JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 105, NO.

B2, PAGES 2843-2853, FEBRUARY 10, 2000

Modeling of radial microcracks at corners of inclusions

in garnet using fracture mechanics
Donna L. Whitney
Department of Geologyand Geophysics,Universityof Minnesota,Twin Cities, Minneapolis

Michele L. Cooke
GeosciencesDepartment, Universityof Massachusetts,
Amherst

S. Andrew Du Frane
Department of Earth and PlanetarySciences,Universityof New Mexico,Albuquerque

Abstract. Radial microcracksaround inclusionsin garnet are important indicatorsof

ultrahigh-pressure metamorphismand have been usedto interpret changesin pressureas
a function of temperature during decompressionof metamorphicterrains.We investigate
the growth of microcracksfrom inclusioncornersusinga two-dimensionalfracture
mechanicsbasedboundaryelement method code and proposethat microcracksemanating
from inclusionsare primarily controlledby inclusionshapeand size and do not require
high confining(lithostatic)pressureor significantdecompression to initiate. Results
suggestthat inclusions(•--100/•m diameter) developmicrocracksduringmodest
decompression. The magnitudeof decompression required to initiate microcracks
decreaseswith increaseddegreeof facetingand increasedinclusionsize. The potential for
crackgrowth at each corner dependson the corner sharpnessand the overall shapeof the
inclusion.We integratemodel resultswith petrographicobservationsto understand
mechanisms and conditionsof garnetmicrocrackingduringregionalmetamorphism.

1. Introduction temperatureconditionsrely on the compositionof garnet and,

Most garnetsin metamorphicrocksare fractured,and many
microcracks(cracks <100 to 1000 /•m in length [Engelder,
1987]) intersector radiate from mineral inclusions.Microc-
racksthat radiate from quartz inclusionshave been reported
from many ultrahigh-pressuremetamorphicterrains and are
interpreted to have formed by expansionof the inclusionrel-
ative to the garnet in responseto the positive-volumephase
transitionfrom coesiteto a-quartz duringdecompression [e.g.,
Gilletet al., 1984].Radial microcrackshave alsobeen reported
around quartz and other inclusionsin garnet from rocksthat
did not experienceultrahigh-pressuremetamorphism[Whit-
ney,1991;Wendtet al., 1993],and thesehavebeen interpreted
to indicate a large componentof isothermal decompression
[Wendtet al., 1993; Whitney,1996].Althoughit has long been
knownthat stresses concentrateat materialdefects[e.g.,Inglis,
1913;Griffith,1921]suchasinclusions[e.g.,PollardandAydin,
1988], the questionof whether quantitativetectonicinforma-
tion can be extracted from radial microcracks in minerals
not been addressed.
Development of microcracksat metamorphictemperatures
may drive compositionalmodificationof both host garnet and
inclusions[Whitney,1991;Hamesand Menard, 1993;Erambert
and Austrheim,1993; Whitneyand Dilek, 1998]. Net transfer
reactionsinvolvinggarnet and inclusionssuch as quartz and
plagioclasewill occurif a garnet interior is open (via microc-
racks)to chemicalcommunicationwith groundmassminerals
(-+-fluid).Most quantitativeanalysesof metamorphicpressure-
Copyright2000 by the American GeophysicalUnion.
in some cases,on the compositionof mineral inclusionsin
garnet, and these data are used to develop models for the
tectonic evolution of orogens.It is therefore essentialto doc-
ument the conditionsof microcrackingin garnet and possible
effects on garnet and inclusioncompositions.An important
stepin interpretingchemicalmodificationof garnetis evaluating
the mechanicalprocesses that controlmicrocrackdevelopment.
Previousquantitativemodelsof radial fracturingaroundin-
clusionsassumedthat inclusionsare spherical(circularin two-
dimensional(2-D) models)and thus ignoredthe possibleef-
fects of stress concentrations at corners of nonspherical
inclusions.We investigateradial fracturing around inclusions
usinglinear elasticfracture mechanicsto determinethe con-
trolling parametersin the sequence,patterns,and conditions
of microcrackdevelopment.While the simplifyingassumptions
of linear elasticfracturemechanics(e.g., isotropicand linear-
elastic material) cannot accuratelyreproduce metamorphic
conditionsof garnet, the trends of the model resultsprovide
has
guidelinesfor interpreting microcrackpatterns. We examine
the effectsof pressuredifferencebetweenconfiningand inclu-
sion pressureand the effects of inclusion geometry (size,
shape, corner angles) on microcrackpotential. The models
account for inclusion expansionduring moderate pressure
changesbut do not simulatemajor volume expansionsuchas
accompanies the coesite-quartzphasetransitionand may there-
fore underestimatedifferentialpressurerequiredfor fracturing.
2. Overview of Inclusion Shapes
and Garnet Fracture Patterns

Paper number 1999JB900375. Most garnets in regionally metamorphosedrocks contain

0148-0227/00/1999JB900375509.00 mineral inclusions.In many metamorphic rocks these inclu-
2843
2844 WHITNEY ET AL.: FRACTURED GARNETS

Figure 1. Inclusion-microcrack relationsin garnets.(a) A slightlyelongatequartzinclusionwith microcracks

emanatingfrom oppositeends.Inclusiondiameter(shortdimension)-90/xm. The sampleis a kyaniteschist
from Mica Creek,BritishColumbia.(b) Relativelyequantplagioclaseinclusions(negativecrystals)in garnet
from a sillimanitezone gneiss,North Cascades.Diameter of inclusionin center of photographis -100 •m.
(c) Irregularlyshapedquartz inclusionin garnet from an eclogite,North Carolina.Diameter of inclusion
(horizontaldimensionin photograph)-400

sionsrepresentformer matrixphasesthat were enclosedby the
growinggarnet.In somecases,particularlyin high-graderocks,
inclusionsmay havegrownin an existinggarnetby microcrack-
assistedreactionsat the expenseof the hostgarnet(seeexam-
ples in the work of Spearand Parrish[1996] and Whitneyand
Dilek [1998]).
Commoninclusionsin garnet are quartz, plagioclase,micas
(biotite, muscovite),oxides(ilmenite, rutile, magnetite),and
other accessories (zircon, apatite, monazite,tourmaline,sul-
fides, graphite). Garnets in metapeliticrocks may contain in-
clusionsof Al-rich phases(staurolite,kyanite,sillimanite,chlo-
ritoid).
The shapesof inclusionsrangefrom roundedto irregularto
highly faceted,with the degree of facetinga function of tem-
perature, duration of heating, and interfacial free energy.In-
clusionsin rocks that reached high temperaturesduring re-
gional metamorphismmay showmoderate- to well-developed
facets(Figuresla and lb), reflectingtexturaladjustmentwith
respectto the host garnet. Highly facetedinclusions(Figure
lb) may be negativecrystals;that is, the facets are garnet
crystalfaces[Whitney,1991;Lang, 1996].
Two types of microcracksin garnetscan be generalizedas
(1) throughgoing,at a high-angleto matrix foliation, or (2)
radiatingfrom inclusions(Figuresla-lc). In both cases,inclu-
sionsmay localizemicrocracks[seeLang, 1996;Ji et al., 1997].
The focusof the presentstudyis on microcracksthat radiate
from inclusionsand therefore may have been generated by
stress concentrations associated with the inclusions. The model
teststhe hypothesisthat inclusionshapeis an important con-
trol on microcrackinitiation and geometry.
3. Previous Work
The stresseffects of inclusionsin garnet were studied by
Rosenfeld and Chase[1961],Rosenfeld[1969],andAdamset al.
[1975a,b] usingpiezothermometric techniques,with the aim of
interpretingpressure-temperature conditionsof the host rock.
Followingthe discoveryof coesiteinclusionsin garnet in meta-
sedimentaryrocks [Chopin, 1984], quantitativemodelswere
developedto explainradial fracturingaround theseinclusions
in responseto the positivevolume changeaccompanyingthe
phase transitionfrom coesiteto a-quartz [e.g., Gillet et al.,
1984; van der Molen and van Roermund,1986]. Wendtet al.
[1993, 1998],WendtandAltenberger[1994], and Whitney[1996]
 WHITNEY ET AL.: FRACTURED GARNETS 2845

examined the conditionsat which differential expansionof potential for propagation than smaller ones. Initial crack
mineral inclusionsfractureshostgarnetas a functionof peak length can be consideredto be equivalentto the maximum
pressure, postpeak pressure-temperature path, and ther- inclusion diameter. The implicationsof this associationare
moelasticpropertiesof inclusionsand garnet. Model results discussed with the model results.
indicatedthat microcrackinitiationwasfavoredby steep(near- Crackspropagatewhen the stressintensityfactor meets or
ly isothermal)decompression paths for commonmineral in- exceedsthe material's fracture toughness,Kic [e.g., Lawn,
clusionssuchas quartz and plagioclase(i.e., no phasetransi- 1993].We assessthe stressintensityfactor at the tips of incip-
tion necessaryfor radial fracturing).Zhang [1998] considered ient microcracks at each inclusion corner. These small micro-
the effect of changingconfining(lithostatic)pressureversus cracksmay representflaws in garnet (e.g., microinclusions,
inclusionpressureon phase equilibria of mineral inclusions defects,or other flaws related to the garnet-inclusionbound-
and their hostsand noted that paleopressures calculatedusing ary), which have the potentialto developinto microcracks.It
mineral inclusioncompositionsmight not correspondto mean- shouldbe noted that theseincipientmicrocracksare a require-
ingfulcrustaldepths.All of thesepreviousquantitativemodels ment of the model and are not based on direct observation;
for radial fracturing assumedthat inclusionswere spherical. however,sincewe observemicrocracks,the garnetsmust con-
tain some flaws from which the microcracks initiated. Since the
stressintensityfactor increaseswith cracklength,reducingthe
4. Boundary Element Models flaw sizedecreasesthe propensityfor microcrackpropagation.
We investigatethe growth of microcracksfrom faceted in- In our models,reducingthe flaw sizeby half, from 0.04 to 0.02
clusionsusing a two-dimensionalboundary element method p•m,lowersthe stressintensityfactor by --•11% (Table 1).
(BEM) code, FRAC2D [Thomasand Pollard, 1993]. The In the model,0.04-p•m-longincipientmicrocracksin the host
ns boundaryelementmethodiswell-suitedfor representinglinear garnet are located at each inclusioncorner and are oriented to
h for discontinuities such as fractures and inclusion-host boundaries bisectthe externalangleof each corner.Using the BEM mod-
[Crouch and Starfield, 1990]. Some previous studies using els, we investigateboth the propagationpotential of each in-
FRAC2D have examined interaction of propagating joints clusioncorner (Kg of incipient microcracks)as well as the
we [e.g.,Thomasand Pollard,1993],dikes[e.g.,KoenigandPollard, propagationpath of cracks.The stressintensityfactor at crack
1998], and faults [e.g., Roeringet al., 1997]. In this studywe tips within BEM modelscan be determinedfrom the amount
investigatemicrocrackpropagationfrom cornersof inclusions. of slip or openingof the elementnext to the cracktip [Schultz,
n) Our modelsinvestigatedeformationof the host garnet dur- 1988; Olson, 1991]. This method takes advantageof the 1/r
ing simulatedunroofingof a metamorphicterrain.Under these stresssingularityimplicit to constantdisplacementdiscontinu-
conditions,pressurewithin inclusionsmay exceed confining ity boundaryelementsin order to approximate 1/r2 stress
pressureon the host garnet [e.g., van der Molen and van Ro- singularitynear cracktips,where r is distanceto the cracktip.
ermund,1986];thispressuredifferencedrivesdeformationand The followingformula for opening-modestressintensityfactor
subsequentfracturing of garnet. The BEM model simulates has been demonstratedwith laboratory experimentsto have
decompressionof garnet by approximatinginclusionsas pres- errors of <5% for cracksof as few as two elements[Thomas,
surizedholeswithin garnet.The drivingforce that initiatesand 1993]:
propagatesmicrocracksin the garnetis the differencebetween
remoteconfiningpressure(Peon)andinclusionpressure(Pine).
We usea remoteisotropiccompression (Pcon)of --500 MPa to 0.806
4(1- v2)x/fi (3)
simulate midcrustal depths during regional metamorphism.
Tensionpositiveconventionis usedfor this studybecauselocal whereD n is the openingof the tip element,P is the element
tensile stressis responsiblefor developmentof microcracks. length, and E and v represent the garnet's Young's modulus
For one inclusionwe also considergreater and lower P•on in and Poisson'sratio, respectively.The stressintensityfactor for
order to assessthe effect of decompression within thickened slidingalongcracks(Kii) canbe calculatedin a similarmanner
crust and at shallower levels. from the slip on the tip element. While slip is expectedto be
The presenceof sharp corners along the inclusion-garnet smallin this system(especiallyalongincipientmicrocracks),a
boundaryconcentratesstressesand promotes fracturing. This nonzero slip componentalong propagatingmicrocracksmay
stressconcentrationis expressedby the closespacingof max- producecurvedmicrocrackpaths(see below).
imum principal tension contoursin garnet around inclusion We investigatesix inclusionshapesselectedto represent a
corners(Figure2). A convenientparameterfor quantifyingthe range of commonlyobservedangularrelationsand aspectra-
stressconcentrationat the tips of cracksis the stressintensity tios. Two shapeswere selected to approximate relatively
factor, Ki, which depends on the forces which drive crack rounded inclusionsin garnet, one constructedfrom 10 equi-
opening,Aoh,and the lengthof the crack,2a (a is crackhalf length segmentsand one from 20 segments(Figure 2). Four
length) [e.g.,Lawn, 1993]. angularshapes(Figure 3) were tracedfrom photomicrographs
of plagioclaseinclusionsin garnet from a sillimanite-bearing
gneiss,North Cascades,Washington.The model shapesare
scaledto have averagecorner-to-opposite-corner diameter of
gi: (Pcon -- Plnc)
• (2)
100 p•m. The boundaries of the model are discretized into
For inclusionsin garnet, the differencebetweenthe confining 0.2-p•m-longelements,so that each incipient microcrackcon-
and inclusionpressure(Pcon- Pinc)producesstressconcen- sistsof two elements. Smaller elements increasethe accuracy
trations at inclusion corners, and this drives fracturing; the of the modelresults;however,decreasingelementsizerequires
greater the pressuredifference,the greater the stressconcen- exponentialincreasesin computationalpower and time. Since
tration. Additionally, as crack length 2a increases,the stress one model composedof 0.1-p•m-longelements used many
intensityfactor increases,so that longer crackshave greater CPU hours and resultedin K I valueswithin 2% of those for
2846 WHITNEY ET AL.: FRACTURED GARNETS

lOO

._.50

-lOO -50 o 50 lOO - 1 oo -50 o 50 lOO

x (microns)
x (microns)

5o •

(/)

o
•- 0
._o

-50

-1 O0 --50 0 50 1 O0

X (microns)
Figure2. Maximumprincipaltensionaround(a) 20- and(b) !0-sidedinclusions
and(c) inclusion 3 under
250MPadifference
betweenconfining
andinclusionpressure.Lighterareasindicategreatervaluesof tension.
Stress
concentration
is expressed
by density
of contourlines(contour intervalof 100MPa).The sharper
corners
of the10-sided
inclusion
havegreater
stress
concentration
andthusgreater
potential
to develop
microcracks than corners of the 20-sided inclusion.

0.2-/•m-longelements(Table 1), elementssmallerthan0.2/•m pic elasticproperties,FRAC2D computesdeformationwithin

were not employedfor this study. a homogeneous and isotropicmaterial.For garnetwith com-
Eachinclusionis considered to occurwithingarnetcrystals positionAlm74Prp2oGrso3Spso3 , stiffness
dependson crystallo-
of uniformmaterialproperties. Althoughgarnethasanisotro- graphicorientation:C• = 306.2 GPa, C44 -- 92.7 GPa, and
C•2 = 112.5GPa [Soga,1967](similarto othervaluesreported
byBass[1995]for Fe-Mg garnet).Garnetstiffness canchange
Table 1. K I at Cornerf of Inclusion 1 at 250 MPa Pressure by a factor of 3 with differentorientation.To simplifythe
Difference
garnetpropertiesfor FRAC2D modeling,we approximatean
Flaw Size, ElementSize, Ki, equivalent isotropicstiffness
fromVoigt andReuss's equations
/•m /•m MPa m•/2 for averagestiffnessof a monomineralic aggregate[Birch,
1966].Theseequationsproducean averagebulk modulusof
0.04 {).2 2.10
0.1 2.14
183.7GPa andshearmodulusof 92.4GPa,whichisveryclose
0.02 0.1 1.93 to the laboratory-determined shearmodulusfor garnet(94.3
GPa [Soga,1967]).The FRAC2D modelprescribes Young's
 WHITNEY ET AL.' FRACTURED GARNETS 2847

2.5 26O
Inclusion # 1 2.5• Inclusion
#2 ._.
250• •. 250•
• 2 •'
_240 •-•

_230 m • 230 •
ß
• 1.5 4
'•1.5 •
_

_220• • 220 •
._•

.• 1 210 • 1 21q
a a b c d e f
corner corner

m2.5 260 • 2.5, e , 260

c• j f e Inclusion
#31 • E J fr•d Inclusion
#4• .--
EL I /x L250• EL t I I /F250e
- • 240 TM

.• 230 • 230 m
c 1.5 • 1.5 m

]c Id
• 6 • 1 a b c d e f
corner corner

Figure 3. Externalangle(dashedline) and stressintensityfactoron incipientcracks(solidline) at each

cornerof inclusions(a) 1, (b) 2, (c) 3, and (d) 4. The stressintensityfactorscorrespondto a 250-MPa
differencebetweenconfiningand inclusionpressure.Shapesof inclusions are shownwithin eachgraph.

modulus and Poisson'sratio, which we calculate from the bulk II (openingand shear)loadingwith favorablecomparisonto
andshearmoduli(E = 241.6 GPa; •, = 0.28).Althoughwe do laboratoryexperiments:
not accountfor elasticanisotropyin the model, by usingan
average,isotropicstiffness,
we overestimate garnetstrengthin
some directionsand underestimateit in others. Anisotropy Oo
{•K•cos2
cost Oo Ku
3sin00}> 1,
2 Kic
2 (4)
may be an importantcontrolon microcrackpropagation,but
where the angleof crackpropagation,0o,is
comparisonof our model results(in particular,sequenceof
fracturing)with petrographicobservations from medium- to
ultrahigh-pressure metamorphicrockssuggests that it is not as 00=sin
-• •cosrk - rk rk:tan
-• 3ri/' (5)
importantas inclusiongeometry(seebelow).
Anothermaterialproperty requiredto modelfractureprop- In the casewhere Kii •-> 0, such as at the tips of incipient
agationis the fracturetoughnessof garnet.Fracturetoughness microcracks uponwhichthereis negligibleshear,(4) simplifies
for syntheticgarnet(yttriumaluminate)rangesfrom 1.8 MPa to the criterion that crackspropagateif the openingstress
mt/2 at 25øCto 2 MPa mt/2at 1400øC[Reimanis et al., 1994]. intensityfactor exceedsfracturetoughness(Ki > Kic). Addi-
We considermicrocracksto propagatefrom incipientmicro- tionally,undertheseconditionsthe angleof crackpropagation,
cracksat inclusioncornerswhen the opening-modestressin- 0o,is zero sothat the microcrackgrowsstraight.If there is slip
tensityfactormeetsor exceeds
2 MPa m•/2.Althoughwe do on a microcrack, the orientation of the new element is nonzero
not accountfor changingfracturetoughness with temperature (0o =/=0); in thiscasethe microcrackwouldcurveas it propa-
in the model,by adopting a valueof 2 MPa m•/2 for our gatesif the failurecriterionis alsoexceeded.Microcrackswith
microcrackcriterion,we are usinga conservativevalue. Fur- greaterKn havegreatercurvatureto their propagationpaths,
thermore,as microcrackingin naturemay occurduringnearly whereasmicrocrackswith Kn = 0 have straightpaths.
isothermaldecompression [Whitney,1996], the temperature At eachgrowthincrement,FRAC2D inspectsand reevalu-
of K•omaynot be a significantsourceof error in the ates the stressintensityfactor at all crack tips for additional
sensitivity
model. propagation.Within the hEM model,cracksgrowin incre-
We do not considerthe elasticpropertiesof the inclusionsin mentsequal to the length of the crack elements(0.2 /xm for
these modelssincethe inclusionsare treated as pressurized this study).Each new crack elementhas zero sheartraction
holesin garnet.This hasthe effect of predictinglower differ- and normaltractionequalto the inclusionpressuresothat the
ential pressuresfor crack initiation than if theseparameters inclusionpressureremainsconstantduring fracture growth.
were incorporated,as differentialexpansionof an inclusion Sincethe propagationof microcracks from an inclusioncreates
relative to hostwould facilitate cracking. additionalinclusionvolume, inclusionpressuremay drop as
Within FRAC2D, cracksgrowby the additionof elementsto microcracksgrow.The numericalmodel, however,usescon-
cracktipsthat meetor exceeda prescribed propagationcrite- stantinclusionpressureasif volumeremainsconstantor fluids
rion. Thomasand Pollard [1993] validatedthe followinggen- enter the inclusionduring microcrackgrowth. As a conse-
eral formulafor fracturepropagationunderboth modesI and quence,microcrackgrowthis unboundedbecausethe stress
2848 WHITNEY ET AL.: FRACTURED GARNETS

Table 2. Minimum Decompressionfor Initiation of at corners than both the 10- and 20-sided inclusions for the same
Least One Microcrack level of pressuredifference.
Inclusion Confining Pressure 5.2. Fracture Propagation Potential Versus Internal Angle
Pressure, Pressure, Difference,
MPa MPa MPa The analysisof nearly circular inclusionssuggeststhat mi-
crocrackpotential correlateswith sharpnessof inclusioncor-
10-sided inclusion -930 + 10 -500 430 + 10
20-sided inclusion -1120 _+ 10 -500 620 + 10
ners.However, our analysisof four nonroundinclusionshapes
Inclusion 1 -500 _+ 10 -250 250 _+ 10 (Figure3) showsthat overallmorphologyof inclusionsplaysa
- 750 _+ 10 - 500 250 _+ 10 critical role in crack propagationand can overshadowcorner
- 1250 + 10 - 1000 250 _+ 10 sharpness effects.For more equantinclusions,i.e., inclusions3
Inclusion 1, halved -810 _+10 -500 310 _+10 and 4 (Figure 3), microcrackpotential (Ki) closelyfollows
Inclusion 1, doubled -690 _+10 -500 190 _+10
Inclusion 1, 0.02 kcmflaw -760 _ 10 -500 260 _ 10
cornersharpness(externalangle). We plot externalangleso
Inclusion 2 -760 _+ 10 -500 260 _+ 10 that the larger the external angle, the sharper the inclusion
Inclusion 3 -750 + 10 -500 250 + 10 corner. For example, the shape of the stressintensity factor
Inclusion 4 -740 + 10 -500 240 + 10
curvefor inclusion3 resemblesthe external angle curve, indi-
cating that the relative microcrackpotential of each corner
correlateswith corner sharpness; sharpercorners(greater ex-
ternal angles)have greaterKi. This followsfrom the circular
intensity factor on each growing microcrack increaseswith inclusionanalysiswhere sharpercornersproducegreaterstress
lengthwhile drivingpressureremainsconstant(equation(1)); concentration.In contrast, the stressintensity factor and ex-
microcrackswhich start growingwill propagateinfinitely.The ternal anglecurvesfor inclusion1 have different trendsamong
finite length of microcracksobservedin some garnet crystals its corners(Figure 3). For thisinclusion,cornera is the sharp-
may reflect the decreasein inclusionpressurecreatedby vol- est, but corner f has the greatestmicrocrackpotential.
ume increaseduringcrackpropagation.For the purposeof this Inclusioncornerswith similar external anglesmay have dif-
studywe arbitrarily stop propagationafter 200 growth incre- ferent microcrack potentials because of overall inclusion
ments (40-/•m-longmicrocracks)in order to observethe mi- shape.For example,cornerse and f of inclusioni together
crocrackpattern. form a protrusionof the inclusionperiphery(Figure 3). The
large aspectratio of this inclusionallowsthe protrusionto act
as a pseudo-crackthat concentratesstressesat its ends and
5. Results
enhancesthe microcrackpotential at thesecorners.The stress
We present a series of models that illustrate the role of intensityfactors of incipient microcracksat cornerse and f of
inclusionshape (size, corner sharpness,overall shape) and inclusion i are elevated compared to their external angles
pressuredifferenceon microcrackpotential and propagation (Figure 3). The samerelationshipis true for other nonequant
path. inclusions such as inclusion 2, where corners a and d have
greaterstressintensityfactorsthan the cornersharpness would
5.1. Faceted Versus Spherical Inclusions suggest;the overall shapeof inclusion2 enhancesmicrocrack
The presenceof sharpcornersalongfacetedinclusionscon- potential at cornersa and d relative to other cornersof this
centratesstressesand promotesfracturing.A sphericalinclu- inclusion.These corners(a and d) lie alongthe longestdiam-
sion can be simulated in our 2-D BEM models with many eter of inclusion2. This analysissuggeststhat the microcrack
straightsegments;the more segments,the smootherthe inclu- potential for equant inclusionsdependson sharpnessof cor-
sion periphery.We comparethe microcrackpotential of two ners, whereasmicrocrackpotential for nonequantinclusions
approximately circularinclusions with 10 and20 sides(Table 2 dependsgreatly on overall inclusionshape.The inclusioncor-
and Figure2). The contoursof maximumprincipaltensionare nersalongthe longestdiameterof the inclusionhaveenhanced
radiallysymmetricfor eachinclusion(Figure 2). Comparison propagationpotential comparedto cornersalong the shorter
of the two inclusions shows that the 10-sided inclusion has diameters.
greater stressconcentrationthan the less sharply cornered
20-sided inclusion. In order to evaluate the critical difference 5.3. Decompression Required for Fracture Initiation
betweenconfiningand inclusionpressurerequired to produce As the host mineral decompresses,microcracksdevelop
microcracks,we alter inclusionpressurein 10 MPa increments when the differencebetweeninclusionand confiningpressure
while confining pressure remains constant (P .... = -500 exceedssomecriticalvalue that dependson the shapeand size
MPa). In the BEM models,incipientmicrocrackspropagate of the inclusion(Table 2). In general,the lesssharpthe inclu-
from the 20-sidedinclusionunder a pressuredifferenceof at sion angles,the greater pressuredifferencerequired for frac-
least 620 MPa (Table 2), whereasthe sharper-cornered10- turing. For example,the 20-sidedinclusion(a) requires370
sidedinclusionrequiresonly 430 MPa pressuredifferenceto MPa greater pressuredifferencefor fracturing than the six-
fracture(Table 2). Sinceall cornersof eachinclusionhavethe sidedinclusion3, which has much sharperinclusionangles.
same microcrackpotential, each inclusionproducesa radial Larger inclusionshave greater stressintensity factors be-
microcrackpattern with microcracksemanatingfrom all cor- causethe effectivecrack length 2a is larger, allowingmicro-
ners.This comparisonof 10- and 20-sidedinclusionsindicates cracksto develop at lower pressuredifferences.We demon-
that microcrack potential decreases for inclusions with strate this by halving and doublingthe size of inclusion1. At
smoother peripheries so that less faceted inclusionsrequire the initial size(100/•m diameter),microcracksinitiate at cor-
greater decompressionto fracture the host garnet than more nersf andc at 250 + 10 MPa pressuredifference(Figure4a).
faceted inclusions.As expected,the highly faceted six-sided When the inclusionsize is halved, fracturesdevelop at 310 _+
inclusionin Figure 2c has greater stressconcentrationsat its 10 MPa pressuredifference,whereas the enlarged inclusion
 WHITNEY ET AL.' FRACTURED GARNETS 2849

INCLUSION #1
a
0.00015 -
o.oool AP = 25oñ1o MPa AP = 260ñ10 MPa
0.0001
0.00005
0.00005
o

-o.oooo5 .... • .... • .... • ....

• 0 • •
0 0 0 -0.00005 ''''1''''1''''1''''1''''1
0 0 0 0 ,•-- LO 0 LO
0 0 0 0

i
0 0 0 0
c5 o o c5 o
i

0.00015- _
2.8
AP = 310+10 MPa
,_ b
_

0.0001 - 0 2.6-
-

r,.)

0.00005
_

-
• 2.4-
-

_
'• 2.2-
0
.•::
2.0, e _
.

-0.00005 '
_

-0.0001 ''''1''''1''''1''''1 .... I T "a .... + T

1.4 / • • • • • • • /
o o o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
o
o o o o
o o c5 o fracturegro•h increment
o o o
i

Figure4. (a) Microcrack

pathsfor inclusion
1 at 250 _+10 MPa,260 _+10 MPa,and310 _+10 MPa
difference
betweeninclusion
andconfiningpressure(Ap). (b) Stress
intensity
factorat incipient
cracks
of
inclusion1 with crackgrowthincrements.

requiresonly190 _+10 MPa pressure difference to produce 5.4. Sequenceof Fracture Propagation
microcracks (Table2). The largerinclusion produces microc- When the pressuredifferencereachesthe criticalvalue,a
racksat muchlowerpressure differencebecause it hasa longer microcrack propagates from the cornerof the inclusionthat
effectivefracturelength.We canconsider themaximum inclu- hasthe greatestmicrocrack potential.As thisfirstmicrocrack
siondiameterto correspond to effectivecracklength2a so grows,it may alter the stressintensityfactorson incipient
that longerinclusions havehigherKI (equation(1)). Upon microcracks at other corners.For example,inclusion1 devel-
decompression, weexpectthatthelargest inclusions withinthe opsa microcrack on cornerf at 250 _+10 MPa pressure dif-
garnetwill firstdevelopradialmicrocracks. ference(Table2). At thestartof microcrack growth,cornere,
Similarly,the cornerswith largestflawshavethe greatest adjacentto f, hasthe secondgreatestmicrocrack potential
microcrack potential.Reducingthe sizeof incipientmicroc- (K• = 1.99MPam•/2).As thecornerf microcrack grows, it
racks(equivalent to consideringsmallerflaws)requires greater createsa localstressshadowthat eclipsescornere andreduces
pressure differencesto developmicrocracks (Table2). Forthis the stress intensityfactoron thatincipientmicrocrack by 11%
study,flawsizeis uniformamongall inclusion corners; how-
(K• = 1.77MPa m•/2)within1.8 •m of microcrack growth
ever,withingarnet,somecornersmayhavelargermicroinclu-
(Figure4b).
sions or other flaws which concentrate stress. A nonuniform
At the same time that microcrackpotential on corner e
distributionof flaw sizewill control the order of fracture prop-
decreases,the stressintensityfactorsof incipientmicrocracks
agation,sothat cornerswith unusually largeflawsmayprop-
at othercorners,suchasa, c, andd, increase(Figure4b). This
agateat lowerpressure difference
thansharperor morefavor-
increasecan be attributedto the lengtheningof the first mi-
ably located corners.
Within the calculations on crocrack.Since stressintensityfactor increaseswith crack
we vary the remotecompression
the garnetcontaining inclusion1 to observethe influenceof length(equation (1)), theincreasedlengthof themicrocrack at
confining pressureon criticalpressuredifference.Increasing cornerf promotes propagation of themicrocrack at the oppo-
remotecompression to -1000 MPa didnotchange thecritical site side of the inclusion. The inclusion is analogousto a
pressure difference
fordevelopment of microcracks (Table2), pressurized holealongthemiddleof a crack.As onetip of the
nor did decreasingconfiningpressure to -250 MPa. Thisre- crackpropagates, the cracklengthens and the potentialfor
sultconfirmsthat the pressuredifferencebetweenthe inclu- propagation of bothcracktipsincreases. Afterthefirstmicro-
sionand the hostgarnetis the criticalparameterfor driving crackgrowsto a lengthof 19 •m, the stressintensityof the
fracturing(equation(1)). This studyshowsthat the critical incipientmicrocrack at cornerc meetsthe fracturetoughness
pressure differencedepends on inclusion shapeandsizebut of garnet and a second microcrack develops across from the
doesnot varywith magnitudeof confiningpressure. first.Similarly,inclusion 2 develops two microcracks at rela-
2850 WHITNEY ET AL.: FRACTURED GARNETS

INCLUSION #2
a 0.0001 - 0.0001-
AP = 280+10 MPa
•P=-2•0ñ10 MPa
0.00005 0.00005

-0.00005 -0,00005
o
-0.0001 -0.0001
.... ii,,,i,,,,i .... i,i,,li,,, I

0 0 0 0 •- 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
c5 o o c5 o.
' C• C• C•
i

INCLUSION #3
b 0.0001-
10 MPa 0.0001 AP = 280_+10 MPa
0.00005

0.00005

0
-0.00005

-0.00005
-0.0001
.... I"''1''''1''"1

0 0 0 •- -0.0001
.... I .... I .... I''''l''''l
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
O O O O •'
O O O O O
0i 0 0 O O O O O
o c5 .
' C5 i
C• C•

INCLUSION #4
C 0.00015
- AP = 250+10 MPa
AP = 240_+10 MPa
0.0001
0.0001

0.00005
0.00005

-0.00005 ....
-0.00005
O O O O
lad O lad •. O O O O O
O O O O O O O O
ß , o c5 o
o
c:; o o AP= 260-+10
MPa '
' 0.0001

0.00005

-0.00005 .... I .... i .... i ....

•' lad O lad
O O O O
O O O O
0 0 0 0

Figure5. (a)Microcrack
paths
forinclusion
2.(b)Microcrack
paths
forinclusion
3.(c)Microcrack
paths
for
inclusion 4.

tivelysmallpressure difference(260 + 10 MPa; Figure5a), inclusion3 is more equant that either inclusion1 or 2, the
andthesecond microcrack (cornerd) develops acrossfromthe microcrackpatternmay be radial.Althoughthe cornersof
cornerwithgreatestmicrocrack potential(cornerf, Figure5a). inclusions 1 and 2 that lie alongthe longestdiameterof the
Inclusion3 alsodevelops twomicrocracks at relativelysmall inclusioninitiatemicrocracks,forinclusion
3 thelongest
diameter
pressuredifference(250 _+10 MPa; Figure5b). The second is lessapparentand the microcrack patternis moreradial.
microcrack(cornerf), however,develops at rightanglesto the Inclusion4 developsonly one microcrackfrom cornerf at
cornerwithgreatestmicrocrack potential(cornerd). Cornera 240 _+10 MPa pressure difference(Figure5c).Thereare two
of inclusion 3 lies across from d but has a lower initial micro- possible reasons that thisinclusiondevelops onlyonemicroc-
crackpotentialthan nearbycornerf. Rather than the second rack.First, there is no cornerconveniently locateddirectly
microcrackdeveloping acrossfrom the cornerwith greatest opposite thecornerwithgreatest microcrack potential(corner
microcrackpotential,an adjacentcornerwith greaterinitial f, Figure3d).Additionally, thetwocornersthatoppose corner
microcrack
potentialpropagates.It shouldbe notedthat since f of inclusion4, cornersb and c, both haverelativelylow
 WHITNEY ET AL.: FRACTURED
microcrackpotentialcomparedto othercorners(cornersa and
d, Figure3d). Anotherinterestingobservationof inclusion4 is
that the firstmicrocrackdoesnot developalongthe longaxisof
the inclusion.Cornersd and e createa protrusionwhichmight
concentratestresses.However, corner f is much sharperthan
either d or e and therefore has a much greater microcrack
potential.
This analysisindicatesthat angularinclusionsproduceone
or two microcracks,dependingon overall inclusionshape.
Elongateinclusionsmay developonly two microcracksalong
the longestdiameter of the inclusion,whereasmore equant
inclusionsdevelop a more radial microcrackpattern. Single
microcracksdevelop where the sharpestcorner is opposite
several obtuse corners.
5.5. Fracture Paths
We have demonstratedthat at relatively modest pressure
decrease,one or two microcrackspropagatefrom inclusion
cornersinto the host garnet. For all four angularinclusions,
thesefirst microcracksare straight(Figures4 and 5). For the
mostpart, thesefirst microcrackspropagateradially,and they
bisectthe externalangleof the inclusioncorner.One exception
to this generalizationis cornerf of inclusion1 (at 250 _+_ 10
MPa pressuredifference),whose averagemicrocrackangle
differs by almost 20ø from the bisectorof the external angle.
Interestingly,the averageangleis morecloselyalignedwith the
longaxisof the inclusionthan the externalanglebisector.This
pattern canbe explainedby onceagainconsideringthe inclu-
sion as a pseudo-crack.If no shearstressesact on a crack, it
will propagatewithin its plane (equation(4)). Sincethe mod-
eled systemis drivenby overallisotropicpressuredifferences,
shearstressesare negligibleand the elongateinclusion,acting
asa pseudo-crack, propagatesalongits plane,that is, alongthe
long axisof the inclusion.Another way to explainthis process
is that the nonequantshapeof the inclusionsperturbsthe local
stressfield so that locally anisotropicstressesare produced
within an overall isotropicstressfield. This stressanisotropy
near the inclusioncausethe microcracksto propagatealong
the inclusion'slong axis. Other microcracks,such as those
generatedon inclusion2, alsofollowoverallinclusionalignment.
As greater pressuredifferencesare applied to the system,
greaternumbersof cornerspropagatemicrocracks. The micro-
crackpatternsresultingfrom pressuredifferencesgreaterthan
the criticaldifferencemaycorrespondto instantaneous decom-
pressionof the host garnet. If the decompression is gradual
(noninstantaneous), then we expectone or two microcracksto
developonce decompression reachesthe critical pressuredif-
ference, as discussedpreviously.Once one or more microc-
racksinitiate,further increasesin decompression will lengthen
existingmicrocracksrather than produce new ones at flaws;
existingcrackshavesharptipswhichconcentratestresses more
efficiently than the more bluntly tipped flaws [e.g., Lawn,
1993].Additional microcrackscan developif, insteadof grad-
ual decompression, the garnetundergoesan instantaneousde-
compressiongreater than the critical pressuredifference;this
may initiate propagationof multiple flaws at the inclusion
corners.Decompressionas small as 10-30 MPa above the
criticalpressuredifferenceproducesa microcrackpattern dis-
tinct from that at critical pressuredifferenceas three microc-
racksdeveloprather than just one or two (e.g., inclusion2;
Figure 5a).
Generally, the microcracks from inclusion corners are
straight, although curved microcracksoccasionallydevelop.
GARNETS 2851
Microcracksat adjacentcornerse and f of inclusion1 at 260 +
10 MPa pressuredifferencedivergeas they propagate(Figure
4a). This divergencecanbe considereda consequence of com-
petition betweenthe adjacentmicrocracks.Similar divergence
canbe seenat cornersc and d of inclusion2 (Figure 5a). The
local stressfield of one microcrackproducesslip along the
other microcrack,alteringthe other microcrack'spropagation
path, and vice versa.
In natural garnets,microcracksradiating from mineral in-
clusionstend to curvewhen they approachthe garnetrim [e.g.,
Gillet et al., 1984].Our modelsdo not includegarnet near-rim
effects,but the curvingof model microcrackpathsnear inclu-
sions results from the same mechanism. Microcracks curve in
responseto local perturbationof the stressfield by either the
inclusion(and nearbymicrocracks)or the garnet boundary.
Near inclusions,microcracksgrow from a locally anisotropic
stressregion into an isotropicstressregion,whereasat grain
boundaries,microcracksgrow from more isotropic stressre-
gionsto anisotropicstressregions.
This analysisshowsthat large instantaneousdecompression
producesmany approximatelyradial cracks,whereassmallor
gradualdecompression of angularinclusionsproducesone or
two microcracksdependingon inclusionshape.
6. Discussion
Microcrackpatternsobservedin the model resultsare sim-
ilar to patternsobservedin regionallymetamorphosedrocks.
Elongate inclusionscommonlyhave microcracksemanating
from oppositecornersof the inclusion'slong axis(Figure la).
The microcracksmay be throughgoing(traversingthe garnet
from rim to rim) and may have formed in responseto exter-
nally drivendeformationaffectingthe hostrock suchas shear
and anisotropicstrain [Jiet al., 1997].Our BEM model results
show, however, that these microcracksmight initiate in re-
sponseto stressconcentrationsat cornersduring decompres-
sion,with inclusiongeometrythe controllingfactor in micro-
crack formation and location.
Radial microcracksemanating from round and faceted
equant inclusionsare common.These inclusionsmay have
cracksemanatingfrom mostor all corners(Figure lb), and the
locationsof thesecrackscanbe well predictedfrom inclusion
geometryusingthe modelresultsdescribedabove.Cracksthat
intersectinclusionsides(not at corners)mayhaveinitiatednot
at the inclusionbut at someother point in the garnet (e.g., at
the cornerof a nearbyinclusion).Alternatively,thesemicroc-
racksmay have formed owingto externalforcesor were gen-
erated prior to recrystallizationof the inclusion(i.e., adjust-
ment of garnet-inclusion boundariesat high temperature).
In the caseof radial fracturingaroundcoesite-quartz inclu-
sionsin high-pressureterrains,fracturingis largelydriven by
volume expansionof coesiteduring its phasetransitionto a
quartz, but the locations of microcracksare nevertheless
stronglycontrolledby inclusionshapeandsize(Figure6). The
patterns follow the trends outlined in the model resultsin
section5 with the largevolumeexpansionequivalentto a large
pressuredifference.As can be seen in Figure 6, microcracks
are preferentiallylocatednear corners.
Microcrackpathsmay be influencedby the garnet'saniso-
tropy. This producesan anisotropicstressfield around the
inclusionso that microcracksare lesslikely to propagateradi-
ally alongthe bisectorof the externalangle.Evidencefor an
anisotropicstressfield maybe detectedin garnetsthat contain
2852 WHITNEY ET AL.: FRACTURED GARNETS

Figure 6. Microcracksassociated with coesite-quartzinclusionsin garnetfrom an ultrahigh-pressure

terrain
(Dora Maira massif,Italy). Field of view is 2 mm.

abundantsubparallelmicrocracks.This fabric may indicate a
preferentialdirectionfor fracturingdue to either an anisotro-
pic externalstressfield [Jiet al., 1997]or anisotropyof the host
garnet.If the shapeof facetedinclusionsis stronglycontrolled
by garnetanisotropy,the preferentiallongaxisfor an inclusion
may coincidewith the preferential direction for fracturing.
Since the long axis of inclusionsconcentratesstressesand
promotes fracturing, these two effects may act together to
producea long microcrackparallel to the inclusionaxis.
An additional considerationwhen applying the model re-
sultsto geologicexamplesis that the model discussedhere is
two-dimensional.This most likely resultsin an overestimation
of differentialpressurerequiredfor microcracking,as a three-
dimensionalcorner may be a sharperfeature than its two-
dimensionalequivalent.
Can tectonicinformationbe obtainedfrom microcrackpat-
terns and inclusiongeometries?Radial cracks are not suffi-
cient evidencefor ultrahigh-pressuremetamorphismand can
form after modestamountsof decompression from midcrustal
depths.As all regionallymetamorphosedrocksnow exposedat
the surfacehave experiencedkilometersof unroofing,we ex-
pect inclusionsto fracture their host and therefore cannot
make conclusions aboutthe magnitudeof decompression from
inclusions with numerous radial fractures. Possible tectonic
applicationsof our model relate to inclusionswith only a few
cracksemanatingfrom corners.If our model canbe appliedto
 WHITNEY ET AL.: FRACTURED GARNETS 2853

real garnets,limited microcrackingmight indicate that a ter- Hames, W. E., and T. Menard, Fluid-assistedmodification of garnet
rain experiencedonly a modestcomponentof isothermalde- compositionalongrims, cracks,and mineral inclusionboundariesin
samplesof amphibolitefaciesschists, Am. Mineral.,78, 338-344, 1993.
compressionor that decompressionwas gradual. The latter Inglis, C. E., Stressesin a plate due to the presenceof cracksand sharp
interpretation is basedon the observationthat simulationsof corners, Trans. R. Inst. Nay. Archit., 55, 219-224, 1913.
large instantaneousdecompression will producemany micro- Ji, S., P. Zhao, and K. Saruwatari, Fracturing of garnet crystalsin
cracks, whereas more gradual decompressionmay produce anisotropicmetamorphicrocks during uplift, J. Struct. Geol., 19,
603-630, 1997.
only one or two fractures.Caution is neededwhen makingsuch
Koenig, E., and D. D. Pollard, Mapping and modelingof radial frac-
interpretations,however,giventhe primaryinfluenceof inclu- ture patternson Venus,J. Geophys.Res.,103, 15,183-15,202,1998.
sion shapeon cracking. Lang, H. M., Pressure-temperature-reaction history of metapelitic
In some cases,including ultrahigh-pressuremetamorphic rocksfrom the Maryland Piedmonton the basisof correlatedgarnet
terrains, inclusionsmay not be associatedwith microcracks. zoning and plagioclaseinclusioncomposition,Am. Mineral., 81,
1460-1475, 1996.
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but healed during prolonged, high-temperature metamor- Olson, J. E., Fracture mechanicsanalysisof joints and veins, thesis,
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controllingmicrocrackpatterns.Although we have only con- Rosenfeld,J. L., Stresseffectsaroundquartz inclusionsin almandine
sideredthe case of garnet in exhumedmetamorphicterrains, and the piezothermometryof coexistingaluminosilicates,•lm.J. Sci.,
theseresultsmay apply to other geologicsettingsand materi- 267, 317-351, 1969.
Rosenfeld,J. L., and A. B. Chase,Pressureand temperature of crys-
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Comparisonof model resultswith geologicobservationssug- Am. J. Sci., 259, 519-541, 1961.
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Acknowledgments. We thank T. Engelder, P. Gillet, A. Wenke,
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