Eur. J. Mineral.

2015, 27, 471–486

Published online 13 March 2015

Petrophysical properties of a granite-protomylonite-ultramylonite sequence:

insight from the Monte Grighini shear zone, central Sardinia, Italy
STEFANO COLUMBU1,*, GABRIELE CRUCIANI1, DARIO FANCELLO1, MARCELLO FRANCESCHELLI1
and GIOVANNI MUSUMECI2

1
Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche, Università di Cagliari, Via Trentino 51, 09127 Cagliari, Italy
*Corresponding author, e-mail: columbus@unica.it
2
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università di Pisa, Via S. Maria 53, 56126 Pisa, Italy

Abstract: The Monte Grighini intrusive complex (central-west Sardinia) has been affected by a 1.5 km wide late-Variscan shear
zone; microstructures and deformation fabrics indicate that high strain domains resulted in sharp transitions among protomylonite to
ultramylonite. A representative geological cross section of the shear zone has been sampled, as well as samples from outside the
mylonitic belt for use as slightly deformed protolith reference samples. Physical and mechanical analyses were performed on each
group in order to evaluate a possible correlation between petrophysical properties (density, porosity and mechanical strength) and the
degree of mylonitic deformation. Ultramylonites are generally characterized by a higher solid-phase density (2.82–2.85 g/cm3) than
less deformed protomylonites and mylonites (2.73–2.79 g/cm3), testifying to the formation of high-density minerals with an increase
in deformation. Conversely, bulk density tends to decrease as deformation increases (from 2.52–2.57 g/cm3 to 2.47–2.48 g/cm3) due
to the total porosity increase occurring during mylonitization. The mean values of total porosity range from 6.33 to 9.27 % in
protomylonites and mylonites and from 12.01 to 12.85 % in ultramylonites. The relatively high value of porosity in more deformed
ultramylonites is the result of the sum of closed micropores and open pores produced by different processes. Mechanical strength
measurements show a noticeable anisotropy, with higher strength values measured applying the load perpendicular to foliation
(Z axis) and lower values obtained parallel to it (X,Y axes). In the Monte Grighini mylonite the anisotropy is due to the distribution of
pores and to the preferred orientation of new minerals, as highlighted by the correlation between scalar physical properties (solid, real
and bulk densities, porosity) and vector properties (resistance to punching or uniaxial compressive strengths). The results show that
the degree of deformation of mylonitic rocks can be characterized by petrophysical properties, in order to shed light on the tectonic
processes experienced at depth.
Key-words: petrophysical properties; mylonitic granitoids; porosity; density; mechanical strength; anisotropy.

1. Introduction controls the rheology of shear zones. Furthermore, strain

Geological and geophysical evidence shows that deforma-
tion in the Earth’s crust is heterogeneous, with large strain
and displacements localized in faults and shear zones,
which are also efficient pathways for magma and/or fluid
transfer from the lower to the middle-upper crustal levels
(Hollister & Crawford, 1986; Scholz, 1988).
Strain localization depends on several intrinsic (grain
size, mineralogy, phase transformations) and extrinsic
(pressure, temperature, strain rate, fluid pressure) factors
(Scholz, 1988; Shimamoto, 1989; Tullis & Yund, 1992;
Wintsch et al., 1995) that determine which deformation
mechanisms accommodate the fault or shear zone activity
(Handy, 1989). According to the shear zone models by
Scholz (1988) and Chester (1995), in the lower-middle
crust below the brittle–ductile transition, the ductile flow
of quartz and feldspar is the dominant mechanism that
softening processes associated with ductile flow (White
et al., 1980) allow the transition from mylonite to ultra-
mylonite leading the shear zones to become rock layers
with an intrinsic lower strength than the undeformed rock
outside the shear zone. The mylonite to ultramylonite
transition has been the subject of several papers aimed at
understanding the microstructural evolution, behavior and
rheology of these rocks. Many aspects have been investi-
gated, from geochemical and minerochemical features
(Hippertt, 1998; Wibberley & McCaig, 2000) to the struc-
tural analysis (Hippertt & Hongn, 1998; Ree et al., 2005).
Petrophysical properties have also been determined with a
focus on seismic wave velocities (Siegesmund et al., 1991;
Cirrincione et al., 2010) and their relation to rock textures.
In this paper a different approach, based on the determina-
tion of physical and mechanical properties, is used. For this
purpose we analyzed the mylonitic granitoids of the Monte

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0935-1221/15/0027-2447 $ 7.20
DOI: 10.1127/ejm/2015/0027-2447 # 2015 E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, D-70176 Stuttgart
472 S. Columbu et al.
Grighini shear zone in the Variscan belt of Sardinia (Elter
et al., 1990; Musumeci, 1992).
The Monte Grighini shear zone is the exhumed deep
portion of a kilometer-wide, late Variscan, transtensive
shear zone exploited by synkinematic intrusions that can
be regarded as a proxy of the mid-crustal portion of active
shear zones in the continental crust. In particular, the occur-
rence of a wide belt of ultramylonites in which most of the
strain and displacement was partitioned and the complete
exposure of the transition from protomylonitic to mylonitic
to ultramylonitic fabrics, makes this structure a suitable
example to investigate the variation of the physical proper-
ties across a ductile shear zone resulting from strain locali-
zation processes. Furthermore, the igneous paragenesis
(quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase with a minor amount of
biotite and muscovite) allows a better interpretation of the
petrophysical data and makes these rocks representative of
the average composition of the continental crust (i.e., quart-
zofeldspathic crust). Several hand specimens of protomylo-
nites to ultramylonites were collected in the field. For each
sample, solid, real and bulk densities, total, closed and open
porosity to helium and to water, water absorption coeffi-
cient, and the mechanical strength measured with uniaxial
compressive and point load tests were determined. Bulk,
real and solid densities provide different information on the
petrophysical features of the rock samples. Solid density is a
function of rock mineralogy, and should show the modal
compositional variations linked to the mylonitization pro-
cess. Real and bulk densities are influenced by closed and
total porosity, respectively, that are related to the textural
and microstructural aspects of the rock (e.g., foliation devel-
opment). The mechanical strength depends on the scalar
physical properties (i.e., total porosity, bulk and solid den-
sities) and textural, microstructural and mineralogical fea-
tures (e.g., foliation orientation, grain size, mineral
hardness). The mechanical properties, measured in three
mutually perpendicular directions in a shear zone reference
frame, can make a valuable contribution to study the aniso-
tropy ratios between the various levels of shear zones and
indirectly understand the mechanical strains occurring at
depth in the deformation process.
This paper, in addition to a basic mineralogical, petro-
graphic and physical characterization of the mylonitic and
ultramylonitic rocks, highlights the variations of the phy-
sical and mechanical properties at various stages of mylo-
nite formation. The aim of this work is to provide a new
insight on the petrophysical properties of the exhumed
mylonitic rocks in order to better understand the deforma-
tional-metamorphic processes that they underwent at
depth.
2. Geological setting
2.1. Overview of the Monte Grighini Complex
The Variscan chain of Sardinia consists of four tectono-
metamorphic zones that, from south to north, are: the
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External Zone, the External Nappe Zone, the Internal
Nappe Zone and the Inner Zone. The Inner Zone is the
deepest part of the Variscan in Sardinia; it is composed of
several types of migmatites (Cruciani et al., 2001, 2008) and
metabasite with eclogite and granulite facies relics
(Franceschelli et al., 2002; Cruciani et al., 2012). The
Monte Grighini Complex is a NW-SE elongated dome-
shaped metamorphic complex of Variscan age (Musumeci
et al., 2015), exposed in central Sardinia (Fig. 1a), in the
External Nappe Zone (Carmignani et al., 1994).
The Monte Grighini Complex consists of a pile of
Variscan metamorphic units (from bottom to top: the Monte
Grighini Unit, the Castello Medusa Unit and the Gerrei Unit),
derived from the middle Ordovician to Devonian sedimen-
tary succession. In particular the Monte Grighini Unit con-
sists of Late Ordovician metavolcanic-volcanoclastic rocks
(Cruciani et al., 2013) overlain by a sequence of metapelites
with metasiltites and marble lenses at the top. These meta-
morphic rocks were intruded by Late Carboniferous intrusive
rocks organized in two NW-SE striking belts that consist of
I-type metaluminous monzogranite with minor tonalite and
small diorite bodies and S-type peraluminous muscovite-
bearing leucogranite. The monzogranite is composed of
quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase and biotite, while the mineral
assemblage of the leucogranite consists of quartz, K-feldspar,
plagioclase, muscovite, biotite, tourmaline  garnet. Rb/Sr
and Ar/Ar radiometric dating give ages of about 305–295 Ma
for both metaluminous and peraluminous intrusive rocks
(Carmignani et al., 1987; Del Moro et al., 1991). The units
experienced a polyphase tectonic and metamorphic evolu-
tion. Early deformation related to syn-collisional nappe stack-
ing developed southwest verging folds and axial planar
cleavage and/or schistosity, which represents the main folia-
tion in the field. These structures developed under different
metamorphic conditions in the three units, and range from
lower greenschist facies in the Gerrei Unit to upper greens-
chist facies and amphibolite facies in the Castello Medusa
Unit and Monte Grighini Unit, respectively. For the Monte
Grighini Unit, geothermobarometric data indicate peak meta-
morphic conditions of 7.5 kbar and 500 C followed by a
nearly isothermal decompression up to 4 kbar (Spano et al.,
2012). After nappe stacking and the metamorphic peak, late
deformation in the Monte Grighini complex consisted of
NW-trending upright folds with development of large-scale
antiforms and synforms, followed by development of a wide
strike-slip shear zone with synkinematic emplacement of
intrusive rocks and final extensional structures (see below).
2.2. Late Variscan Monte Grighini shear zone
The Monte Grighini shear zone (Fig. 1a and b) is an
approximately 12 km long and 1.5 km wide ductile shear
zone that affected the Monte Grighini Unit and the intru-
sive complex; the progressive transition from magmatic to
solid-state mylonitic fabrics indicates that the intrusions
were synkinematic (Elter et al., 1990; Musumeci, 1992).
Within the shear zone (Fig. 1a and b) the distribution of
 Petrophysical properties of granite–ultramylonite sequence 473

Fig. 1. (a) Geological sketch map of the Monte Grighini Complex, central Sardinia (modified from Musumeci et al., 2015); (b) deformation
map of the shear zone showing the distribution of protomylonites, mylonites and ultramylonites (modified from Musumeci, 1992). The inset
shows a tectonic sketch map of the Variscan basement of Sardinia (modified from Carmignani et al., 2001); PAL: Posada-Asinara Line.
(online version in colour)

deformation fabrics is consistent with an increase of defor-
mation from a protomylonite zone to the east through a
wide mylonite zone to a narrow ultramylonite zone to the
west. The ultramylonite zone is a narrow belt (50–100 m in
width) that consists of ultramylonitic and phyllonitic rocks.
Westward it is bounded by southwestward dipping detach-
ment faults and a wide cataclasite zone that marks the
westernmost side of the shear zone and the tectonic contact
with the overlying, low grade Gerrei Unit (Fig. 1a).
Retrograde deformation, from lower amphibolite to
lower greenschist facies, is almost entirely partitioned in
the intrusive rocks, which are the dominant lithology in the
shear zone. Medium-grade metamorphic rocks of the
Monte Grighini unit show a weak mylonitic overprint
defined by thin (centimeter to decimeter thick) shear
bands cross-cutting earlier foliations. In the intrusive com-
plex poorly deformed igneous fabrics (WNW-striking,
steeply dipping magmatic foliations) are preserved in the
protomylonite zone along the northeastern side of the shear
zone (Fig. 1b); the shear zone deformation increases
toward the west and southwest with the development of
mylonitic fabrics that consist of NW-striking SC-type
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shear bands that dip steeply toward SW. The shear bands
overprint the previous magmatic and metamorphic folia-
tions and are the main fabric observed in the field. SC-type
shear bands (Passchier & Trouw, 2005) consists of shear
plane (C-planes) striking N 150 –160 E while the foliation
(S planes) strikes N120 E in the protomylonite zone and
progressively rotate to become parallel to the C-planes.
The complete parallelism between shear planes and
S-planes is reached in the ultramylonite zone that consists
of homogeneously foliated, fine-grained ultramylonites
and phyllonites, with N150 –160 striking foliation dip-
ping steeply (65 –75 ) toward WSW. The stretching linea-
tions (marked by feldspar porphyroclasts, elongated quartz
and mica trails) and slickenside striae trend NW-SE and
gently plunge (5 –20 ) toward NW in both the mylonitic
and ultramylonitic foliation. According to Musumeci
(1992), a prevailing simple shear deformation charac-
terizes the mylonite and ultramylonite zone with the high
strain values (0.8 , K , 1.1) reached in the ultramylonite
zone, which is also marked by the highest values of shear
strain (g ¼ 20) and displacement (Musumeci, 1991). All
kinematic indicators in the mylonitic and ultramylonitic
474 S. Columbu et al.

rocks—such as SC-type shear bands, asymmetric mica fish

Table 1. Methodologies, physical properties and specimen characteristics of analyzed rock samples. The average volume of specimens is calculated for three groups: protolith samples (G70,

Ultra-mylonite

5.96  2.93
2.74  1.01
2.10  0.04
2.74  1.01
2.74  1.01
2.10  0.04
and sigma-type porphyroclasts—are consistent with a dex-
tral sense of shear. In the cataclasite zone, southwest gently
to moderately dipping foliation and brittle shear planes
with down-dip to slightly oblique slickenlines point out a

Volume average  standard deviation

top-to-the SSW sense of shear. Thus the Monte Grighini

Protomyl./Mylonite
shear zone is an exhumed dextral transtensive shear zone
with a horizontal displacement of at least 7 km (Musumeci,

4.06  0.27
16.31  5.45
4.06  0.27
2.12  0.03
4.06  0.27
2.12  0.03
1991). Shear zone activity triggered the emplacement of
synkinematic intrusions and drove the amphibolite facies
exhumation of the Monte Grighini Unit from middle to
upper crustal levels. Brittle deformation recorded the final
coupling with the Gerrei Unit at a very shallow crustal
level. At the scale of the Variscan orogeny, the Monte

2.11  0.04
3.80  1.13
3.80  1.13
2.11  0.04
3.80  1.13
Protoliths
Grighini shear zone belongs to the network of Late

n.d.
Carboniferous strike-slip to extensional shear zones that
accommodate large scale crustal extension and triggered
exhumation of deep metamorphic rocks and emplacement
of large volume of intrusive rocks (Jegouzo, 1980; Burg

(6 for each lithotype)

et al., 1981; Echtler & Malavieille, 1990; Rey et al., 1992).

Total number
3. Materials and methods
Petrographic and microstructural analyses were car-

60
13
78
78
13
78
ried out on polished thin sections by optical micro- G92, G97), protomylonites and mylonites (A1, A2, A3, A7, A8, A9, A10), and ultramylonites (A4, A5, A6).

Specimen characteristics
scopy and scanning electron microscopy with an FEI

Cubic and undisturbed

Cubic and undisturbed
Cubic and undisturbed

Cubic and undisturbed

Quanta 200 SEM at the Centro Grandi Strumenti of
University of Cagliari. A Panalytical X’Pert diffract-

Type or shape
ometer was used to identify the minerals of very fine-
grained ultramylonite-phyllonite samples, where

Powdered
Powdered
phases were unrecognizable by optical nor by back
scattered electron (BSE) observation.
Physical and mechanical properties were determined, in
the laboratory of the University of Cagliari, on 78 pseudo- Bulk volume; dry, wet and hydrostatic mass
cubic rock specimens (6 for each rock layer or group;
Tables 1, S1; supplementary material available online on
the GSW website of the journal), with an average volume
between 3.80 and 4.06 cm3, variable edge length (with a, b,
Physical properties determined

Uniaxial compressive strength

c ¼ 15  4 mm), and on 13 powdered rock specimens, with

an average volume ranging between 2.10 and 2.12 cm3.
The variable size of the specimens is due to the attempt to
Resistance to puncture
Solid and real volume

exclude weakness surfaces that may affect the reliability of

the results.
The samples were dried at 105  5 C and the dry solid
mass (mD) was determined. The volume of solid phases
Dry mass

(VS) of powdered rock specimens (on 10 g and with particle

size less than 0.063 mm) and the real volume (VR, where
VR ¼ VS þ VC, and VC is the volume of pores closed to
helium) of the rock specimens were determined by a helium
Ultrapycnometer 1000 (Quantachrome Instruments). Then,
Water absorption, analytical

Digital compression testing

Test type and methodology

and hydrostatic balance

the wet solid mass (mW) of the samples was determined

after water absorption by immersion for ten days. Through a
Helium pycnometry

hydrostatic analytical balance, the bulk volume VB (with VB

Point load tester

¼ VS þ VO þ VC, where VO ¼ (VBVR) is the volume of

open pores to helium) is calculated as:

VB ¼ ½ðmW  mHY Þ=rw T X  100



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 Petrophysical properties of granite–ultramylonite sequence
where mHY is the hydrostatic mass of the wet specimen and
rwTX is the water density at a temperature TX. Total por-
osity (T), open porosity to water and helium (O H2O; O
He, respectively), closed porosity to water and helium (C
H2O; C He), bulk density (rB), real density (rR), solid
density (rS) were computed as:
T ¼ ½ðVB  VS Þ=VB  100 
O H2 O ¼ f½ðmW  mD Þ=rw TX =VB g 100 
O He ¼ ½ðVB  VR Þ=VB  100 
C H2 O ¼ T  O H2 O
C He ¼ T  O He
rS ¼ mD =VS ; rR ¼ mD =VR ; rB ¼ mD =VB
The weight imbibition coefficient (ICW) and the saturation
index (SI) were computed as:
ICW ¼ ½ðmW  mD Þ=mD  100 
SI ¼ ðO H2 O=O HeÞ
¼ f½ðmW  mD Þ=rw T X =VO g 100 
The punching strength index was determined with a Point Load
Tester in compliance with the International Society for Rock
Mechanics (ISRM, 1972, 1985) on six cubic oriented rock
specimens for each sample (Table 1). The load is exerted via
the application of a concentrated load with two opposing con-
ical punches. The load was applied along three main directions:
the X axis, parallel to foliation and to mineralogical lineation;
the Y axis, perpendicular to mineralogical lineation and parallel
to foliation; the Z axis, perpendicular to foliation.
The distance (D) between the two points of contact
punches on a specimen are between 11 and 20 mm with an
average of 16.1  0.91 mm. The geometric requirements of
the ISRM recommendations (1985) relating to the size of the
specimens (i.e., 0.3 , D/W , 1 and L . 0.5W, where W and
2L are the width perpendicular to the direction of the load and
the length of the specimen, respectively) were observed. The
resistance to puncturing (IS) was calculated as P/De2 where P
is the breaking load and De is the ‘‘equivalent diameter of the
carrot’’ (ISRM, 1985), with De ¼ 4A/p and A ¼ W  D. The
index value is referred to a standard cylindrical specimen
with diameter D ¼ 50 mm for which IS has been corrected
with a shape coefficient (F) and calculated as:
ISð50Þ ¼ IS F ¼ IS ðDe =50Þ0:45
 
A testing machine (digital model 50-C54, Controls) with
load capacity of 3000 kN, max working pressure of 700 bar
and power of 750 W was used to determine the uniaxial
eschweizerbart_xxx
475
compressive strength. The strength measurements were
acquired by using a Wizard Basic microprocessor digital
readout unit. The compressive strength (RC), determined
with the load applied to the X-Y-Z sample axes, was
calculated as:
RC ¼ P=A
where P is the breaking load and A is the area of the
specimen section perpendicular to the direction of the load.
4. Petrographic and deformation features of the
sampled section
In the northwest portion of the shear zone (Fig. 1b), a
decameter thick belt of alternating protomylonitic, mylo-
nitic to ultramylonitic layers derived from a biotite-bearing
monzogranite crops out along the north side of the Riu
s’Iscibi valley (Fig. 1). Sampling for this study was con-
ducted on a meter-wide, NW-SE oriented section, called
‘‘A series’’, that exposes the various deformation fabrics
and strain domains of the shear zone. This section (Fig. 2)
consists of a decimeter-thick ultramylonite layer (samples
A4, A5, A6) that is enclosed between two protomylonitic
layers (samples A1, A2, A3 and samples A7, A8) and a
mylonite (samples A9, A10). The boundaries between the
different protomylonite, mylonite and ultramylonite
domains are sharp and parallel to the pervasive mylonitic
foliation that homogeneously affects the entire outcrop
with an average N160 –N170 strike and a 60 –65 west-
ward dip. Samples G92, G97, G70 (see Fig. 1 for sample
location) contain undeformed to poorly deformed fabrics
for comparison with the mylonite section. These protolith
reference samples underwent variable degrees of very low
to low-strain.
4.1. Protolith reference samples
Sample G92 (Fig. 1a and 3a) is an almost undeformed mon-
zogranite, which can be considered the igneous protolith. It is a
coarse-grained, equigranular monzogranite with no noticeable
mylonitic imprint except for a few sporadic oriented mica
domains. Subeuhedral and undeformed K-feldspar pheno-
crysts commonly show myrmekite microstructures and some-
times perthite veins. Plagioclase, ranging in composition
between albite and oligoclase, is typically zoned (core An5,
rim An12). Anhedral quartz grains are undeformed. Biotite and
muscovite occur as individual phenocrysts or are clustered into
slightly oriented mica-rich trails.
Sample G97 was collected from the northern part of the
intrusion. It is a coarse-grained, well foliated, dark colored
monzogranite in which feldspar phenocrysts are sur-
rounded by oriented biotite trails. Igneous fabric is still
evident, but it is strongly affected by the first appearance of
mylonitic microstructures. Feldspars are commonly sur-
rounded by poorly oriented trails of phyllosilicates and
by a fine-grained matrix, which consists mainly of recrys-
tallized quartz and minor K-feldspar grains.
476 S. Columbu et al.
Fig. 2. (a) Samples mylonites of the Monte Grighini shear zone; (b) detail of the protomylonite-ultramylonite boundary located between A3
and A4.
Sample G70 is a muscovite-bearing leucogranite col-
lected in the mylonite zone close to the boundary with
the protomylonite zone. Mylonitic textures are well devel-
oped with pervasive foliations and noticeable S-C struc-
tures recognizable at both meso and microscopic scale. The
leucogranite mineral assemblage is similar to that of the
monzogranite except for the absence of biotite. Muscovite
is found in two different generations; a magmatic musco-
vite with XMg ¼ 0.55 and Si ¼ 6.02 a.p.f.u. consisting of
sub-millimetric porphyroclasts commonly fish-shaped
(Fig. 3b) and a mylonitic muscovite in well oriented micro-
crystalline trails. Mica-fish tend to help define the S planes,
whereas the microcrystalline trails follow the C planes.
Although strongly fractured, K-feldspar and plagioclase
porphyroclasts retain their original shape, whereas quartz
is almost completely dynamically recrystallized to form
the microcrystalline matrix.
4.2. Protomylonite domain
The first domain of protomylonite (samples A1, A2, A3;
Fig. 2), about 50 cm thick, consists of foliated dark-colored
rocks, characterized by coarse-grained (2–5 mm) K-feld-
spar and quartz porphyroclasts embedded in a fine-grained
(20–200 mm) quartz and phyllosilicate-rich matrix
(Fig. 3c). A panoramic overview of these textures in sam-
ple A1, obtained combining different BSE images, is
shown in Fig. 4.
Samples A1, A2, and A3 were collected in order to
follow the gradual increase in deformation that charac-
terizes this domain. Following the porphyroclasts vs.
matrix criteria for fault rock classification (Sibson, 1977;
Wise et al., 1984), samples are protomylonites (recrystal-
lized matrix 30–35 % vol. of rock). K-feldspar
eschweizerbart_xxx
porphyroclasts, sometimes with perthite exsolution, exhi-
bit domino-type, shear band-type and sometimes mosaic-
type microstructures. Plagioclase porphyroclasts, ranging
in composition between albite and oligoclase (An10-20), are
commonly altered and fractured. Quartz occurs mostly as
fine-grained polycrystalline lenses or ribbons marking the
foliation and, more rarely, as porphyroclasts with undulose
extinction. Phyllosilicates (mostly biotite with average
XMg ¼ 0.20 and muscovite with XMg ¼ 0.38 and Si ¼
6.191 a.p.f.u.) occur as fine-grained crystals, clustering in
sub-millimetric trails parallel to foliation. The boundary
with the ultramylonite domain is marked by reduced grain
size of muscovite and quartz and development of well-
oriented mica trails.
The second protomylonite domain (samples A7, A8;
Fig. 2), about 25 cm thick, is located between the
ultramylonite and the mylonite layers. The microstruc-
tural features are very similar to those of the protomy-
lonitic domain previously described. Both plagioclase
and K-feldspar have experienced brittle deformation,
with formation of domino-type microstructures.
Phyllosilicates and quartz underwent grain-size reduc-
tion with the formation of millimeter-thick elongated
ribbons of recrystallized fine-grained material.
4.3. Mylonite domain
This domain, about 20–30 cm thick, shows a texture
marked by porphyroclasts hosted in a fine-grained matrix.
Two samples (A9, A10; Fig. 2) with variable grain size,
phyllosilicate content and with porphyroclasts/matrix ratio
approximately between 40/60 and 30/70, were collected
from this domain. Deformation varies greatly from one
sample to the other but also between different
 Petrophysical properties of granite–ultramylonite sequence 477

Fig. 3. Photomicrographs showing the microstructure of: (a) monzogranite protolith sample G92; (b) leucogranite protolith sample G70; (c)
protomylonite sample A1; (d) mylonite sample A10; (e), ultramylonite sample A5, and (f) phyllonite sample A4. Cross-polarized light.
Mineral abbreviations according to Fettes & Desmons (2007).

Fig. 4. Panoramic BSE image of protomylonite sample A1. K-feldspar occurs as porphyroclasts with domino-type structures and perthitic
exsolution, and quartz is found in recrystallized ribbons that define the foliation.
eschweizerbart_xxx
478
microdomains within the same sample. Following the por-
phyroclasts/matrix criteria for fault rocks classification
(Sibson, 1977; Wise et al., 1984) samples from this domain
can be classified as mylonites stricto sensu.
These mylonites are characterized by discontinuous
bands of strongly fractured K-feldspar porphyroclasts,
forming domino-type and shear band type microstructures,
alternating with dynamically recrystallized quartz-rich
layers. The porphyroclast grain size (1–3 mm) is smaller
than in the protomylonite. Dynamically recrystallized
quartz becomes more abundant, forming millimeter-thick
polycrystalline ribbons or lenses that wrap around coarser
feldspar porphyroclasts (Fig. 3d). Igneous biotite and mus-
covite tend to disappear completely and phyllosilicates
recrystallize as intergrowths of fine-grained micas forming
thin trails parallel to quartz ribbons. The boundary with the
ultramylonite is sharp, whereas toward the protomylonite a
gradual decrease of strain results in a progressive grain size
increase and in the appearance of larger and more abundant
porphyroclasts.
4.4. Ultramylonite domain
The ultramylonite domain is about 15 cm thick and is
characterized by a strong, pervasive foliation marked by a
fine alternation of millimeter-thick grey quartzofeldspathic
and brown phyllosilicate-rich layers. Based on the amount
of phyllosilicates, this domain has been further subdivided
into ultramylonite (samples A5, A6) and phyllonite (sample
A4). The ultramylonite consists of a fine-grained (10–30
mm) recrystallized matrix in which alternating quartz-rich
and mica-rich sub-millimetric layers surround rare rounded
K-feldspar porphyroclasts and quartz rich aggregates
(Fig. 3e). The phyllonite consists of a centimeter-thick
layer characterized by a homogeneous, very fine-grained
matrix (Fig. 3f) formed by phyllosilicates (mostly biotite)
with a minor amount of quartz, K-feldspar and plagioclase
(the mineral assemblage of this sample was determined by
powder XRD analysis because mineral phases—except
Fig. 5. Bulk density (rB), real density (rR) and solid density (rS) values comparing the leuco-monzogranite protolith samples (G70, G92,
G97) to the mylonite section shown in Fig. 2, where A1, A2, A3, A7 and A8 are protomylonites, A9 and A10 are mylonites and A4, A5, A6
are ultramylonites.
S. Columbu et al.
biotite—are not recognizable by either optical microscope
or SEM analysis). K-feldspar relics are missing in the phyl-
lonite. This fabric results from the combination of mechan-
ical fracturing and dissolution of feldspar porphyroclasts
and the complete recrystallization of quartz and mica,
which forms very fine-grained crystals in ribbons and trails.
Porphyroclast abundance (,10 %) indicates that samples
from this domain are ultramylonites (Sibson, 1977; Wise
et al., 1984).
5. Analytical results
The following properties were determined: bulk, real and
solid density, open porosity to helium and water, closed
porosity, water imbibition coefficient (expressed as
weight), and water open porous saturation index (Tables
S1a, b). Point load and uniaxial compressive strengths are
given in Tables S2a and b.
Solid density depends only on the mineralogy and thus
expresses a weight average value of density between the
various crystalline or amorphous phases present in the
rock. The real and bulk densities are influenced, not only
by the density of the solid, but also by the porosity (from
closed porosity and the total porosity, respectively). The
kinetics of water absorption over time depends on the
porosity (porous shape, size) and on the porous tortuosity.
The porous tortuosity depends on the geometry and degree
of connectivity of the porous network, and it exerts a strong
influence on the rock permeability.
5.1. Density and porosity
Average solid density, calculated for six specimens from
each sample, shows an increasing trend with shear strain
(Tables S1a, b; Fig. 5). Leucogranite G70 has a solid mean
density of 2.68 g/cm3, while the poorly deformed monzo-
granites (G92 and G97) show a solid density of 2.73 and
2.72 g/cm3, respectively. In the protomylonite-mylonite
eschweizerbart_xxx
 Petrophysical properties of granite–ultramylonite sequence 479

domains, the values vary between 2.73 g/cm3 (sample A7)
and 2.79 g/cm3 (sample A10), whereas in the ultramylonite
domain they vary between 2.82 g/cm3 (sample A6) and
2.85 g/cm3 (sample A5).
The real density (from 2.66 g/cm3 in protomylonites to
2.72 g/cm3 in ultramylonites) shows a similar trend,
although less marked, to that observed for the solid density
(Fig. 5), due to the increase of closed porosity with the
degree of deformation (see below). The bulk density shows
an opposite effect compared to that observed for real and
solid density (Fig. 5), with higher mean values (2.61–2.62
g/cm3) in slightly deformed monzogranite, intermediate
mean values in protomylonite to mylonite samples
(2.52–2.57 g/cm3) and lower mean values in ultramylonite
(2.47–2.48 g/cm3). Bulk density depends on solid density
and total porosity. Since solid density increases with the
degree of shear strain, a bulk density decrease must be due
to a noticeable porosity increase.
Porosity data (Fig. 6) match with density data, showing a
positive correlation with the increase of shear strain, in
agreement with the opposite behavior between bulk density
and solid density. In fact, when the solid density increases
(and simultaneously bulk density decreases), a total porosity
increase is expected. Total porosity ranges (in mean values)
from 3.41 to 4.41 % in the protolith granitoids, from 6.33 %
to 9.27 % in protomylonites and mylonites and from 12.01
to 12.85 % in ultramylonites (Tables S1a, b). Open porosity
tends to increase with shear strain. Closed porosity also
increases in higher strain domains. Helium open porosity
varies from 2.19 to 3.91 % in granitoid protoliths, from 3.89
% to 6.14 % in protomylonites and mylonites, and from 7.90
to 8.91 % in ultramylonites. Helium closed porosity varies
from 0.51 to 1.54 % in granitoids, from 2.44 to 3.75 % in
protomylonites and mylonites, and from 3.82 to 4.94 % in
ultramylonites.
5.2. Physical-mechanical properties
The physical-mechanical properties of the samples were
investigated using Point Load and compressive stress tests
(results in Tables S2a, b). Figure 7 shows the mean punching

Fig. 6. Open porosity to water (O H2O) and to helium (O He), total porosity (T) and closed porosity to helium (C He) of the same sample
sequence as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 7. Punching resistance index [IS (50)] values determined along three main load directions (Y, X, Z) of the same sample sequence as shown
in Fig. 2.
eschweizerbart_xxx
480 S. Columbu et al.
index [IS(50)] for each sample in three preferential directions:
X, Y, Z (in a shear zone reference frame, see Section 3). The
maximum strength is found along the Z axis because other
directions are affected by foliation planes and/or other dis-
continuities. In most of the samples, the lowest values are
obtained by applying the load along the Y axis direction,
whereas intermediate values are generally found by load
application along the X axis. Absolute strength values
decrease in response to an increasing degree of mylonitiza-
tion (with exception of some formerly fractured or strongly
altered specimens of sample A2 that showed higher porosity
than other specimens). Taking into account that the point load
test is strongly affected by pre-existing micro-fractures that
influence absolute values, it is nevertheless interesting to
observe the relative values between different directions and
their relations with physical features. The uniaxial compres-
sive stress test, similar to the point load test, shows that the
maximum strength (Tables S2a, b) is generally measured
along the Z direction, perpendicular to foliation. Between
the other two directions, the higher strength is detected
along the X axis (i.e., along the stretching lineation).
6. Discussion
The variation in the intensity of deformation in the Monte
Grighini shear zone resulted in different fabrics (protomy-
lonitic to ultramylonitic) and consequently in different phy-
sical features that have been examined in the mylonitic
samples and in the protolith reference samples. These phy-
sical properties were measured at atmospheric conditions,
so absolute values may be affected by exhumation process.
On the other hand, the relative values of each parameter and
their variation through the protolith-ultramylonite sequence
can be considered meaningful because the whole sequence
underwent the same conditions from depth to the surface.
Here we discuss the reliability of each parameter and why
these results are considered significant. We will show that
the correlation among different parameters gives results
consistent with deformation-metamorphic processes
already described in literature. Our results from the Monte
Grighini shear zone highlight the relationships between
petrophysical properties and strain intensity in the transition
from protomylonite to ultramylonite case-study.
Increasing deformation strongly reduced the grain size and
decreased the porphyroclast/matrix ratio from protomylonite
to ultramylonite at both large (through the shear zone) and
small (across the studied section) scales. The decrease of the
porphyroclast/matrix ratio is mostly related to brittle fractur-
ing of the feldspar porphyroclasts and to the production of
fine-grained quartz and white mica from feldspar breakdown
reactions. Heterogeneous distribution of deformation led to
alternation of protomylonites, mylonites and ultramylonites
with sharp boundaries between domains.
A marked increase of solid density (from 2.68 to
2.85 g/cm3), and subordinately of real density, were
observed from protomylonite to ultramylonite. In the
eschweizerbart_xxx
examined quartzofeldspathic rocks, this physical varia-
tion showing a positive correlation with degree of
deformation is driven by K-feldspar (with density of
2.56 g/cm3) breakdown leading to the formation of
higher-density minerals (i.e., muscovite and quartz with
2.88 and 2.65 g/cm3, respectively). This is well recog-
nizable in the ultramylonite rocks where the strong
increase in muscovite content occurred at the expense
of K-feldspar according to well-known reaction soft-
ening mechanisms observed in mylonitic granitoids
(Hemley & Jones, 1964; O’Hara, 1988; Hippert,
1998; Wibberley, 1999; Ree et al., 2005; Wintsch &
Yeh, 2013 and references therein). This reaction
implies a volume loss similar to that reported by
Wintsch & Yeh (2011, 2013) who estimated the
volume change (DV ¼ 16 %) for the reaction:
3KAlSi3O8 þ 2Hþ ¼ KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH)2 þ 6SiO2
þ 2Kþ. The relevance of solid density is that it
depends only on mineral assemblage so, in absence of
alteration processes, as in this case, it does not change
during exhumation.
The increase of the total porosity with shear strain is due
to the reduction in the number of feldspar porphyroclasts
that lead to the development of a more porous, homoge-
neous, fine-grained matrix. In the ultramylonite domain,
the porosity mainly consists of (i) fine intra-matrix pores
(mainly closed) developed during the recrystallization of
the new microcrystalline phases (e.g., quartz, muscovite)
and (ii) pores (mainly open) along the foliation and as
inter- to intracrystalline microcracks (microfractured
clasts). The increase of porosity might in small part also
be related to epigenetic alteration processes and/or physi-
cal-mechanical relaxation, the latter due to exhumation at a
shallow crustal level. The Monte Grighini rocks do not
show significant evidence of alteration, and analytical
results (i.e. the decrease of the saturation index with
shear strain, Fig. 8; Tables S1a, b) suggest negligible
effects of exhumation. If exhumation had significantly
affected these rocks, an increase of the saturation index
in the mylonites would be expected due to the increase of
open porosity to water produced by dilatation of pores in
response to the decrease of lithostatic load. The observed
decrease of the saturation index suggests that open porosity
is probably influenced by mylonitic processes that lead to
the development of smaller pore radius and higher tortu-
osity, both hindering water absorption.
The real and bulk densities are parameters linked to the
variable incidence of solid density and porosity. The var-
iation in real density is mainly influenced by the presence
of closed porosity (with correlation coefficient R2 ¼ 0.92
for the deformed samples A1–A10, Fig. 9a) and to a lesser
extent by solid density. Furthermore, the real density is
useful to distinguish among the different sample popula-
tions when plotted vs. total porosity (Fig. 9b). In this
diagram the mylonites (samples A9, A10) show physical
behavior intermediate between those of the protomylonites
(samples A1, A2, A3, A7, A8) and ultramylonites (samples
A4, A5, A6).
 Petrophysical properties of granite–ultramylonite sequence
Fig. 8. Open porosity to helium (O He) vs open porosity to water
(O H2O) of leucogranite (G70), monzogranite (G92, G97), proto-
mylonite (A1, A2, A3, A7, A8), ultramylonite (A4, A5, A6) and
mylonite samples (A9, A10). The line indicates water saturation
index at 100 %.
Bulk density decreases in response to an increasing
degree of deformation (Tables S1a, b; Fig. 10a, b) due to
the opposite effects of total porosity and solid density
increases, where the total porosity has the stronger influ-
ence. Open porosity plays an important role in the devel-
opment of mylonitic and ultramylonitic fabrics, enhancing
fluid circulation throughout the structure itself; in fact,
several authors (Hippertt, 1998; Ishii et al., 2007;
Bhattacharyya & Mitra, 2011, 2014; Fukuda & Okudaria,
2013) point out the role of the fluid phase in fault rheology
because it can reduce the frictional coefficient and enable
mica-forming softening reactions.
Fig. 9. (a) Closed porosity to water (C H2O) vs. real density (rR) diagram, of the A1–A10 mylonitic sequence and protolith samples (G70,
G92, G97). For each group, regression lines and correlation coefficients (R2) are reported. (b) Total porosity (T) vs. real density (rR)
diagram for the same samples.
eschweizerbart_xxx
481
A decrease of absolute values of mechanical strength
was observed especially when the load was applied parallel
to the foliation. We do not assume that absolute strength
values, measured at surface conditions, are representative
of the conditions at depth in the crust because the latter are
affected by other factors such as lithostatic confining pres-
sure, temperature, fluid pressure. Nevertheless, the com-
parison between strength indexes in different directions
and the relationship between these indexes and the other
scalar properties are reliable. The significant agreement
among the various determined parameters (see below)
supports our assumptions. An increase in the mylonitic
deformation commonly correlates with a decrease in
mechanical resistance (Fig. 7). This strength decrease
acquires greater relevance considering the fact that, in
undeformed igneous rocks, a grain size decrease involves
a compressive strength increase following a well-known
relation (from Brace, 1961 to Přikryl, 2001, and references
therein). In mylonitic rocks, the opposite behavior is
observed where strength decreases with decreasing grain
size. This is an expected behavior considering that mylo-
nitization produces a pervasive homogeneous foliation and
a total porosity increase. The increase in total porosity has
an important effect on reducing mechanical strength as
stated by Tuğrul & Zarif (1999), who found a negative
linear correlation between these parameters. Moreover, the
growth of new phyllosilicates (i.e., fine-grained musco-
vite) in the presence of a circulating fluid phase, promotes
ductile deformation (Wibberley, 1999), since phyllosili-
cates with a strong shape preferred orientation, defining
the foliation, are characterized by low resistance. The
correlation diagrams between total porosity and point
load strengths [IS(50)] measured along the X, Y, Z axes
(Fig. 11a–c) show significant differences depending on the
direction of the applied load. This behavior is probably
related to the higher breaking strength that minerals oppose
if stressed along their long direction (X axis).
482 S. Columbu et al.

Fig. 10. (a) Total porosity (T) vs. bulk density (rB) diagram and (b) solid density (rS) vs. bulk density (rB) of leucogranite (G70),
monzogranite (G92, G97 samples), protomylonite (A1, A2, A3, A7, A8), ultramylonite (A4, A5, A6) and mylonite samples (A9, A10). Both
diagrams show a negative correlation.

Fig. 11. Punching resistance index [IS (50)] determined along perpendicular axes (a) Y, (b) X, (c) Z and (d) XYZ vs. total porosity (T) from
protolith and mylonite zone samples, where XY is the foliation plane and X is the stretching direction.

The negative correlation between porosity and maxi-
mum strength along the X and Y axes (with a high correla-
tion coefficient: R2 ¼ 0.73 and 0.62, respectively;
Fig. 11d) is consistent with the suggestion that pores are
preferentially located between the phyllosilicate-rich
eschweizerbart_xxx
foliation planes (e.g., Santa Rosa mylonite, Kern &
Wenk, 1990). There is no appreciable correlation (R2 ¼
0.20) along the Z axis, due to both a greater data dispersion
and a greater punching resistance of the ultramylonite
group (influenced more probably by solid density rather
 Petrophysical properties of granite–ultramylonite sequence
Fig. 12. Punching resistance index [IS (50)] determined along (a) Y, (b) X, (c) Z and (d) XYZ vs. bulk density (rB) from protolith and mylonite
zone samples, where XY is the foliation plane and X is the stretching direction.
than by total porosity). The punching index [IS(50)] is
positively correlated with bulk density (Fig. 12a–d); the
sample populations are clearly recognizable, with positive
correlation coefficients within each group slightly higher
than those between the IS(50) and total porosity.
Uniaxial compressive strength values have been related
to the main physical properties, obtaining similar results to
those described for the point load test (not shown). Better
correlation is shown together by protomylonites and mylo-
nites, whereas ultramylonitic samples, especially along the
Y axis, show inconsistent behavior. The breaking surfaces
have revealed that when applying the load in the direction
of the Y and X axes, the rupture always occurs parallel to
foliation, dividing the samples into layers of constant
thickness. If the load is applied along the Z axis, the rupture
occurs along random directions, except for those speci-
mens that have pre-existing micro-fractures.
These results highlight the strong control exerted by
mechanical anisotropy (i.e., pervasive foliation) in mylo-
nite and ultramylonite rocks. In fact, mylonitic foliations
are preferred planes of weakness with a high concentration
of pores, favoring fluid circulation along channeled path-
ways and strain partitioning with respect to the surrounding
eschweizerbart_xxx
483
rocks. The strong control exerted by mechanical aniso-
tropy also fits very well with the anisotropy measurements
obtained by several authors using seismic wave velocity
from Jones & Nur (1982) to Meltzer & Christensen (2001).
Jones & Nur (1982) state that only little anisotropy can be
detected in mylonitic rocks, unless a large amount of
phyllosilicate is present, as in our example. Seismic aniso-
tropy calculations performed using electron backscatter
diffraction (EBSD) data (Dempsey et al., 2011; Lloyd
et al., 2011) reveal that the main effect is produced by
crystal preferred orientation of micas, and to a lesser extent
quartz, along the foliation planes. Lloyd et al. (2011) state
that even a mica content as low as 10 % (in a quartzofelds-
pathic matrix) has a significant effect on anisotropy,
whereas mica content higher than 20 % controls aniso-
tropy. The petrophysical properties also highlight the con-
tribution of porosity in controlling the velocity and
direction of seismic waves. Oriented microcracks contri-
bute largely to the directional dependence of elastic wave
velocities, in addition to preferred orientation of minerals
(Kern & Wenk, 1990). This is particularly effective under
conditions of low effective pressure in the rock volume
(high pore pressure) where most of the intercrystalline
484 S. Columbu et al.
cracks are open to fluid circulation. In the reported exam-
ple a preferred orientation of microcracks can be deter-
mined by the negative correlation between porosity and
maximum strength along the X and Y axes. This means
that, at depth, seismic anisotropy of ductile shear zones is
mostly controlled by preferred orientation of minerals
(mostly micas) and interconnected intergranular micro-
cracks. Microcracks are critical to the localization of both
fluid flow and deformation in the development of shear
zones in particular under retrograde metamorphic condi-
tions. The decrease of bulk density, as consequence of the
increase of total porosity, is directly related to lower seis-
mic velocity of P-waves (Gardner et al., 1974). This means
that a decrease of P-wave velocity could be expected to
correspond to the transition from protomylonite to ultra-
mylonite, thus marking the position of high strained rocks
at depth in crustal-scale shear zones.
In the Monte Grighini shear zone, the development of a
pervasive mylonitic foliation is marked by intense grain
size reduction and growth of new phyllosilicates with
strong shape preferred orientation. The phyllosilicates,
organized in millimeter-thick continuous layers, form the
dominant fabric in the ultramylonites. This feature might
suggest that the softening reactions are the most effective
mechanism in mylonite development. However, other
mechanisms could affect the development of shear zones;
for example Gilotti (1992) highlights the role of grain size
reduction in controlling the rheology even in absence (or
with a minor contribution) of softening reactions. In the
Monte Grighini shear zone the decrease of grain size and
the recrystallization of oriented micas-rich layers seems to
indicate that both mechanisms contributed to the develop-
ment of mylonitic and ultramylonitic fabrics and strongly
controls the physical and mechanical properties of rocks.
Considering that the composition of the examined intru-
sive rocks is representative of the upper continental crust, it
is clear that in quartzofeldspathic rocks the content of
phyllosilicates and grains size are potentially the most
important factors in controlling both mechanical aniso-
tropy and physical properties such as porosity and conse-
quently fluid circulation.
7. Conclusions
The results from the Monte Grighini shear zone show a
correlation between petrophysical properties, fabric devel-
opment and degree of deformation in a protomylonite-
mylonite-ultramylonite sequence affecting quartzofelds-
pathic rocks representative of the continental crust. The
transition from a protomylonite to ultramylonite fabric
shows:
 marked increase of solid density, and subordinately of
real density. In quartzofeldspathic rocks, this physical
variation is driven by K-feldspar breakdown leading to
the formation of higher-density minerals (i.e., musco-
vite and quartz), and to a volume loss;
eschweizerbart_xxx
 decrease of bulk density resulting from an increase of
open and closed porosity hosted mainly among foliation
planes and subordinately in the fine-grained matrix;
 general decrease of uniaxial compressive and point-load
strengths that show a negative correlation with the total
porosity when the load is applied parallel to foliation (Y
and X directions), where mechanical deformation and
breaking is favored; along the Z direction, the strengths
are higher than along the Y and X axes, with a slightly
negative correlation between total porosity and degree
of mylonitization.
Mylonitization results in a drastic change of physical and
mechanical properties with, in particular, a significant
variation in the mechanical strength that allows strain and
displacement to be partitioned into the weak shear zones.
Finally, the example studied as a proxy of active shear
zone at depth, also provides evidence that high strain
domains (ultramylonite zones) in a large-scale shear zone
are marked by a drastic change in physical parameters with
respect to the surrounding less deformed rocks, allowing
them to be identified in seismic profiles.
The petrophysical parameters determined in this study
are in agreement with known deformational and meta-
morphic processes commonly occurring in quartzofelds-
pathic shear zones: bulk density increase is consistent with
softening reactions, for which an involvement of fluid
phases is needed; porosity increase explains how fluid
phases are driven through the shear zone; anisotropy of
mechanical strength is consistent with the oriented recrys-
tallization of phyllosilicates.
Acknowledgements: The Authors wish to thanks two
anonymous Reviewers for helpful criticism and sugges-
tions. We are also grateful to Associate Editor Jane Gilotti
for editorial handling and improvements to the manuscript.
This work benefited from Contributo di Ateneo per la
Ricerca (CAR) Funds, Università di Cagliari.
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Received 4 July 2014
Modified version received 25 February 2015
Accepted 27 February 2015