% more than
in the equivalent period in 2008. These figures may
underestimate the severity of the road accident problem,
because in counting road accident deaths the Philippines
uses a definition of death as occurring within 24 hours of a
road accident, whereas the internationally accepted
definition is death occurring within 30 days of an accident.
In addition, it is estimated that only about 10% of road
accidents are officially reported, although these are likely
to include many of the most serious accidents. According
to the Department of Health, in 2008 road accidents
became the fourth leading cause of death in the
Philippines.

The government has developed a network of tolled

expressways in central Luzon to address transport
constraints on economic development by

(i) linking the major economic and transport centers in

Metro Manila and adjacent provinces, from Tarlac in the
north to Batangas in the south; and

(ii) facilitating multimodal transport.

Page 9 of 22
 The expressway network, developed through
public–private partnerships (PPPs) and with bilateral
development assistance, links industrial parks and special
economic zones, the ports at Subic and Batangas, and
Diosdado Macapagal International Airport in Pampanga.
While the development of this network has reduced travel
times significantly, additional efforts to increase port
capacity and improve management are necessary to
realize fully the benefits of an integrated multimodal
transport system.

Water transport.

Interisland water transport is a very important

subsector of the national transport system. There are
about 1,300 ports, of which about 1,000 are government-
owned and the rest are privately owned and managed. Of
the government-owned ports, about 140 fall under the
jurisdiction of the Philippine Ports Authority (PPA) and the
Cebu Ports Authority; the remainder are the responsibility
of other government agencies or local government units.
International cargo and container traffic has grown steadily
in recent years, supported by significant investments in the
port of Batangas by the PPA and in the port of Subic by
the Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority. Despite growth in
both the economy and the population, passenger traffic on
domestic interisland shipping services fell by about 13%
between 2003 and 2008.

Interisland shipping continues to suffer from a poor

reputation for safety, with an average of 160 maritime
accidents annually. The causes of maritime accidents
include human error; natural causes, such as typhoons,
bad weather, and rough seas; lack of vessel traffic
management; lack of navigational aids; and poor ship
maintenance. Natural causes were the main causes of
maritime accidents, comprising 36% of the total incidents
recorded. Accidents caused by human error were also a
major contributor, comprising 24% of all recorded
accidents. To address this deficiency, the Maritime
Industry Authority is embarking on a number of safety
programs during 2012–2013, including
(i) a vessel retirement and replacement program;
(ii) nationwide mobile registration, licensing, and
franchising of motor bancas (wooden double
outriggers);
(iii) nationwide revalidation of ships’ documentation;

Page 10 of 22
 (iv) pilot implementation of an audit-based ship
inspection system;
(v) enhancement of competence of technical personnel;
(vi) implementation of the categorization of navigational
areas;
(vii) a review of safety policies; and (viii) nationwide
revalidation of crew documents.

In recent years, there has been significant

development of roll-on roll-off (ro-ro) ferry services, which
are aimed at providing an alternative to traditional long-
distance interisland shipping services. The ro-ro system
allows vehicles to drive onto and off ro-ro ferries without
loading or offloading of cargo. Because this eliminates
cargo-handling labor and equipment, and reduces the
amount of time cargo is required to be in port, reductions
in sea transport costs can be considerable. In 2003, the
Government of the Philippines issued a policy to promote
ro-ro. This was manifested in the opening of the
government’s Strong Republic Nautical Highway Program.
The Strong Republic Nautical Highway is composed of
three major trunk lines: the western, eastern, and central
nautical highways. These three major lines consist of 12
main routes served by different shipping operators. This
program has not only linked the country’s major island
groups of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, but it has also
had positive effects on the economies of the smaller
islands along the major routes. The ro-ro policy has had a
major positive impact, derived from the significant
reduction in transport costs. The principal sources of
savings have been the elimination of cargo handling
charges and wharfage fees.

As a result of the opening of the nautical highways,

(i) goods are being shipped more efficiently,

(ii) transport costs have been reduced,
(iii) new interisland and regional links are being
created, (iv) regional markets have expanded,
(v) tourism has benefited, (vi) local area development
is being accelerated,
(vii) logistics practices are changing, and
(viii) the domestic shipping industry is restructuring and
becoming more competitive.

Page 11 of 22
 The growth of ro-ro services may have contributed
to the decline in both freight and passenger traffic on
conventional interisland shipping services. It is estimated
that the use of ro-ro offers a saving of about 12 hours in
travel time between Mindanao and Luzon, and a reduction
of about 30% in the cost of freight transport and 40% in the
cost of passenger transport.

Port facilities to accommodate ro-ro vessels have

been built or rehabilitated under the program, with 42 ro-ro
vessels operating on routes between these ports.
However, these 42 vessels are run by some 25 shipping
operators, which may suggest that the structure of the ro-
ro subsector is fragmented. While ro-ro facilities are
already in place in some ports, prioritization of the
development, construction, and rehabilitation of ro-ro ports
is hampered by the need for massive capital outlays.
Therefore, the PPA is working to facilitate private sector
participation in the provision of passenger terminal
buildings and ro-ro terminal services so that these needs
can be met without creating an excessive burden on
government resources. The PPA is fast-tracking the
finalization of policies that allow private sector participation
in the provision of these buildings and services.

Air transport.

There are 215 airports in the Philippines, of which

84 are government-owned and controlled and the rest are
privately owned and operated. Of the government-
controlled airports, 10 are designated as international
airports, 15 are Principal Class 1 airports, 19 are Principal
Class 2 airports, and 40 are community airports. The
busiest airport in the Philippines is Ninoy Aquino
International Airport (NAIA) in Manila, which handled
435,486 aircraft movements and an estimated 29.6 million
3 ADB. 2010. Bridges across Oceans: Initial Impact
Assessment of the Philippines Nautical Highway System
and Lessons for Southeast Asia. Mactan International
Airport in Cebu is the second-busiest airport in the country
with 82,554 aircraft movements and 6.3 million
passengers in 2011.

Page 12 of 22
 Domestic passenger traffic at NAIA has been
growing at almost 10% per annum since 2000. The growth
of domestic freight traffic has been much less at about
2.4% per annum. Given the growth of both international
and domestic air traffic through NAIA in recent years,
serious capacity constraints are likely to emerge before
long. To address this, the government has plans to further
develop Diosdado Macapagal International Airport,
formerly Clark International Airport, as an alternative
international gateway serving central Luzon. These plans
will need to be closely coordinated with those for the
development of NAIA, and they will need to include
consideration of appropriate land transport connections
between Diosdado Macapagal International Airport and
Metro Manila.
The government has intensified efforts under way
since 1992 to liberalize air transport. In particular, it has
been promoting the development of secondary
international gateways through negotiating bilateral
“pocket open skies” agreements pertaining to secondary
airports in the Philippines. These agreements now cover
all secondary international gateways in the country and
have led to substantial increases in travel through these
airports.4

Urban transport.

The Philippines is experiencing rapid urbanization,

and by 2030, about 77% of the population will live in urban
areas. There are 120 cities in the country, including 16 in
Metro Manila, which is the only metropolitan area in the
Philippines. Other major urban agglomerations exist,
including in Davao, Cebu, and Iloilo, but they lack formal
metropolitan organizations. Transport systems in these
cities are almost entirely road based, with the exception of
Metro Manila. Transport services consist mainly of
jeepneys (public utility vehicles), taxis, tricycles, and
pedicabs that are privately owned and operated. In 2010,
taxis comprised 667,424 (35%) of the 1.9 million vehicles
in Metro Manila, and half of the 6.6 million vehicles in the
country were motorcycles. Motorcycle users are
vulnerable to road crashes and contribute significantly to
traffic congestion.

Page 13 of 22
 In Metro Manila, the urban transport infrastructure
consists of a network of roads and railways. A functional
classification system of roads has been established with
the arterial roads forming a radial circumferential pattern of
10 radial roads and 5 circumferential roads. Two
circumferential roads are incomplete and a sixth is in the
planning stage. While some of the principal road corridors
in Metro Manila have high capacities, traffic volumes are
also extremely high. As a result, the movement of people,
goods, and services is becoming increasingly difficult.
Although restrictions on vehicle usage are in place, their
effectiveness is decreasing as rates of motorization
increase; consequently, congestion in Metro Manila is
increasing rapidly and is estimated to cause economic
losses equivalent to about 4.6% of GDP. While congestion
in urban areas outside of Metro Manila is less severe,
increasing urban populations combined with higher rates
of motorization suggest that traffic congestion in those
urban areas will worsen in the near future.

As in other urban areas, road-based public

transport in Metro Manila is provided entirely by the private
sector. There are an estimated 433 bus companies
operating 805 routes. The majority of bus companies own
more than 10 units, with only 7 bus companies owning 100
units or more. Jeepneys serve 785 routes in Metro Manila,
with many jeepney operators owning only one unit. In
addition to jeepneys, air-conditioned Asian utility vehicles
provide express services in several areas of Metro Manila,
together with taxis and localized modes of transport such
as tricycles and pedicabs. Tricycles and pedicabs are
restricted to serving local areas and provide a feeder
service to the larger-scale public transport services.

Railways.

The railway system consists of light rail transit (LRT)

lines in Metro Manila and heavy rail lines in Luzon. The
three LRT lines commenced operations in 1984, 1999, and
2003. Two lines are owned and operated by a government-
owned corporation, the Light Rail Transit Authority (LRTA),
while the third was financed and constructed by a private
corporation, the Metro Rapid Transit Corporation (MRTC),
and is operated by the government under a build–lease–
transfer agreement. The lines operated by the LRTA carry
about 579,000 passengers each day, while the MRTC line
carries more than 400,000 passengers daily. Fare
structures are distance based, and fare levels are low
relative to comparable systems elsewhere in the region.

Page 14 of 22
 A limited number of heavy rail commuter services
are operated by the Philippine National Railways (PNR),
serving areas to the south of Metro Manila. The PNR
carried 9.1 million passengers in 2010 and 15.4 million in
2011. The increase in ridership is attributed to the
completion of the rehabilitation of the Caloocan to Alabang
section of the commuter line and the introduction of new
rolling stock, both financed by bilateral development
assistance.

Other than these commuter services and some

other services linking towns in the Bicol region, the heavy
rail lines in the Philippines have been essentially
nonoperational for several years. The Southern Line
linking Manila to the Bicol region has not operated since it
sustained typhoon damage in 2006, although the line has
now been restored and trial services have been operated
between Naga City and Metro Manila. Before its closure in
2006, passenger traffic on this line had been declining
steadily and freight traffic was negligible. The Northern
Line has been nonoperational for more than 25 years,
although there are plans to reopen it under the Northrail
Project.

NOTABLE PROBLEMS IN TRANSPORTATION

SYSTEM IN THE PHILIPPINES

Traffic congestion and parking difficulties

Congestion is one of the most prevalent transport
problems in large urban agglomerations. It is particularly
linked with motorization and the diffusion of the
automobile, which has increased the demand for transport
infrastructures. However, the supply of infrastructures has
often not been able to keep up with the growth of mobility.
Congestion and parking are also interrelated since looking
for a parking space (called "cruising") creates additional
delays and impairs local circulation. In central areas of
large cities cruising may account for more than 10% of the
local circulation as drivers can spend 20 minutes looking
for a parking spot. Also, many delivery vehicles will simply
double-park at the closest possible spot to unload their
cargo.

Page 15 of 22
 Longer commuting
On par with congestion people are spending an
increasing amount of time commuting between their
residence and workplace. An important factor behind this
trend is related to residential affordability as housing
located further away from central areas (where most of the
employment remains) is more affordable. Therefore,
commuters are trading time for housing affordability.
However, long commuting is linked with several social
problems, such as isolation, as well as poorer health
(obesity).

Public transport inadequacy

Many public transit systems, or parts of them, are
either over or under used. During peak hours,
crowdedness creates discomfort for users as the system
copes with a temporary surge in demand. Low ridership
makes many services financially unsustainable,
particularly in suburban areas. In spite of significant
subsidies and cross-financing (e.g. tolls) almost every
public transit systems cannot generate sufficient income to
cover its operating and capital costs. While in the past
deficits were deemed acceptable because of the essential
service public transit was providing for urban mobility, its
financial burden is increasingly controversial.

Difficulties for non-motorized transport

These difficulties are either the outcome of intense
traffic, where the mobility of pedestrians, bicycles and
vehicles is impaired, but also because of a blatant lack of
consideration for pedestrians and bicycles in the physical
design of infrastructures and facilities.

Loss of public space

The majority of roads are publicly owned and free
of access. Increased traffic has adverse impacts on public
activities which once crowded the streets such as markets,
agoras, parades and processions, games, and community
interactions. These have gradually disappeared to be
replaced by automobiles. In many cases, these activities
have shifted to shopping malls while in other cases, they
have been abandoned altogether. Traffic flows influence
the life and interactions of residents and their usage of
street space. More traffic impedes social interactions and
street activities. People tend to walk and cycle less when
traffic is high.

Page 16 of 22
 Environmental impacts and energy consumption
Pollution, including noise, generated by circulation
has become a serious impediment to the quality of life and
even the health of urban populations. Further, energy
consumption by urban transportation has dramatically
increased and so the dependency on petroleum. Yet, peak
oil considerations are increasingly linked with peak
mobility expectations where high energy prices incite a
shift towards more efficient and sustainable forms of urban
transportation, namely public transit.

Accidents and safety

. Growing traffic in urban areas is linked with a growing
number of accidents and fatalities, especially in developing
countries. Accidents account for a significant share
of recurring delays. As traffic increases, people feel less
safe to use the streets.

Land consumption
. The territorial imprint of transportation is significant,
particularly for the automobile. Between 30 and 60% of a
metropolitan area may be devoted to transportation, an
outcome of the over-reliance on some forms of urban
transportation. Yet, this land consumption also underlines
the strategic importance of transportation in the economic
and social welfare of cities.

Freight distribution
Globalization and the materialization of the
economy have resulted in growing quantities of freight
moving within cities. As freight traffic commonly shares
infrastructures with the circulation of passengers, the
mobility of freight in urban areas has become increasingly
problematic. City logistics strategies can be established to
mitigate the variety of challenges faced by urban freight
distribution.

MITIGATION

Ramp metering
Controlling the access to a congested highway by
letting automobiles in one at a time instead of in groups.
The outcome is a lower disruption on highway traffic flows.

Traffic signal synchronization

Tuning the traffic signals to the time and direction of
traffic flows. This is particularly effective if the signals can
be adjusted on an hourly basis to reflect changes in
commuting patterns.

Page 17 of 22
 Incident management
Making sure that vehicles involved in accidents or
mechanical failures are removed as quickly as possible
from the road. Since accident on average account between
20 and 30% of all the causes of congestion, this strategy
is particularly important.

Carpooling
Concerns two issues. The first and most common is
an individual providing ridership to people (often co-
workers) having a similar origin, destination and
commuting time. Two or more vehicle trips can thus be
combined into one. The second involves a pool of vehicles
(mostly cars, but also bicycles) that can be leased for short
durations when mobility is required. Adequate measures
must be taken so that supply and demand are effectively
matched.

HOV lanes
High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes insure that
vehicles with 2 or more passengers (buses, vans, carpool,
etc.) have exclusive access to a less congested lane,
particularly during peak hours.
Congestion pricing
A variety of measures aimed at imposing charges
on specific segments or regions of the transport system,
mainly as a toll. The charges can also change during the
day to reflect congestion levels so that drivers are incited
to consider other time periods or other modes.

Parking management
Removing parking or free parking spaces can be an
effective dissuasion tool since it reduces cruising and
enables those willing to pay to access an area (e.g. for a
short shopping stop).

Public transit
Offering alternatives to driving that can significantly
improve efficiency, notably if it circulates on its own
infrastructure (subway, light rail, buses on reserved lanes,
etc.) and is well integrated within a city's development
plans. However, public transit has its own set of issues.

Non-motorized transportation
Since the great majority of urban trips are over short
distances, non-motorized modes, particularly walking and
cycling, have an important role to play in supporting urban
mobility.

Page 18 of 22
 STUDENT ACTIVITY.

Identify at least three notable

transportation system problems/concern in your
locality (either local, provincial, or regional
concern). Discuss each problem and give your
insights, ideas in mitigating or solving each
concern or problem.

Note:
Use A4 size bond paper for your
answers/discussion. Submit your Student Activity
Output (handwritten) to my email
leomsauro@gmail.com or thru the UEP
municipal link, with a filename
Surname_StudentActivity on or before January
18, 2021.

SUMMARY

 A transportation system may be defined as a

planned network of elements or physical
components that play different roles in the
transportation of goods and persons from one place
to another.
 The elements or physical components of a transport
system are referred to as the facilities.
 A transport system can therefore be considered as
consisting of links (pipes, beltways, sea-lanes and
airways), vehicles (motorcars, buses, ships,
airplanes, belts and cables), terminals (parking
garages, off-street parking lots, loading docks, bus
stops, airports and bus terminals) and management
and labor – the people who construct, operate,
manage, and maintain the links, vehicles and
terminals.

These four elements interact with human beings, as

users or non-users of the system, and also with the
environment. The behavior of the physical, human, and
environmental subsystems is highly complex because it
involves interaction of people as drivers, riders, and non-
riders, using vehicles of differing character and
performance on links with diverse physical characteristics
in a myriad of environmental conditions.

Page 19 of 22
 MOBILITY AND ACCESSIBILITY

 Mobility refers to the ability to move between

different activity sites. If a facility could move people
and goods very fast then that facility provides very
high mobility
 Accessibility refers to the number of activity sites
connected by the facility. If a facility provides
connection to large number of residences,
commercial places and industrial places then it
provides very high accessibility
 Mobility and accessibility are inversely related.

Major Transportation Systems

 Highways
 Railways
 Airways
 Waterways
 Pipeline
 Conveyor

THE PHILIPPINE TRANSPORT SYSTEM

Transport is a key sector in the Philippine economy,

linking population and economic centers across the
islands. The transport system of the Philippines consists of
road, water, air, and rail transport. Water transport plays
an important role due to the archipelagic nature of the
country, but road transport is by far the dominant subsector
accounting for 98% of passenger traffic and 58% of cargo
traffic. The Philippines has seen modest improvement in
the quality of its transport services, but a large part of the
road network remains in poor condition and intermodal
integration is generally weak. Poor sector governance also
impedes efficient operation of the sector.

Road Transport.

As of 2011, the country’s road system comprised

about 215,000 km, of which about 15% were classified as
national roads, thereby falling under the jurisdiction of the
Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH). The
remaining 85% of the network is defined as local roads and
falls under the jurisdiction of a variety of local government
units.

Page 20 of 22
 Water transport.

Interisland water transport is a very important

subsector of the national transport system. There are
about 1,300 ports, of which about 1,000 are government-
owned and the rest are privately owned and managed. Of
the government-owned ports, about 140 fall under the
jurisdiction of the Philippine Ports Authority (PPA) and the
Cebu Ports Authority; the remainder are the responsibility
of other government agencies or local government units.

Air transport.

There are 215 airports in the Philippines, of which

84 are government-owned and controlled and the rest are
privately owned and operated. Of the government-
controlled airports, 10 are designated as international
airports, 15 are Principal Class 1 airports, 19 are Principal
Class 2 airports, and 40 are community airports.

Urban transport.

The Philippines is experiencing rapid urbanization,

and by 2030, about 77% of the population will live in urban
areas. Transport systems in these 120 cities in the country
are almost entirely road based, with the exception of Metro
Manila. Transport services consist mainly of jeepneys
(public utility vehicles), taxis, tricycles, and pedicabs that
are privately owned and operated.

Railways.

The railway system consists of light rail transit (LRT)

lines in Metro Manila and heavy rail lines in Luzon. The
three LRT lines commenced operations in 1984, 1999, and
2003. Two lines are owned and operated by a government-
owned corporation, the Light Rail Transit Authority (LRTA),
while the third was financed and constructed by a private
corporation, the Metro Rapid Transit Corporation (MRTC),
and is operated by the government under a build–lease–
transfer agreement. The lines operated by the LRTA carry
about 579,000 passengers each day, while the MRTC line
carries more than 400,000 passengers daily.
A limited number of heavy rail commuter services
are operated by the Philippine National Railways (PNR),
serving areas to the south of Metro Manila. The PNR
carried 9.1 million passengers in 2010 and 15.4 million in
2011.

Page 21 of 22
 NOTABLE PROBLEMS IN TRANSPORTATION
SYSTEM IN THE PHILIPPINES

Traffic congestion and parking difficulties

Longer commuting
Public transport inadequacy
Difficulties for non-motorized transport
Loss of public space
Environmental impacts and energy consumption
Accidents and safety
Land consumption
Freight distribution

MITIGATION

Ramp metering
Traffic signal synchronization
Incident management
Carpooling
HOV lanes

REFERENCES

Wright, Paul H., Dixon, Karen K. (2004). HIGHWAY

ENGINEERING. John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte. Ltd.

Garber, Nicholas J., Hoel, Lester A. (2012). TRAFFIC AND

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING. CENGAGE Learning (Asia)
Pte. Ltd.

Yazar, Maria Victoria. Lecture Notes on Transportation

Engineering. CITU. 2nd sem 2018-2019.

file:///D:/Module%20Devt/Transportation%20Engineering/Transporta
tion%20Engineering/philippines-transport-assessment.pdf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_engineering

https://www.changing-transport.org/wp-
content/uploads/TCC-Week_Philippines_State-of-Public-
Transport-Systems.pdf

Page 22 of 22