Botany Lecture Finals Stems: © Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

BOTANY LECTURE FINALS SUBAERIAL
• run parallel to the ground

STEMS • gives off roots at certain intervals
- Stems can be herbaceous or woody.
- It bears buds, shoots, leaves, and basal Types of subaerial stem:
end of roots. 1. RUNNER
- Conducts water, minerals, food (can • parallel to the ground
also produce food with the use of • creeping stem with long internodes
photosynthetic stem). • ex. Spider plant, Grass
- Stores food
2. OFFSET
• shorter & thicker than runner
General functions of the stem:
• mostly seen in aquatic plants
1. SUPPORT
• ex. Eichhornia crassipes (Common
2. INTERNAL TRANSPORT
Water Hyacinth)
3. PRODUCE NEW LIVING TISSUE
3. STOLON
TYPES OF STEM • similar to runner, but arises from the
lower part of the main axis
UNDERGROUND • ex. Strawberry, Mint
• remains at ground level
• produces aerial shoots 4. SUCKER
• storage of food and perennation
• similar to stolon, but grows obliquely
• for vegetative propagation
upwards
Types of underground stem: • gives rise to new plant
1. RHIZOME • ex. Hazel shrubs, Raspberry
• distinct nodes and internodes
• horizontal stems typically with short AERIAL
internodes • above the ground
• bears scale-like leaves • perform a variety of functions (protection,
• ex. Ginger, Turmeric support, photosynthesis, vegetative
propagation)
2. TUBER
Types of aerial stem:
• enlarged tip due to storage of food
1. THORNS
• thick, underground storage stem
• ex. Potato, Yam • hard, woody, and sharp outgrowths
• for protection
• ex. Rose
3. BULB
• fleshy base, scaly leaves
2. TENDRILS
• erect, underground stems with both
• slender, twining strands
fleshy and papery leaves
• anchorage in atypical ways
• ex. Onion, Garlic
• ex. Grapes, Squash
4. CORM
• short, vertical, swollen underground 3. PHYLLOCLADE
• resembles a leaf
stem able to survive adverse conditions
• have fibrous covering called TUNIC • capable of photosynthesis
• ex. Opuntia (Prickly Pear), Cactus
• ex. Taro, Gladiolus
© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

4. CLADODE Types of buds:
• modification of phylloclade 1. VEGETATIVE
• contains one or more internodes • forms as vegetative shoot bearing
• ex. Asparagus leaves
5. BULBIL 2. FLORAL/INFLORESCENCE
• modified axillary buds (fleshy and • develops into a flower/inflorescence
rounded due to storage of food)
• detached from the plant and 3. MIXED
develops to a new plant • develops into both flowers & leaves
• ex. Tiger Lily
4. COLLATERAL
• two or more axillary buds oriented
EXTERNAL STRUCTURES & FEATURES OF A STEM
sideways
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE
*STEM is an axis 5. SUPERPOSED
*SHOOT is stem + leaves + flowers, etc. • two or more axillary buds oriented
vertically
6. PSEUDOTERMINAL
• temporary terminal bud because the
apical meristem of the shoot was
aborted
BARK
• comprises of all the tissues OUTSIDE the
vascular cambium
• OUTER BARK — tissues derived from cork
cambium
Types of bark:
1. EXFOLIATING
• cracks or splits into large sheets
• ex. Drake Elm, Sycamore
• NODES — where leaves are attached
• INTERNODE — region in between nodes 2. FISSURED
• AXILLARY or LATERAL BUDS — miniature shoot • cracks or splits into vertical horizontal
with dormant apical meristem and several
grooves
young leaves
• ex. Narra, Sugar Maple
• BUD SCALES — modified small leaves that
protects delicate organs
• APICAL or TERMINAL BUD — developed from 3. PLATED
the original apical meristem of the shoot • cracks or splits with flat plates
• LEAF SCARS — occurs where leaves have • ex. Pinus
abscised
4. SHREDDY
TWIGS, TRUNKS, and BUDS • coarsely fibrous
*TWIGS — woody, recent growth branches of • ex. Eastern Red Cedar, Bald cypress
trees or shrubs
*BUDS — immature shoot systems
overtops and becomes dominant over the
5. SMOOTH other
• non-fibrous bark without fissures, fibers, • MONOPODIAL — a stem axis derived from
plates, or exfoliating sheets the growth of a single apical meristem
• ex. European Beech, Crepe-myrtle • SYMPODIAL — made up of numerous units,
derived from separate apical meristems.
• SYLLEPSIS — growth of an axillary bud into a
STEM HABIT shoot without a period of rest (sylleptic growth)
• is a characteristic describing the position of a • PROLEPSIS — growth of an axillary bud into a
stem or shoot, but may also base on the stem shoot only after a period of rest
structure, growth, and orientation
• CAULESCENT — a plant with an above- VASCULAR CAMBIUM

ground stem. • produces secondary vascular tissue
• ACAULESCENT — lacks an above – ground • secondary xylem = inner, secondary phloem
stem, other than the inflorescence axis. = outer
• ARBORESCENT — tree-like appearance and • long narrow cells = long vascular pipelines
size • small rounded cells = rays of parenchyma
• FRUTESCENT — having the habit of a shrub
with numerous woody, aerial trunks WOOD
• SUFFRUTESCENT — woody and herbaceous • secondary xylem inside cylinder of vascular
apically (subshrub) cambium
• CLAMBERING (SCANDENT) — anchorage in
atypical ways HARDWOOD
• PROSTATE — trailing or lying flat, not rooting • found in angiosperms
at the notes • tracheids, vessels, and fibers
• REPENTS — creeping or lying flat but rooting
at the nodes SAPWOOD
• DECUMBENT — same as prostate buy • found in gymnosperms
apically ascending • tracheids only
• CESPITOSE — multiple aerial, but short-
stemmed shoots (grass) CORK CAMBIUM
• outside the vascular cambium
STEM BRANCHING PATTERN • produces cork
• determined by the relative activity of apical
meristems CORK
• both the “original” shoot apical meristem • dead cells with thick waxy walls
and apical meristems subsequently derived • part of the periderm
from lateral buds
BARK
• INDETERMINATE — potential for unlimited • periderm + tissues outside the vascular
growth; apical meristem is always active cambium
• DETERMINATE — terminates growth after a
period SAPWOOD (light)
• HAPAXANTHIC — determinate shoot, • still-functional secondary xylem
completely transforms to a flower. • between heartwood and vascular cambium
• PLEONANTHIC — indeterminate shoot, bears • outermost portion
flowers, continues vegetative growth
• DICHOTOMOUS — single apical meristem HEARTWOOD (dark)
divides equally into branches. • dead, inner wood
• PSEUDOMONOPODIAL — variant of
dichotomous, one branch of initial dichotomy
EARLYWOOD/SPRING WOOD • WOODY DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM
• large diameter, thin-walled xylem cells (longitudinal and cross – section)
- obvious differences appear as soon as
LATEWOOD/SUMMER WOOD the vascular cambium and cork
• small diameter, thick-walled xylem cells cambium develop
- when the vascular cambium becomes
DENDROCHRONOLOGY active in the spring, it produces spring
• study of tree rings
wood (relatively large vessel elements of
secondary xylem)
RESIN
• pitch produced in plants; for protection - xylem produced after spring wood is
referred as summer wood
AMBER • MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEM (longitudinal
• resinite; fossil resin and cross-section)
- have neither a vascular cambium & do
not produce secondary vascular tissues
INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF THE STEM
(cork)
STEM GROWTH - in typical monocot stems, a bundle’s
• PRIMARY GROWTH (longitudinal & cross – xylem cells usually stretch and collapse
section) under the stresses of early growth and
- cells at the terminal buds are leave an irregularly – shaped air space
completely undifferentiated and divide toward the space of the bundle.
continually during the growing season
- as the shoot lengthens, masses of tissue OTHER FUNCTIONS OF THE STEM
near the sides of the apical meristem in
the terminal bud develop into leaves 1. SUPPORTS LEAVES AND REPRODUCTIVE
- apical meristem STRUCTURES
• SECONDARY GROWTH (longitudinal & cross – • main structural support, framework for the
section) positioning of the leaves
- shoots and roots thicken and become • keep leaves in the light, provides a place
woody for the plant to keep its fruits and flowers
- lateral meristem • supportive organs & conductive organs
• houses vascular tissues (transport water,
dissolved minerals, hormones, etc.)
MORPHO-ANATOMY OF HERBACEOUS AND • protective devices
WOODY STEMS - thorns – sharp, pointed shoots
• HERBACEOUS DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM
- areoles – modified, reduced, non –
(longitudinal and cross-section)
elongating shoot apical meristem, leaf
- plants that die after going from seed to
spines
maturity with one growing season have
green, herbaceous non woody stems
- tissues of annual dicots are largely 2. PROVIDE INTERNAL TRANSPORT
primary, although it can develop
• auxin & cytokinin – auxin inhibits lateral
secondary tissues in the cambium
bud growth, cytokinin promotes lateral bud
- they have stems that are discrete growth
vascular bundles composed of patches • vascular strands – run between stem and
of xylem and phloem leaf, providing a vascular connection

• EXODERMIS – narrow band of cells 6. PHOTOSYNTHESIS
underneath the epidermis, may limit water
loss & regulate absorption of ions • CLADODE – photosynthetic stem,
• ENDODERMIS – intermost layer of root resembles and functions as a leaf
cortex, controls the movement of water • ACAULESCENT - bear major
and minerals photosynthetic leaves, only at ground level
• RAY PARENCHYMA – stores • APICAL DOMINANCE - adaptation that
carbohydrates, helps move solutes directs the plant’s resources into growing
horizontally up toward the light
• LENTICELS (TUBULAR OPENINGS) – permit
oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange 7. ECONOMIC USES
• WOOD – accumulated as secondary

3. PRODUCTION OF NEW LIVING TISSUE phloem, structural support
• EPICOTYL – elongates after embryo • BAMBOO – bamboo flutes
growth into the stem the bears leaves from • NATURAL CORK – Quercus suber, thick
its tip (above the cotyledon) outer bark of the cork oak
• source of construction materials – Lumber
4. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION • source of synthetic materials and
products – paper, rayon, & cellophane are
• ROOTSTOCKS – function as reproductive made up of cellulose from pulpwood
structures in vegetative propagation • source of medicine – Quinine (Cinchona
• STOLONS – Functions specifically as tree) as a cure for malaria
vegetative propagative structures. • source of food – Sugar cane, bamboo
• SCAPE – “naked” (lacking vegetative shoots
leaves) peduncle generally arising from a • source of fiber – ramie shrub has fibers
basal rosette of vegetative and elevates that can be made into clothing (ramie)
the flowers well above the ground.
• CULM - refers to the flowering and fruiting ADDITIONAL MODIFIED STEMS
stems of grasses and sedges • CAUDEX — rootstock consists of a relatively
• TILLER - general term for proliferative grass undifferentiated but vertically oriented stem
shoot • CLADOPHYLL — flattened and appears leaf-
• FASCICLES – enable the production of like; adaptation to reduce water loss
leaves and reproductive organs
LEAVES
5. FOOD STORAGE
INTRODUCTION
• SUCULENT STEMS – contain a high
percentage of parenchyma tissues that • a leaf is a lateral photosynthetic organ of
may store a great quantity of water, a plant with restricted growth
allowing the plant to survive. • photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration,
• CAUDICIFORM STEM - low, swollen,
and synthesis of secondary chemicals
perennial storage stem.
• PACHYCAUL - woody, trunk-like stem that EXTERNAL STRUCTURES
is swollen basally (storage)
• PSEUDOBULB - short, erect, aerial storage External Structures of a SIMPLE Leaf:
or propagative stem
• PARENCHYMA CELLS - in both cortex and a. Tip/Leaf Apex
pith convert sugar into starch - the tip of the leaf
- vary greatly from plant to plant and are
useful in classification and identification

b. Base i. Axillary/Lateral bud
- the lowest part of the leaf, located near - embryonic shoot that can be found
the petiole won the axil of a leaf
- also useful in classification and - can produce new shoots to promote
identification the growth of the plant
- may be specialized by giving rise to
c. Margin either vegetative shoots or reproductive
- the outer edging of the leaf shoots
- is the boundary area extending along - may either remain inactive for some
the edge of the leaf time or generate a shoot immediately
after their formation
d. Leaf blade/Lamina
- generally broad and flat External Structures of a COMPOUND Leaf:
- where photosynthesis occurs
- contains a prominent midrib at the a. Leaflet (Pinna)
center of the leaf blade which is the - part of a compound leaf that doesn’t
main vein. From this midrib arise have an axillary bud
branches called veins
b. Pinnula
e. Midrib - subdivision of a leaflet
- the vein in the middle of the leaf, it
connects the leaf to the petiole c. Rachis
- helps to keep the leaf in an upright - middle vein of a compound leaf
position and to keep the leaf strong
protection from the wind d. Petiolule
- it's the primary vein which consists of - stalk of the leaflet that is attached to
vascular bundles for food nutrients and the rachis
water conduction
e. Terminal leaflet
f. Lateral veins
- located at the end of the rachis
- transports food and water
- spread all over the leaves, so they can
f. Terminal petiolule
easily transport water to all the cells of
- stalk of the terminal leaflet
leaves
g. Petiole INTERNAL STRUCTURE

- the stalk that attaches the blade to the
stem I. EPIDERMIS
- has tiny tubes, that connect the veins • single layer of cells which covers the
on the leaf blade to the stem, few of entire surface of a leaf and serves as an
these enable water transport to the leaf outer protective covering
while the other carry food away from • upper (adaxial) and the lower (abaxial)
the leaf to other parts of the plant epidermis.
h. Stipules • lower epidermis has structures called
- leaf like outgrows that can be found at stomata, while the upper epidermis has
the base of the petiole little to none
- they are protective in some plants when • multiseriate (multi-layered cells) and
they protect the growing petiole while in uniseriate (single-layered cells)
others, they fall off once the petiole
starts growing A. EPIDERMAL CELLS
• also called pavement cells
• cells that cover all parts of the plant body

• all upper epidermal cells, except for D. SUBSIDIARY CELLS
guard cells, do not contain chloroplasts as • cells that surround the guard cells and
its primary function is to protect the aids in the functioning of guard cells
delicate tissues in the interior of the leaf • types of stomata are also based on the
• waxy cutin or cuticle on the surface of its position or number of subsidiary cells
leaves surrounding the guard cells
• desert succulents that have additional
layers of wax which limits the plant’s water TYPES OF STOMATA (BASED ON SUBSIDIARY
loss and protects it from ultraviolet light CELLS):
• beet leaves that produces additional
waxes in response to the exposure to • Animocytic — limit of five subsidiary cells
pollutants. surrounding the guard cells
B. GUARD CELLS • Anisocytic — usually three subsidiary cells

• paired, sausage-shaped cells that flanks surrounding the guard cell with one smaller
the stoma, usually smaller than the than the others
epidermal cells neighboring it
• contain chloroplasts • Paracytic — two parallel subsidiary cells
• aid in stomatal opening and closing by
inflating and deflating the cell, which is • Diacytic — two perpendicular subsidiary
triggered by sunlight and other factors cells
• when water diffuses from the surrounding • Gramineous — the guard cells have a
cells into the guard cells, they become narrow middle portion which makes them
inflated and turgid, making it flexible look like dumb bell-shaped in surface view
• guard cells bend and opens the stoma
• when water diffuses out of the guard • Sunken stomata — the stomata have a
cells, it deflates and the cell collapse on in wide lumen with the guard cells arching
each other, closing the stomata over it
C. STOMA E. TRICHOMES
• stoma (plural: stomata) is a pore or an • hair-like outgrowths of the epidermis
opening in the epidermis of the leaf found frequently on stems and leaves
• serves as a passageway of carbon • gives the plant a fuzzy or wooly texture
dioxide and oxygen for gas exchange, • help keep leaf surfaces cool and
as well as diffusion of water in the form of reduce evaporation by covering the
water vapor stomata
• In most plants, stoma is more abundant • also helps in protecting the plant from
on the lower epidermis than on the high light intensities and ultraviolet
upper epidermis in order to minimize radiation and can buffer against
water loss temperature fluctuations
• some plants only have stoma in the • sometrichomes are single-celled or
upper epidermis such as water lilies, multicellular; some are also glandular,
while plants that are submerged in water secreting sticky or toxic substance to
have none deter herbivory
• stomata are very numerous, ranging
from 1,000 to 1.2 million per square II. MESOPHYLL
centimeter of a leaf surface • bulky region seen under the
• each stoma is bordered by guard cells, microscope where most of the
which helps it open and close photosynthesis occurs

• composed of different cells, including are a little longer than wide and have walls
parenchyma, collenchyma, and that vary in thickness
sclerenchyma cells, depending on the • usually seen beneath the epidermis of
type of plant stems, leaf petioles, and along the veins in
leaves
• most plants have two distinct layers:
the palisade and spongy mesophyll. C. SCLERENCHYMA
• have tough, thick walls and lack a living
A. PARENCHYMA protoplast at maturity unlike the other cells
• most common type of plant cells • their secondary cell walls are often
• have living protoplasts, thin cell walls, and impregnated with lignin, a polymer that
large vacuoles makes the cell walls more rigid
• function in storage of food and water, • they are common in the cell wall of plants
photosynthesis, and secretion that have a structural or mechanical
• has variations that has special functions function
such as nectar and resin secretion or • has two types: FIBERS and SCLEREIDS
storage of latex, proteins, and metabolic • FIBERS — long, slender cells that are
wastes grouped together in strands
• makes up most of the leaf, those cells are • SCLEREIDS — varies in shape but often
photosynthetic, called chlorenchyma branches out
• sclerenchyma cells are found mainly in
PALISADE MESOPHYLL the cortex of stems and leaves.
— consists of compactly stacked, barrel-
shaped parenchyma cells that are
commonly arranged in two rows III. VEINS
— parenchyma cells in this tissue contains • also called vascular bundles, are
80% of the cell’s chloroplasts thus, it is responsible for the transport and
the main site of photosynthesis in the
distribution of water and nutrients the
leaf
— some plants have three or more than plant and its organs need
layers of cells or lesser due to • consist of xylem and phloem,
environmental factors surrounded by bundle sheaths, which
— plants that are exposed to intense are thick-walled parenchyma cells
sunlight contains more layers of cells • serves as the skeleton of the leaves.
than of those that are shaded
XYLEM
SPONGY MESOPHYLL
• group of vessels responsible for
— loosely and irregular arrangement. The
conducting water, dissolved minerals,
difference is that it contains air spaces
between the cells and inorganic ions (phosphates and
— these air spaces facilitate the diffusion nitrates) from the roots and to the
of gases, especially carbon dioxide, different parts of the plant
throughout the leaf’s interior • composed of vessel members and
— photosynthesis also occurs in the cells of tracheids
this layer • facilitates transpiration or the diffusion
of water from the plant
B. COLLENCHYMA
• water diffuses from the xylem in the
• are flexible cells that provide support for
plant organs, allowing them to bend leaves and into the intercellular space in
without breaking the form of water vapor, and then exits
• they are similar to parenchyma cells such to the atmosphere through the stomata
that it has living protoplasts. However, they

• also contains fibers and parenchyma — more specialized and more efficient
cells which functions in lateral than sieve cells
conduction and food storage — sieve tube members can be found
mostly in angiosperms
VESSEL MEMBERS
SIEVE CELLS
— continuous tubes formed from dead,
— less specialized than sieve tube
hollow, cylindrical cells arranged
members as they have pores that
end-to-end, may be completely
roughly has the same diameter
open or have bars or strips of wall
— found alone in phloems of
material across the open ends
gymnosperms, ferns, and horsetails.
— are shorter and wider than tracheids
but both vessels have thick, lignified
COMPANION CELLS
secondary cell wall and no
— specialized parenchyma cells
protoplasts
adjacent to sieve tube members
— conduct water more efficiently as it is
— sustain the accompanying sieve
arranged end-to-end than of those
tube members by carrying out some
tracheids that are overlapping.
metabolic functions it needs
— contains all the components of a
TRACHEIDS
normal parenchyma cell, including
— dead cells that taper at the ends
nuclei and plasmodesmata
and overlap one another
— contain pits, which are mostly
VARIATION IN LEAF STRUCTURES
rounded to elliptical areas with no
Due to biodiversity, plants are modified to
secondary wall material has been
deposited adapt to its environment. Humidity, soil, light,
— the pits are on opposite of one temperature and water are environmental
another so that the continuous factors which are needed to consider in a
stream of water flows from tracheid plant structure to adapt to its environment
to tracheid easily. The following are the types of leaf
structure:
A. PHLOEM
• conducts food and nutrients from the 1. SHADE LEAVES
leaves to the other parts of the plants
• can live without light but has fewer
where it is needed
hairs, thinner, fewer well-defined
• carries the products from
photosynthesis made from the leaves mesophyll layers and fewer chloroplasts
which are soluble compounds, mainly due to deficit in light receives which is
sucrose the most important in photosynthesis.
• phloem also has fibers and
parenchyma cells 2. LEAVES OF ARID REGIONS
• thick, leathery leaves and has few
SIEVE TUBE MEMBERS
stomata or sunken below the surface in
— have larger pores than sieve cells called
sieve plates special depressions which reduces the
— join end-to-end in an overlapping loss of water through transpiration
manner forming sieve tubes

• can be succulent, water retaining modified stem rather than modified
leaves or no leaves at all (stem can be leaves
used for functioning photosynthesis) • prickles are neither leaves nor stems
• these kind of leaves has hypodermis but are outgrowths from the epidermis
which is a layer of thick-walled cells or cortex
beneath the epidermis responsible for

storing fats 6. STORAGE LEAVES
• compass plants are one example of • involves a large, thin walled

parenchyma cells without chloroplast
arid season leaves where it faces east
and has a large vacuole for water
and west with the blades perpendicular
storage
to the ground so that when the sun
• uses special type of photosynthesis
strikes directly to the leaves, it will only
called CAM Photosynthesis.
affect the thin edge of the leaf that can
minimize the moisture loss
7. FLOWER-POT LEAVES
• can have urn-like pouches that can
3. LEAVES OF AQUATIC AREAS be home for ant colonies which helps in
• submerged in water where they have carrying soil and add nitrogenous waste
less xylem than phloem and its • reproduces by itself and provides its
mesophyll have large air spaces own fertilized growing medium thanks to
ant colonies
4. TENDRILS
• curls around rigid objects which helps 8. WINDOW LEAVES
the plant in climbing or supporting weak
• usually lives in dry, sandy area wherein
stems the dime-sized wide end of the leaf is
• continuous and coils tightly exposed to the surface
• exposed surface of the leaf is usually
5. SPINES, THORNS, AND PRICKLES covered with relatively transparent,
• desert plants are modified as spines thick epidermis with few stomata and a
• this kind of plants usually uses the waxy cuticle that allows the light to
green stems in conducting come through to penetrate chloroplast
photosynthesis since it has no leaf
surface and it helps in reducing water 9. REPRODUCTIVE LEAVES
loss • produce plants at their tips, has a little
• the normal leaf tissue is replaced with
notch along the leaf margins where tiny
sclerenchyma but in some woody
plantlets are produced, with roots and
plants, stipules at the base of the leaves stem
are used • plantlets can be developed into a
• thorns are spine-like object that arises
mature plant.
in the axils of woody plants which are

10. BRACTS — droplets of this plant sparkles can
• can be found at the bases of flowers attract insects and can stuck if they
or flower stacks alight
• bright color of bracts in some plants
serves as “flower” to attract pollinators VENUS FLYTRAP
• white-to-pink bract that surrounds — has leaves constructed along the
flower clusters that can be seen as lines of steel trap
petals are the modified leaves of the — has the appearance of being
plant hinged along the midrib with stiff
hairlike projections located along
11. INSECT-TRAPPING LEAVES the margin
• can be seen usually in swampy areas — hair-like projections on the two
and temperate regions halves of the blade, when triggered,
• has chlorophyll and are able to make will snap together and will have the
their own food insect trapped
• can also survive without insects
providing that they are given nutrients BLADDERWORTS
that they need to survive — are submerged in the shallow water
• insect trapping leaves has four types along lakes and streams
of insect-trapping mechanism: — has a trapdoor over the opening at
one end
PITCHER PLANTS — the four curled but stiff hairs at one
— have different kinds of structure end of the trapdoor serves as the
— some are blades that are flattened, stimuli
cone-shaped, vines that long
petioles are twisted around the AUTUMNAL CHANGES IN LEAF COLOR
branches for support and has • usually occurs in the temperate zones
umbrella-like flaps but don’t prevent where deciduous trees and shrubs exist
a little rain water from accumulating where the leaves generally turn into shade
at the bottom of brown or tan when their cells break
— pitcher leaves have nectar-secreting down and die due to a reaction stored in
glands around the rim that attracts vacuole
insects but slipping on the watery • chloroplast of these leaves contain
fluid at the bottom pigments that plays a role in photosynthesis
namely, green chlorophylls and
SUNDEWS carotenoids that has yellow carotenes and
— are covered with 200 upright pale yellow xanthophylls
glandular hairs that look like • in fall, green chlorophyll and green
miniature clubs carotenoids break down and shows the
presences of carotenes and xanthophylls

LEAF VENATION DISTICHOUS
• arrangement of the veins on the leaf — has the third leaf lining up with the
blade or lamina first one
• have two directions, either they run TRISTICHOUS
parallel the length of the leaf or reticulate — which has the fourth leaf lining up
on the leaf like a net. with the first one
PENTASTICHOUS
1. PARALLEL VENATION — is usually — which has the sixth leaf lining up
associated with monocots with the first one after two
2. RETICULATED VENATION — is usually revolutions
associated with dicots OCTOSTICHOUS
— which has the ninth leaf lining up
PINNATELY VEINED — leaves that with the first one after three
have a pattern where secondary revolutions.
veins branch out from the primary
vein called midvein or midrib 2. OPPOSITE
when a node develops two opposing
PALMATELY VEINED — which are leaves. Sub-categories under it are:
leaves that have a pattern where
three or more dominant veins arise SUPERPOSED
from the petiole to spread out like a — where the pair of leaves are on the
fan same plane
DECUSSATE
DICHOTOMOUS VENATION — which — where the pair of leaves cross at a
are leaves that have no prominent right angle
veins on the leaf blead, instead
there are veins that fork evenly from 3. WHORLED
the petiole towards the opposing when 3 or more leaves develop in a
margin node coiling around it
PHYLLOTAXY How is leaf structure related to the leaf’s

• arrangement of leaves on a stem primary function?
• mainly distinguish in one of the three — Wide flat surface- a shape that
categories: alternate, opposite, or allows maximum absorption of light
whorled. energy and efficient internal gases.
— Ordered arrangement on stem-
1. ALTERNATE leaves are held in different
when a node only develops one leaf, arrangements so that they don’t
alternating each side of a stem. Sub- shade each other and can
categories under it are: efficiently catch the sun’s rays.

— Epidermis of a leaf is relatively SECONDARY FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES
transparent – the epidermis acts as 1. REMOVAL OF EXCESS WATER
the “skin” of the leaf it absorbs very TR A N SP IR A TIO N G U TTA TIO N
little of the light allowing it to Form of water
W a te r V a p o r X y le m Sa p
penetrate to the interior of the leaf, loss
Where does it Stomata,
where the photosynthetic ground H y d a th o d e s
occur? Cuticles, and
tissue, the mesophyll is located. Le n tic e ls
When does it
D a y tim e N ig h ttim e
MESOPHYLL occur?
Mesos (Gk.) — middle Contents of Xylem Sap is
Pure Water
water loss not pure
Phyllon (Gk.) — leaf
Is it a universal
• located between the upper epidermis Yes No
phenomenon?
and lower epidermis Is the stomata
• mesophyll cells contain numerous responsible for Yes No
the process?
chloroplasts to carry on most of the
Height of
photosynthesis for plants and the loosely plant
High air
packed arrangement increases the (occurs in
Factors temperature,
amount of surface area to facilitate the gas short plants
affecting its low humidity,
only), high
exchange. occurrence high intensity
water
of light
supply, high
PALISADE MESOPHYLL humidity
— this layer contains tall, columnar cells
that are closely packed to absorb 2. GAS EXCHANGE
maximum light • The mesophyll of leaves contains
— it is located directly under the upper cavities called air spaces which are
temporary storage of Oxygen (O2)and
epidermis and it contains more
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)molecules.
chloroplasts than the other cells in
the leaf making it more capable of • When the concentration of oxygen is
carrying out photosynthesis high, as it is a waste product of
photosynthesis, it diffuses outside of the
leaf through stomata.
SPONGY MESOPHYLL
— this layer contains irregular cells
• Since the oxygen byproduct is released
bounded by air spaces that function and the CO2 is consumed in the
in gas exchange photosynthesis the air spaces contains
— the primary function is to allow lesser CO2. CO2 diffuses into leaf.
diffusion of gases, particularly CO2
3. FOOD STORAGE
through the leaf’s interior
• Excess glucose from photosynthesis are
combined into starch polymers through
dehydration-synthesis reactions.

• The leaves contain parrenchymatous 1. Jan Baptista van Helmont
tissues which are food storage tissues. Its • plants obtain their food from the soil
cells contain the organelle amyloplasts
which are plastids that contain starch. 2. Joseph Priestly
• “living vegetation adds something to
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE the air”
1. LEAVES AS FOOD 3. Jan Ingenhousz

• air can be restored with the presence
- Ampalaya (Momordica charantia)
of sunlight and only by a plant’s green
- Kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica) leaves, NOT roots
- Malunggay (Moringa oleifera) • green parts of the plant carry out a
- Saluyot (Corchorus olitorius) process that uses sunlight to split carbon
- Papaya (Carica papaya) dioxide into carbon and oxygen
• he found out that the oxygen is
released as O2 gas into the air while
2. SOURCE OF CLOTHING carbon atom combines with water to
- Abaca (Musa textilis) Musa Textiles and form carbohydrates
Manila hemp.
- Pineapple (Ananas comosus) 4. Julius von Sachs
• he discovered that glucose was
3. SOURCE OF DRUGS
formed when plants grow
- Guava (Psidium guajava)
• he also found out that chlorophyll is
- Lagundi (Vitex negundo)
- Tanglad (Cymbopogon citratus) stored in special cells of the plant, and
- Sambong (Blumea balsamifera) proved that these green parts are the
- Akapulko (Cassia alata) factories that produce glucose which is
stored as starch
OTHER ECONOMIC USES OF LEAVES 5. Theodor Wilhelm Engelmann (T. W.

Engelmann)
- The leaves of Carnauba palm • red and blue light are the most
(Copernicia prunifera) which yield effective energy source for
carnauba wax; are used for the photosynthesis
production candles and polishes.
6. Cornelius Bernardus van Niel (C.B. van

- Different dyes can be extracted
Niel)
from different leaves one of which is
• purple sulfur bacteria do not release
a red-dish dye from henna
oxygen during photosynthesis; instead,
(Lawsonia inermis).
they convert hydrogen sulfide into
globules of pure elemental sulfur that
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY accumulate inside them
Photosynthesis is the metabollic pathway by 7. Frederick Frost Blackman (F. F.

which autotrophs capture light energy and use Blackman)
it to make sugars from CO2 and water • photosynthesis is a multistage process,
only one portion of which uses light
directly
• light and dark reactions
8. Robin Hill SUNLIGHT
• presence of electron acceptor • visible light occurs within 380-750nm
• light travels in waves, but is also organized in
9. Jean Senebier packets of energy called PHOTONS
• photosynthetic process required
carbon dioxide
CHLOROPLAST
• cells in the mesophyll contain about 30-40
10. Nicholas Theodore de Saussure chloroplast
• explained the final component of the
overall photosynthetic PIGMENT (chlorophyll)
reaction and he showed that water was • a pigment is an organic molecule that
involved in the process selectively absorbs light of specific wavelength
• chlorophyll a — most abundant
photosynthetic pigment in plants; absorbs
METABOLISM — collective term for all the
violet and red light
chemical processes that occurs in a cell
• PORPHYRIN RING — used to capture/absorb
light; “hosting” an iron molecule; while the
1. ANABOLIC REACTIONS (anabolism) hydrophobic tail is used to attach chlorophyll
• energy is stored in the thylakoid membrane
• complex molecules are synthesized
from simpler molecules *ACCESSORY PIGMENTS — antioxidant; attracts
• “building up” animals to ripening fruit or pollinating flowers
ZEAXANTHIN (yellow) — corn
2. CATABOLIC REACTIONS (catabolism) ANTHOCYANIN (red, blue) — rose, violets
• energy is released
• large molecules are broken down into TEMPERATURE RANGE FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS TO
simpler ones OCCUR: 10-20 degrees Celsius
• “breaking down”
TWO STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
LIGHT AND DARK (CALVIN CYCLE) REACTIONS
LIGHT reactions use energy from the sun where

H2O is converted to O2
DARK reactions or CALVIN CYCLE where sugar

is synthesized from organic molecules with the
REDUCTION — gain of electrons use of CO2
OXIDATION — loss of electrons
Ground state — lowest energy state an LIGHT REACTION

electron posseses occurs mainly in the THYLAKOID MEMBRANE
PHOTOSYNTHESIS STARTER PACK RAW

- Sunlight PRODUCTS
MATERIAL/REACTANT
- Chloroplast
H2O O2
- Pigment (chlorophyll)
ADP + P ATP
NADP+ (oxidized NADPH (reduced
form) form)

6. Oxygen will leave/exit through stomata
NADP — Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide in the leaves
Phosphate; natural electron acceptor
H2O -> O2
PHOTOSYSTEM — group of hundreds of

chlorophylls, accessory pigments and other
molecules that work as a unit to begin the
reactions of photosynthesis
A. PHOTOSYSTEM II
B. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN AND

1. A photon hits a pigment and its energy
CHEMIOSMOSIS
is passed among pigment molecules
until it excites P680
2. An excited electron from P680 is 7. Each electron “falls” down an electron
transferred to the primary electron transport chain from the primary
acceptor electron acceptor of PS II to PS I
3. Due to the transfer of electrons to the 8. As electrons fall down (as seen in step 7)
primary electron acceptor, P680 is from a higher to lower energy level,
transformed into an oxidized state energy is released. This energy pumps
called P680+ H+ from the stroma to the thylakoid
4. To reduce P680+ (or simply to replenish space (see red arrow that passes
the lost electrons in P680+ so that when through Pq in the image below)
light hits chlorophyll molecules and resulting to a proton motive force,
energy is passed to P680 there will be potential energy stored in the form of a
available electrons to excite), water proton (H+) gradient across a
(H2O) is split by enzymes (photolysis), membrane
and 2 electrons are transferred from the
2 hydrogen atoms to P680+, thus
reducing it to P680
5. 1 Oxygen molecule is released as a by-
product of this reaction, since what is
needed is O2 (2 molecules of Oxygen),
another round of photolysis should
occur.

12. Due to the transfer of electrons to the
primary electron acceptor, P700 is
transformed into an oxidized state
called P700+
13. To reduce P700+ (or simply to replenish
the lost electrons in P700+ so that when
light hits chlorophyll molecules and
energy is passed to P700, there will be
available electrons to excite), it will
receive electrons passed down from PS
II via the electron transport chain
14. Each electron “falls” down an electron
transport chain from the primary
electron acceptor of PS I to the protein
ferredoxin (Fd)
15. The electrons are then transferred to
NADP+ and reduce it to NADPH
16. The electrons of NADPH are available
for the reactions of the Calvin cycle
17. NADP is a coenzyme used as an
electron carrier
18. For NADP+ to be reduced, it needs 2
9. The potential energy(proton motive electrons (in this case coming from P700
force) resulting from the proton gradient of Photosystem I passed on to the
(area of lower proton concentration primary electron acceptor to
outside the thylakoid/in the stroma and Ferredoxin) and 1 H+ (see red box)
an area of higher proton concentration
within the thylakoid) will be used to
“turn” the ATP synthase thus converting
ADP+P into ATP
This process is called chemiosmosis,a process
where energy from the proton gradient is used
to make ATP
NADP+ -> NADPH
ADP + P -> ATP
CYCLIC NON-CYCLIC
C. PHOTOSYSTEM I PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATI PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATI
ON ON
PSI and PSII are
10. Similar to PSII, in PSI, a photon hits a Only PSI is involved
involved
pigment and its energy is passed
Water is NOT Photolysis of water is
among pigment molecules until it required required
excites P700 Oxygen is NOT
11. An excited electron from P700 is Oxygen is evolved
EVOLVED
transferred to the primary electron NADPH is NOT
acceptor NADPH is synthesized
synthesized

Used to produce 2. The product of the reaction is 3 molecules of
Products can be
additional ATP in six-carbon intermediate so unstable that it
used for the Calvin
order to meet cell immediately splits in half forming 6 molecules
cycle
energy demands of 3-phosphoglycerate (Why 6 molecules? 3
molecules of 6-Carbon intermediate split
in half, that’s why we will have 6 molecules of
3-Phosphoglycerate made up of, this time, only
3-Carbons (see diagram below))
CALVIN CYCLE or LIGHT-INDEPENDENT or DARK PHASE 2: REDUCTION

REACTION
occurs mainly in the STROMA 3. Each of the 6 molecules of 3-
phosphoglycerate receives an
Calvin cycle has 3 phases: additional phosphate group from ATP
PHASE 1: CARBON FIXATION becoming 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
PHASE 2: REDUCTION (ATP -> ADP + P)
PHASE 3: REGENERATION OF CO2 ACCEPTOR
4. A pair of electrons donated from
NADPH reduces each 1,3-
RAW
PRODUCTS bisphosphoglycerate molecule to
MATERIALS/REACTANTS
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)
ATP ADP + P
NADPH NADP+ (NADPH -> NADP+)
CO2 sugar 5. There will be 6 molecules of G3P.
However, only 1 molecule of G3P
PHASE 1: CARBON FIXATION (made up of 3 Carbon atoms) will
contribute to the formation of glucose
(see green box). Since glucose is made
up of 6-Carbon and G3P only has three,
there will be another round of phases 1
and 2 to form another G3P molecule
that will bind to the G3P molecule
produced earlier producing a 6-C
glucose
1. 3 CO2 molecule, one molecule at a time,

attaches to a five carbon sugar named
ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) through the help
of the enzyme rubisco (Ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase-oxygenase)

PHASE 3: REGENERATION OF CO2 ACCEPTOR process called photorespiration releases CO2
instead of fixing it.
6. The remaining 5 G3P molecules
(remember that one G3P molecule was C4 PLANTS:
used to make glucose as discussed in • minimize the cost of photorespiration by
phase 2) are rearranged into RuBP incorporating CO2 first into four-carbon
accompanied by expenditure of 3 ATP compounds (ex. Oxaloacetate and malate) in
mesophyll cells.
molecules
• Used by corn, bamboo etc.
• The problem with C3 plant’s rubisco is that it
can attach to O2 causing photorespiration.
With C4 plants, this problem is countered by
using another enzyme instead of rubisco. This
enzyme PEP carboxylase found in the
mesophyll, compared to rubisco in C3 plants,
has a much higher affinity to CO2 with no
affinity to O2.
1. The enzyme PEP carboxylase found in the

mesophyll cell of leaves adds CO2 to
Phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) forming the 4-C
Oxaloacetate.
2. After CO2 is fixed in the mesophyll, its four
carbon product (ex. Malate) are exported to
the bundle sheath through plasmodesmata
3. In the bundle sheath, CO2 is released from
C3, C4, and CAM PLANTS malate (it will then become pyruvate that will
eventually be PEP again). CO2 in the bundle
sheath will enter the “usual” steps in Calvin
cycle where rubisco is used. (Why go into
another area (from mesophyll to bundle
sheath) when in the end rubisco will still be
used and thus photorespiration still poses a
threat?) By pumping CO2 first into the bundle
sheath before fixing it/using it as per usual
Calvin cycle, the CO2 concentration can build
up or increase first giving rubisco a higher
chance to bind to CO2 instead of O2
C3 PLANTS: CAM PLANTS:

• are plants that only use the Calvin-Benson • Some plants, including succulents, use
Cycle because the 3-Carbon PGA is the first Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) to fix
stable intermediate to form. carbon. CAM plants open their stomata at
• C3 plants conserve water on dry days by night, incorporating CO2 into organic acids
closing their stomata • During the night, when it is cooler, the
• However, when stomata are closed, oxygen stomata of these plants are open, and they
produced by the light dependent reactions take in CO2 -CO2 will be incorporated to a
cannot escape from the plant. This limits sugar variety of organic acids (similar to what was
production. done in C4 plants where CO2 was
• At high oxygen levels, rubisco attaches incorporated to oxaloacetate; for the
oxygen (instead of carbon) to RuBP. This difference between C4 and CAM see figure
below)
• The mesophyll cells will store CO2 in organic - The energy from the flow of these
acids in the vacuole. During daytime, when hydrogen ions back downhill is used to
light reactions can supply ATP and NADPH, stick a phosphate group into a
carbon dioxide is used for the Calvin cycle. molecule of ADP, forming ATP.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION - It accounts for almost 90% of the ATP

Includes both aerobic and anaerobic generated by cellular respiration
respiration
• SUBSTRATE-LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION
AEROBIC — consumes organic molecules and - Includes the transfer of inorganic
O2 and yields ATP phosphate via a donor molecule called
ANAEROBIC — is similar to aerobic respiration guanosine triphosphate (GTP) to ADP in
but consumes compounds other than O2 order to form ATP
GLYCOLYSIS
• “splitting of sugar”
• breaks down glucose into two molecules of
3 STAGES OF CELL RESPIRATION: pyruvate
• GLYCOLYSIS • occurs in the CYTOPLASM
• CITRIC ACID CYCLE (KREBS CYCLE) • has two phases: ENERGY INVESTMENT and
• OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION ENERGY PAY-OFF
RAW
PRODUCTS
MATERIALS/REACTANTS
1 glucose 2 pyruvate
NAD+ NADH
2 ATP 4 ATP*
*we used 2 ATP in the process, so we have a
net gain of 2 ATP
A. ENERGY INVESTMENT PHASE

1. Glucose enters the cell
2. Through the use of the enzyme
Cellular respiration uses the electron carriers
hexokinase glucose will be
NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and
FAD (flavine adenine dinucleotide) phosphorylated (phosphate group from
• enzymatic transfer of 2 electrons and 1 ATP will be added to glucose) causing
proton (H+) reduces NAD+ to NADH glucose to become glucose-6-
• enzymatic transfer of 2 electrons and 2 phosphate (ATP -> ADP)
protons (H+) reduces FAD+ to FADH2 *Why phosphorylate glucose? First is that
it will make glucose chemically reactive.
PHOSPHORYLATION — process through which Second, the charge of the phosphate
a phosphate group is transferred from one group will trap glucose inside
molecule to a protein, usually within a (remember that ions/charges
biological system
substances cannot easily go out/in of
the cell membrane)
• OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
- uses the downward flow of electrons to
pump hydrogen ions uphill

3. Glucose-6-phosphate using the enzyme 8. The phosphate group added earlier to
phosphoglucoisomerase will be 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is transferred to
converted to its isomer Fructose-6- ADP forming ATP through substrate-level
phosphate (isomers are compounds phosphorylation. In turn, 1,3-
with same molecular formula but are bisphosphoglycerate now becomes 3-
structurally different) phosphoglycerate (from having 2
4. The enzyme phosphofructokinase phosphates to only one). The enzyme
transfers a phosphate group from ATP to phosphoglycerokinase is used in this
Fructose-6-phosphate. (ATP -> ADP) and process
Fructose-6-phosphate will now become 9. The enzyme phosphoglyceromutase
Fructose-1,6,-bisphosphate (“bis” since relocates the phosphate group from
there are two phosphate group now) Carbon no. 3 as seen in 3-
*Why put two phosphate group? On the Phosphoglycerate to Carbon no.2 as
next step, fructose-1,6-bisphosphate will seen in 2-phosphoglycerate
be split into two. Putting two phosphate 10. The enzyme enolase extracts a water
group, one at each end, assures that molecule from 2-Phosphoglycerate. This
the two halves of the sugar will have a causes the formation of double bond
phosphate group that will keep them and 2-Phosphoglycerate now becomes
reactive and trapped within the cell phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)
5. The enzyme aldolase cleaves the 6- 11. A phosphate group will be removed
Carbon sugar Fructose-1,6- from Phosphoenolpyruvate turning it
bisphosphate to the 3-C sugars into Pyruvate. (ADP -> ATP) The enzyme
dihydroxyacetone phosphate and pyruvate kinase is used in this process.
Glyeraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) (remember that pyruvate is also used by
(remember that in the Calvin cycle in C4 plants)
plants G3P was also formed and used to
make glucose)
At the end of the energy pay-off phase, 2
*Glycolysis uses only Glyceraldehyde-3- molecules of Pyruvate is formed, 2 molecules
phosphate so the enzyme isomerase of NAD is reduced to NADH, and lastly, 4
converts dihydroxyacetone phosphate molecules of ATP was formed
into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
*Before the citric acid cycle (or Krebs cycle)
can begin, 2 molecules of pyruvate must be
In the end of the energy investment phase, 2
converted to 2 molecules of acetyl CoA,
molecules of G3P is formed and 2 molecules of
which links the citric acid cycle to glycolysis.
ATP were used
1. The carboxyl group of pyruvate is removed
and given off as CO2 (see gray boxes)
B. ENERGY PAY-OFF PHASE
2. The remaining 2-C fragment (see red box) is
6. The enzyme triose phosphate oxidized forming acetate. (NAD+ -> NADH)
dehydrogenase catalyzes the oxidation 3. Coenzyme A (CoA), a sulfur-containing
of 2 molecules of glyceraldehyde-3- compound derived from Vitamin-B, is attached
phosphate into 2 molecules of 1,3- to acetate forming the very reactive (with high
bisphosphoglycerate. (2 NAD+ -> 2 potential energy) acetyl-CoA.
NADH)
7. The energy released from the reaction
described above (reduction-oxidation
reaction) is used to attach 2 phosphate
group to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate,
turning it into 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
CITRIC ACID CYCLE 7. Addition of water molecule transforms
• also called Krebs cycle fumarate into malate (malic acid)
• takes place within the MITOCHONDRIAL (remember that malate is also used by
MATRIX C4 plants)
8. Malate is oxidized reducing NAD+ to
RAW
PRODUCTS NADH and regenerating oxaloacetate
MATERIALS/REACTANTS
Acetyl-CoA Coenzyme A
3 NAD+ 3 NADH OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
FAD FADH2 Uses both ETC and chemiosmosis (similar in
ADP + P ATP photosynthesis)
2 CO2
A. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
1. Acetyl-CoA adds its 2-C Acetyl group to • Electrons are transferred from NADH or
oxaloacetate (or oxaloacetic acid), FADH2 to the electron transport chain
producing citrate (citric acid). • Electron carriers alternate between
Coenzyme-A (CoA-SH) is removed their reduced and oxidized state as they
2. Citrate (or Citric acid) converted to its accept and lose electrons
isomer isocitrate by removal of one • Electrons are passed through a
water molecule and addition of number of proteins including
another. cytochromes (Cyt) (each with an iron
3. Isocitrate (Isocitric acid) is oxidized and atom) to O2
CO2 is removed turning it into α-keto- • The electron transport chain
glutarate (α-keto-glutaric acid) generates no ATP
(NAD+ -> NADH) • The chain’s function is to break the
4. Another CO2 molecule is lost, and α- large free-energy drop from food to O2
keto-glutarate is oxidized, reducing into smaller steps that release energy in
NAD+ to NADH. The resulting molecule is manageable amounts
attached to Coenzyme A (CoA-SH) by
an unstable bond. The resulting 1. NADH passes its electrons to
molecule is called Succinyl-CoA flavoprotein (FMN) in Complex I (see
5. Coenzyme A (CoA-SH) is displaced by a roman numerals I, II, III, IV inside each
phosphate group. This phosphate group violet-colored shapes). NADH
is transferred to GDP (Guanosine becomes oxidized to NAD as it loses
diphosphate) forming GTP (Guanosine electrons and flavoprotein is
triphosphate), a molecule with functions reduced as it accepts the electron
similar to ATP. Using substrate-level 2. Electron from flavoprotein is passed
phosphorylation GTP will donate its to Iron-Sulfur (Fe.S). Flavoprotein is
phosphate group to ATP forming ADP. thus oxidized and Fe.S is reduced
GTP will become GDP again. Succinyl- 3. Electron from Fe.S is passed into
CoA now becomes succinate (Succinic Ubiquinone (Q; also called
acid) mainly due to the removal of Coenzyme Q or CoQ), a small
CoA-SH hydrophobic molecule and is not a
6. Succinate is oxidized, reducing FAD to protein. Q is not considered a part of
FADH2 and fumarate (Fumaric acid) is any of the complexes since it is
formed mobile.

4. Electrons from ubiquinone is then matrix) will be used to “turn” the ATP
passed into different proteins called synthase thus converting ADP+P into ATP
cytochromes (Cyt) in different
*This process is called chemiosmosis a
complexes. The last Cytochrome,
process where energy (potential energy
Cyt a3 passes the electrons to called proton motive force) from the
Oxygen (this is the final electron proton gradient is used to make ATP
acceptor). Oxygen also picks up
Hydrogen atoms forming water *Each NADH that transfers electrons to
electron transport chain contributes to the
proton motive force enough to generate
2.5 ATP while FADH2 can be used to
generate 1.5 ATP
FERMENTATION
• uses phosphorylation instead of an
electron transport chain to generate ATP
• two types of fermentation: Alcohol and
Lactic Acid Fermentation
ALCOHOL:
• in the absence of Oxygen, instead of
pyruvate being converted to Acetyl-CoA
for citric acid cycle, pyruvate is converted
to acetaldehyde in alcohol fermentation
• NADH is oxidized to NAD and
acetaldehyde is reduced to ethanol
LACTIC ACID:
• in lactic acid fermentation, in the
absence of Oxygen, pyruvate is reduced to
lactate
TRANSPIRATION AND GUTTATION

PERSONAGES:
1. Nehemiah Grew
B. CHEMIOSMOSIS • an English scientist who in 1682,
suggested that a pumping action was
1. The energy released from the electron
transfer in the electron transport chain performed by the cells surrounding the
vessels and tracheids and that such
causes proteins to pump H+ from the
mitochondrial matrix to the action caused water to be propelled
intermembrane space along a plant
2. H+ then moves back across the 2. Marcello Marpighi
membrane, passing through channels in • 1679, he suggested that translocation
from leaves to roots involves the bark of
ATP synthase
3. The potential energy (proton motive trees. He made this conclusion through
observations he got from removing a
force) resulting from the proton gradient
(area of higher proton concentration strip of bark from around a tree
(girdling).
outside/in the intermembrane space
and an area of lower proton • If a tree is girdled below the level of
concentration within the mitochondrial the majority of its leaves, the bark swells
just above the cut, and sugar
accumulates in the swollen tissue. We • water is most concentrated when it is
know today that when a tree is girdled, most pure
the phloem is removed, but the xylem is • HYPERTONIC — greater concentration
left intact. Therefore, the results of of solute
girdling suggest that phloem is the tissue • HYPOTONIC — lesser concentration of
that transports sugars. solute
• ISOTONIC — same concentration of
3. Stephen Hales solute
• Hinted on the main explanation as to • aquaporins are membrane proteins
why water could be transported up a • PLASMOLYSIS — plasma membrane
tall tree through his book, the Vegetable pulls away from the cell wall
Staticks. C. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Excerpt: although the [woody tissues • movement against concentration
of the plant] imbibe moisture plentifully; gradient
yet they have little power to protrude it • proton pump, K and Na pump
farther, without the assistance of the D. WATER POTENTIAL
perspiring leaves, which do greatly • tendency of water to leave one place
promote its progress. in favor of another
• Perspiration- evaporation from leaves • botanists combined turgor pressure
in the transport of water through the and solute concentration, which are
living plant; what we call both responsible for whether or not
transpiration. water moves in or out of plant cells
4. Eduard Strasburger • SOLUTE POTENTIAL (ψs) — or OSMOTIC
• In the late 19th Century, Eduard POTENTIAL; expression of the effect of
Strasburger, a German botanist, proved solute concentration
that an active pump mechanism was • PRESSURE POTENTIAL (ψp) – expresses
not the reason for why water was being the effect of turgor pressure
raised from the roots up. He • water potential can be expressed in
demonstrated that even dead tissue this equation: Ψ = ψs + ψp
could act as a channel for water to E. WATER UPTAKE AND NUTRIENT
move upwards. TRANSPORT
• plants transport water through their
xylem, which is mostly made up of dead
MOLECULAR MOVEMENT:
cells whose strong secondary cell walls
A. DIFFUSION
form tubes throughout the plant
• passive movement of molecules from
• COHESION-TENSION THEORY
an area of high concentration to an
- relies on the properties of water:
area of low concentration
• Brownian movement — random cohesion and adhesion
- COHESION — attraction between water
motion of molecules
• Simple diffusion — diffusion across a molecules (hydrogen bonds)
- ADHESION — attraction between water
membrane all by themselves; Facilitated
and other substances
diffusion — with a help of membrane
- CAPILLARY ACTION — occurs when a
proteins
narrow tube pulls a liquid upward
B. OSMOSIS
against the force of gravity
• diffusion of water across a membrane
• TRANSPIRATION
• water is more concentrated when
there are fewer solutes - the water molecules that evaporated
are replaced by other water molecules

from the leaf veins which means that a CAVITATION — sudden formation of gas
driving force—a tension—draws the bubbles in a liquid; can be caused by
water column up in the vessels from the temperature rises, dissolved gases that may
roots to the leaves continuously come out of the solution, and freezing and
thawing which causes changes in the
RATE OF TRANSPIRATION arrangements of the water molecules
Regulation of transpiration:
• stomata open and close to balance water WATER-STRESS RESPONSES
and carbon dioxide needs A. Plant adaptations to drought include
• guard cells that surround the stomata have strategies to limit water loss
receptors for environmental signals such as • Annual plants conserve water when
light and carbon dioxide
conditions are unfavorable simply by
• when the guard cells detect that light is
going into dormancy as seeds
available or that the CO2 concentration is low,
• Thick, hard leaves with few stomata
they actively transport hydrogen ions of the
cell, causing the guard cells to become lose water far more slowly than large,
negatively charged pliable leaves with abundant stomata.
• the negative charge on the guard cells • Leaves covered with hairs reflect more
encourages positively charged potassium ions sunlight and reduce the heat load on
to enter the cell, decreasing the water the leaf as well as the demand for
potential of the guard cells (because solute transpiration.
potential becomes lower) • Leaves which have trichome hairs
• when the water potential of the guard cells is reflect sunlight more and reduce the
lowered, water moves by osmosis into the cells, heat load on the leaf.
making them more turgid. • Plants in arid or semiarid habitats have
• when guard cells become turgid, they pull
their stomata in crypts or pits in the leaf
away from the stomata, allowing more
surface. Within these depressions, the
transpiration to occur
water surface tensions are altered,
FACTORS THAT AFFECT RATE OF TRANSPIRATION reducing the rate of water loss.
1. TEMPERATURE B. Plants respond in short-term hormonal
• increase in temperature, increase the changes and long-term adaptations to
vapor pressure of water, which flooding. Flooding depletes available
increases the rate of transpiration oxygen in the soil and interferes with the
2. WIND VELOCITY transport of minerals and carbohydrates
• if the wind is blowing, water vapor in the roots. This results in abnormal plant
surrounding the leaf will be swept away, growths.
which also lowers the water potential of • Hormones such as ethylene, which is
the air around the leaf, increasing associated with suppression of root
transpiration elongation, increases, while gibberellins
3. HUMIDITY and cytokinin, which enhance growth
• as humidity increases, the water of new roots, usually decrease.
potential difference between the leaf • A significant problem that plants face
and the atmosphere decreases, but with flooding is oxygen deprivation
even at 95% relative humidity in the because it leads to decreased cellular
atmosphere, the vapor pressure respiration. Some plants form larger
gradient can sustain full transpiration. lenticels and adventitious roots that
When the air around a plant is dry, its reach above flood levels. Others have
water potential is lower, increasing the adapted to living in fresh water with the
rate of transpiration formation of aerenchyma cells. Such

are prominent in water lilies and other • Two types of water absorption: Passive
aquatic plants. and Active
C. Plant adaptations to high salt • PASSIVE WATER ABSORPTION — does
concentration include elimination not require the use of metabolic energy
methods. • ACTIVE WATER ABSORPTION — requires
• Mangroves which are normally metabolic energy
flooded with salt water have to control • Diffusion and osmosis
their salt balance whilst providing a B. IMBIBITION
supply of oxygen to their submerged • Because water molecules are polar, it
parts. Other plants in similar conditions has slightly different electrical charges
either secrete the salt content or block at each end due to their asymmetry
its uptake at the root level. and are therefore slightly unstable
• this amplifies its cohesive tendency to
the charged materials and large
TRANSPORT OF ORGANIC SOLUTES
Plants transport organic nutrients to the parts of molecules
plants that need them. This includes young C. TRANSLOCATION
leaves, flowers that are in the process of • Transportation of food substances in
making seeds and fruits, and the roots whose solution by the phloem, usually in the
location in the soil prohibits them from carrying stem tissue, particularly in the sieve tube
on photosynthesis. D. TRANSPIRATION
• lower surfaces of leaves, and in some
A. PRESSURE-FLOW HYPOTHESIS plants, the upper surfaces as well, are
dotted with tiny pores (stomata) which
• Turgor pressure in the phloem is increased
in areas of the plant where the sugars are not only allow entry for carbon dioxide
(sources) and decreased in areas where gas needed for photosynthesis, but also
they are needed (sinks) for diffusion of oxygen produced during
a. Sources – includes leaves and the photosynthesis
occasionally the roots or stems. They are E. GUTTATION
the sources or storages of sugars for plants. • HYDATHODES — special openings
b. Sinks – parts that need sugars like found along the margin of the leaf
developing fruits and growing stem tips. • Root pressure forces liquid water out
of hydathodes, usually at night when
THREE TYPES OF TRANSPIRATION
transpiration is absent
1. STOMATAL
2. CUTICULAR
3. LENTICULAR PERSONAGES:
1. Abraham Munting
• first "discovered" the exudation of
GUTTATION liquid in the margins of leaf at night
when transpiration is absent
WATER MOVEMENT IN PLANTS
2. Burgerstein/Bergerstein
The water movement of water takes place
because there is a water potential gradient • coined the word guttation
from relatively high soil water potential to low
water potential in roots, leaves, stem, and the CHARACTERISTICS OF GUTTATION
atmosphere. CAUSE:
• In the absence of transpiration at night, the
A. ABSORPTION pressure in the xylem elements builds to the
• The process of taking in water point of forcing liquid water out of the
molecules to the plant. hydathodes in the leaves
• This pressure is caused by the absorption of *buildup of solutes in the xylem sap leads to
water by roots when the soil moisture is high a negative osmotic potential and thus a
compared that of the roots. This is called root decrease in the xylem water potential
pressure. *lowering of the xylem water potential
AREA OF INCIDENCE: provides a driving force for water
• guttation happens in HYDATHODES absorption, which in turn, leads to a positive
• 2 kinds of hydathodes based on structure hydrostatic pressure in the xylem
and function: *root pressure which provides motive and
- EPITHEMAL HYDATHODES driving force that is responsible for pushing
• also called PASSIVE HYDATHODES the water up and finally out of permanently
• exude liquid directly and without open hydathodes resisting the pull of
much resistance when the water gravity
conducting system of plants reaches a
PATHWAYS OF WATER
certain level of threshold or turgidity
Root hair ►epidermis ► cortex (symplast or
- EPIDERMAL HYDATHODES
apoplast pathway) ► casparian strip ►
• also called ACTIVE HYDATHODES endodermis ► pericycle ► xylem of root
• comprises all the epidermal water-
secreting organs PATHWAY OF WATER MOVEMENT
• includes modified and specialized 1. SYMPLAST PATHWAY
epidermal cells and various multicellular • continuum of living cytoplasm, which
or unicellular trichomes is connected from one cell to the next
PLANTS THAT UNDERGO GUTTATION by cytoplasmic connections called
• vascular plants plasmodesmata
• herbs & shrubs • has a moderate transport speed
• can happen on woody plants 2. APOPLAST PATHWAY
• pteridophytes • interconnected porous cell walls
of a plant, along which water and
PROCESS: inorganic mineral ions move freely
1. root cells rapidly absorb diluted water • has a faster movement compared to
ion from the soil, water will enter plant the three pathways
roots, because the water potential of 3. TRANSMEMBRANE PATHWAY
the roots is lower than the soil solution • water and ions travel in this pathway
2. water will accumulate in the roots through the cell membrane
creating a hydrostatic pressure • has only a slow movement
3. root pressure forces some water to
exude through hydathodes located at
Secretion in guttation may contain ions, sugars,
the tips, edges, adaxial and abaxial
salts, enzymes, and minerals such as Calcium,
surfaces of leaves forming drops of
Phosphorus, Magnesium, and Nitrogen.
guttation
*root pressure, essentially a phenomenon of EFFECTS OF GUTTATION:

"pushed up" rather than "pulled up" process 1. CHLOROSIS - Yellowing of leaves due to
provides the impetus for the evolution of nutrient deficiency
the exudation force and its flow 2. NECROSIS - Darkening of leaves
*roots generate positive hydrostatic proceeding chlorosis, it is prelude to
pressure by absorbing ions from the dilute death of a leaf.
soil solution and concentrating them into 3. DEFOLIATION AND POSSIBLE FRUIT DROP
the xylem - This rarely happens, but when it does, it

is caused by excessive and drastic loss
3. STAMEN
of nutrient in a short time
• MALE portion of the flower
4. TIP BURN - Acidic content of guttated
• two parts: ANTHER and FILAMENT
liquid may accumulate on the tip of the
leaf, and when it is evaporated, it can 4. PISTIL or CARPEL
cause tip burn due to is acidity. • FEMALE portion of the flower
5. ENTRY OF PATHOGENS - Guttated liquid • vase-like structure
• three parts: STIGMA, STYLE, and OVARY
may be reabsorbed by the ever-open
hydathodes, but this time, pathogenic 5. RECEPTACLE
microorganisms may be present and • structure supporting the flower
can enter inside the plants. Examples of
these pathogenic microorganisms are: 6. PEDUNCLE
• attachment site of a single flower
Bacillus cereus, Bacillus fluotescens,
Bacillus radiciola, and nitrate reducer. 7. PEDICLE
• attachment site for several flowers
*Guttation happens in smaller plants
MALE STRUCTURE
FLOWERS ANDROECIUM
• collective term for all stamen
• for sexual reproduction
• producing spores and protecting gametophytes STAMEN
• attracting pollinators
• bears microsporangia
• produce fruits which enclose the seeds
ANTHER
PHOTOPERIODISM — response of the plant to • swollen portion
seasonal changes in day length; flower
development FILAMENT
• slender, often thread-like
STRUCTURE & BASIC PARTS
FEMALE STRUCTURE
GYNOECIUM
• collective term for all carpel
CARPEL
• may be multiple in a single flower
OVARY
• contains ovules
STYLE
• neck-like structure
STIGMA
• receives pollen
1. SEPALS
• leaf-like INFLORESCENCE
• usually green
• protects flower bud
FLORAL MERISTEM gives rise to inflorescence.
2. PETALS
• accounts for attractiveness
• size, shape, and color attracts specific
pollinators
PARTS INVOLVED IN INFLORESCENCE: 2. CYMOSE
2.1 SOLITARY
1. PEDUNCLE • SOLITARY TERMINAL
• main axis or stalk of a solitary inflorescence • SOLITARY AXILLARY
2.2 UNIPAROUS CYME
2. PEDICLE • HELICOID CYME
• stalk of the individual flower • SCORPIOID CYME
2.3 BIPAROUS CYME
3. RACHIS 2.4 MULTIPAROUS CYME
• long, simple, or branched peduncle
3. SPECIAL
4. RECEPTACLE • VERTICILLASTER
• dilated or flattened peduncle • CYATHIUM
• HYPANTHODIUM
5. SCAPE • COENANTHIJM
• unbranched naked peduncle developing
from the underground stem 4. MIXED
• also called radical peduncle • MIXED PANICLE
• MIXED SPADIX
6. THALAMUS • THYRSUS
• stage or platform in which floral parts are • UMBELLATE CYME
situated • CORYMBOSE CYME
• FASCICLE
7. BRACT
• expanded leafy organ that sometimes 1. RACEMOSE
subtends flowers • indefinite or indeterminate type
• a flower with bracts is called BRACTEATE • ACROPETAL SUCCESSION — from base to
FLOWER apex
• a flower without bracts is called EBRACTEATE
FLOWER
• BRACTEOLES — secondary bracts develop on
the flower stalk between the flower and bract
TYPES OF INFLORESCENCE
1. RACEMOSE
1.1 SIMPLE
1.1.1 PEDICELLATE
• RACEME
• CORYMB
• UMBEL
1.1.2 SESSILE 2. CYMOSE
• SPIKE • definite or determinate type
• SPIKELET • BASIPETALOUS MANNER — from apex to base
• SPADIX • definite number of flowers only
• CATKIN
• STROBILE
• CAPITULUM
• CAPITATE
1.2 COMPOUND
• COMPOUND RACEME (PANICLE)
• COMPOUND CORYMB
• COMPOUND UMBEL
• COMPOUND SPIKE
• COMPOUND SPADIX
• COMPOUND CAPITULUM

3. MIXED • SPIKE
• combination of racemose and cymose - Axis is of indefinite growth
- Elongated peduncle bears flowers in
4. SPECIAL acropetal pattern
• do not show any of the development pattern
types
• RACEME
- Axis has indefinite growth
- Flowers continue to grow
• SPIKELET or LOCUSTA
- Compact type of inflorescence
- Few flowers on axis
- Two sterile glumes at the base of the axis
- Fertile glume or lower palea at the base of
the flowers
- Opposite of fertile glume is upper palea
• CORYMB
- Axis is relatively shorter
- Lower flowers have larger pedicles than
upper ones
- All flowers are at the same level
• SPADIX
- Fleshy axis
- Both male and female flowers
• UMBEL - Surrounded by spathe
- Axis is shortened - Female is towards the base and male is
- Flowers seem to appear from the same towards the axis
point - Terminal portion is barren and called
appendix

• CATKIN • COMPOUND RACEME or PANICLE
- Pendulous - Flowers born not directly on the axis but on
- Fleshy and delicate axis its branches
- Unisexual flower falls as a unit at maturity
• COMPOUND CORYMB
• STROBILE - A branched corymb
- Pistillate flowers born singly on an axis
- Persistent membranous bract
• CAPITULUM
- Axis is shortened and broadened to form
convex receptacle • COMPOUND UMBEL
- Small florets arranged in a centripetal - Branched umbel
manner - With primary rays arising from a common
- Youngest in center and oldest towards point, and secondary umbels arising from
periphery the tip of the primary rays
• CAPITATE
- Dense cluster of flowers on compressed
rachis • COMPOUND SPIKE
- Globose structure - A branched spike

• COMPOUND SPADIX 2.2 UNIPAROUS CYME
- Swollen and fleshy inflorescence axis is - Monochasial cyme or monochasium
branched and bears sessile flowers - Primary axis ends in a flower
- One axis behaves as a flower
• HELICOID CYME or BOSTRYX

• SCORPIOID CYME
• COMPOUND CAPITULUM
- inflorescence axis is branched and each
branch bears a head inflorescence 2.3 BIPAROUS CYME
- dichasial cyme or dichasium
- primary axis ends in flower
- two daughter axes with apical flower buds
2.1 SOLITARY
• simplest cyme
• rachis unbranched and always terminated by
flower
• SOLITARY TERMINAL
- flower occurs in tips
• SOLITARY AXILLARY
- flower occurs in axillary 2.4 MULTIPAROUS CYME
- polychasial cyme or polychasium or pleiochasium
- Primary axis ends in flower
- Two daughter axes behaves as mother with apical
flower buds
• VERTICILLASTER
- Condensed
- Occurs in the axil of opposite leaves with
sessile flowers

- Appears as cluster of sessile flowers forming • MIXED PANICLE
false whorl at node
• CYANTHIUM
- Specialized • MIXED SPADIX
- Looks like single flower
- Axis is suppressed to form convex
receptacle
- Tricarpellary gynoecium at center of
receptacle
- Male flowers in scorpioid cyme
- Surrounded by involucre (none, one, or two
nectar glands on its outer wall)
- Developed in centrifugal manner
• THYRSUS
• HYPANTHODIUM
- Formed hollow sphere-like receptacle
(syconium)
- Spherical receptacle is like a closed fleshy
vessel
- Unisexual flowers (male, fertile female and
sterile female) arranged in inner surface
• UMBELLATE CYME

• CORYMBOSE CYME gynoecium are arranged spirally on the
thalamus. (ex. Annona, Polyalthia)
3. CYCLIC — all floral parts are arranged in
circles on the thalamus (ex. Hibiscus)
II. MEROSITY
1. TRIMEROUS — in each whorl, petals in three

or multiples of three (3) are present (ex.
Zephyranthes and other monocots)
2. PENTAMEROUS — each whorl, petals in five
or multiples of five (5) are present (ex.
Hibiscus
• FASCICLE
III. SYMMETRY OF STRUCTURE
1. ACTINOMORPHIC (Radial Symmetry)

- most primitive flowers
- a line anywhere through the center creates
two roughly equal halves
- Ex. Buttercup (Ranunculus)
2. ZYGOMORPHIC (Bilateral Symmetry)
- Flowers in advanced groups
- Divisible into two equal parts but only along
a single plane
- CYCLOIDIA — regulates floral symmetry; in
MAJOR EVOLUTIONARY TRENDS THAT LED TO its absence, flowers are radial
DIVERSITY AND VARIATION: - Ex. Orchid
1. Separate floral parts have grouped together
or fused, and IV. ARRANGEMENT OF OVARY
2. Floral parts have been lost or reduced
1. HYPOGYNOUS
- if the sepals, petals, and stames are
SYMMETRY OF FLOWER BASED ON THE attached to the receptacle below the
ARRANGEMENT OF FLORAL PARTS ovary (ex. Tomato, tulip, snapdragon)
- SUPERIOR OVARY
I. Depending on the arrangement of the floral parts 2. PERIGYNOUS
on the thalamus - if sepals, petals, and stamens are fused at
II. Depending on the merosity (the number of floral the base to form a cup-shaped structure
parts in each whorl leaving the androecium and called the hypanthium which is inserted
gynoecium) below the ovary (ex. Cherry)
III. Depending on the symmetry of the structure 3. EPIGYNOUS
IV. Depending on the arrangement of the ovary on - if sepals, petals, and stamens arise from the
the flower top if the ovary
V. Depending on the aestivation (the arrangement - INFERIOR OVARY
of either the sepals or the petals in a flower bud - Ex. Daffodil
with relation to one another)
I. FLORAL PARTS ON THALAMUS
1. ACYCLIC or SPIRAL — all floral parts are

arranged spirally on the thalamus (ex.
Magnolia)
2. HEMICYCLIC or SPIROCYCLIC — calyx and
corolla perianth are present in the form of
whorls, and the androecium and
V. AESTIVATION The two inner whorls are specialized for making
gametes.
1. VALVATE
- the petals nor the sepals are neither 1. STAMEN
overlapping with each other (ex. Hibiscus • facilitates formation of male gametophyte
sepal) • consists of filament and anther
2. TWISTED • each anther contains four pollen sacs
- one side of the petal or the sepal is above
the other petal or sepal while the other side 2. PISTIL
is below (ex. Hibiscus petal) • one or more carpels, in which female
3. VEXILLARY or DESCENDINGLY IMBRICATE gametophytes form
- the posterior petal overlaps one margin, • lower part of carpel is ovary, containing
while the other margin overlaps the two ovules
anterior petals
4. ASCENDINGLY IMBRICATE COMPLETE FLOWERS — have ALL four whorls
- the posterior odd petal is innermost being INCOMPLETE FLOWERS — missing one or more
overlapped by one margin of the two whorls
lateral petals PERFECT FLOWERS — have BOTH stamen and carpel
5. QUINCUNCIAL IMPERFECT FLOWERS — have stamen and carpel
- two petals are internal, two petals are but not both at the same flower
external, while the fifth one has one margin
external and the other one internal LIFE CYCLE OF FLOWERING PLANTS
• Plants have 2 multicellular stages

• Division of their life cycle is called ALTERNATION
OF GENERATIONS
FLOWERS AS REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
Reproductive energy is directed towards:

1. Providing offspring with supply
2. Providing other animals with supply
WHORLS OF FLOWERS
A diploid sporophyte alternates with a haploid
The two outer whorls are non-fertile, vegetative gametophyte:
structures • 2n sporophyte produces haploid spores by
meiosis.
1. CALYX • n gametophyte produces gametes by mitosis
• made up of sepals .
• usually green • Sporophyte bears flowers
• in early stages, encloses all other parts such as
in a flower bud TYPES OF SPORES PRODUCED IN FLOWERS
2. COROLLA 1. MICROSPORE
• consists of the petals • undergoes mitosis
• the showy parts of the flower • becomes pollen grain (male gametophyte)
attracts bees and other animal pollinators

2. MEGASPORE The 7 cells in the female gametophyte are:
• undergoes mitosis - 1 egg cell
• becomes microscopic embryo sac (female - 2 synergid cells
gametophyte) - 1 central cell containing two polar nuclei
- 3 antipodal cells
DEVELOPMENT OF MALE GAMETOPHYTE POLLINATION
• the walls between pollen sacs in the anther break

down for the release of pollen grains.
• POLLINATION — transfer of pollen from anther to
stigma
TWO TYPES OF POLLINATION:
1. SELF-POLLINATION
• pollen is from the same plant
2. CROSS-POLLINATION
• pollen is from a different plant of the same
species
• When a pollen grain lands on stigma, it

germinates and forms pollen tube.
• Germinated pollen grain contains tube cell and
two sperm (mature male gametophyte)
• Pollen tube passes stigma and style to reach
micropyle (pore of ovule)
DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
DEVELOPMENT OF FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE
INSECT VS. WIND POLLINATION
INSECT WIND
Have conspicuous Lacks conspicuous
petals petals
Produce nectar, odor, Usually odorless or
or broth nectarless
Have small to Have large, flat, and
moderate-sized stigmas hairy stigmas
Moderate amounts of Large amount of light
pollen (very sticky) and dry pollen

POLLEN GRAINS • MICROPYLE — gap in the integuments through
• Variously colored (orange, yellow, red, brown, which the pollen tube enters the embryo sac
purple)
• Variously sculptured with pores, spines, streaks FUSION OF FLORAL PARTS
and indentations. A. CONNATION – the fusion of like parts of the
• Size: 10 – 100 micrometer flower
• Parts of Cell wall of Pollen grains: 1. SYMPETALOUS – connation of petals
- intine wall (inner) = cellulose, hemicellulose, 2. SYNANDROUS – connation of stamens
callose 3. SYNCARPOUS – connation of carpels
- exine wall (outer) = sporopollenin, pollenkit 4. SYNGENESIOUS – connation of stamens by their
remnants of Tapetum anthers
• Contents of allergens in pollen grains = exine, 5. MONADELPHOUS – connation of stamens by their
intine, cytoplasm filaments in a single group
6. DIADELPHOUS – connation of stamens by their
filaments in two groups
7. SYNSEPALOUS – connation of sepals
8. SYNTEPALOUS – connation of tepals
B. DISTINCT – the fusion of unlike parts of the flower.
1. APOCARPOUS – distinct carpels
2. APOPETALOUS – distinct petals
3. APOSEPALOUS – distinct sepals
4. APOTEPALOUS – distinct tepals
OTHER TERMS:
Gynoecium and Androecium. Collective term
for pistil and stamen
• An anther contains four masses of sporogenous
tissue. Corolla. Collective term for petals
• The diploid cells of the sporogenous tissue are
called microspore mother cells which undergoes
meiosis. Nectar Guides. Dramatic UV markings that lead
• Microspores separate from one another – one the pollinator to the center of the flower.
forms a thick wall and the other undergoes mitosis.
• Pollen grain with two nuclei is the final product: Arabidopsis. Molecular basis of self-
• Tube nucleus – no known function incompatibility.
• Generative nucleus – undergoes mitosis
producing two sperm nuclei. Micropyle. It permits the passage of pollen tube
into the ovule.
OVULES
Calyx. Collective term for sepals.
• Covered by two layers of cells, the integuments
which later become the seed coats.
Gibberellins. Group of plant hormones that
promote plant growth.
Apomixis (Parthernocarpy). Production of seeds

without the fusion of gametes.
Hay fever. Allergy caused by inhalation of

pollens
10-100 micrometers. Actual range size of pollens

FUNCTIONS OF A FLOWER Microgametophytes and megagametophytes.
1. Producing spores and protecting Two types of gametophytes in flowers.
gametophytes
2. Attracting pollinators Connation. Fusion of like parts of a flower.
3. Produce fruits which enclose seeds.
Synandrous. Connation of stamens.
Photoperiodism. Ability of a plant to respond to
changes in day length. Dehisce. Anther's opening where pollen is
release.
Perianth. What is the outer part of the flower
that consists the sepals and petals? Sporopollenin. A polymer that is resistant to all
chemicals and can be found in the outer layer
Dichotoma. What are the two genes that of pollen grain.
regulates the bilateral symmetry in zygomorphic
flowers? Cyathium. The axis becomes suppressed to
form a convex receptacle.
Intine and Exine. What are the two layers of a
pollen grain? Ray and Disk florets. Two types of florets found in
capitulum inflorescence.
Generative (sperm cell) and vegetative (tube
nuclei). What are the two nuclei in a pollen Merosity. It is the number of floral parts in each
grain? whorl.
Zygomorphic. A bilaterally symmetrical flower. Sepal - petals - stamen - pistil. Normal order of
whorls from the flower’s periphery to the center.
Hypogynous. Floral whose sepal, petals and
stamens are attached to the receptacle below Sepal. It protects and covers the flower parts
the ovary. when the flower is a bud.
Actinomorphic. Type of symmetry where most Bee's purple. Ultraviolet radiation color as a
primitive flowers are radially symmetrical. color seen by insects.
Petalloid. Colorful sepals resembling the petals. Apetalous flower. Flower without petals.
Chalazal end. The 3 antipodal cells migrate Corolla. Collective term for petals.
towards which end/area of the embryonic sac?
Pseudocopulation. The type of pollination
Mixed inflorescence. Type of inflorescence wherein pollen sacs are attached to the bee's
showing both raceme and cymose back.
characteristics.
FRUITS
Microspores. Spores that become pollen grains. • a matured ovary that may or may not
contain seeds
Angiosperms. Most diverse of all plant groups. • other structures derived from other flower
parts or from the axis (e.g. receptacle) may
Plasmogamy and Karyogamy. Syngamy of become a part of the fruit
sperm and egg involves 2 types of fusion. • in fruits derived from interior ovaries, the
enlarged hypanthium (or floral tube) is usually
Funiculus. This is a short stalk which carries water still present in the fruit
and nutrients from the placenta to the ovule by • accessory structures may be prominent
means of a small vascular bundle.

• a fruit may consist of several matured ovaries PARTS OF THE PERICARP
remaining together as a unit, and may include
the matured ovaries of an entire inflorescence
PURPOSE OF FRUITS:
- protect developing seeds from dessication
- aid in dispersal of seeds
PARTHENOCARPY — formation of fruit from

unfertilized ovules; auxin, gibberellin, and
cytokinin induces parthenocarpy
VEGETATIVE PARTHENOCARPY — if a fruit
develops even without the stimulus of
pollination (Banana and Pear) EXOCARP
STIMULATIVE PARTHENOCARPY — if a fruit • outer layer
develops from the mere stimulus of the MESOCARP
pollination without fertilization (seedless • middle layer
Papaya) ENDOCARP
STERNO-SPERMOCARPY — if pollination and • inner layer; varies in different fruits
fertilization take place but the embryo gets
aborted subsequently resulting in seedlessness TYPES OF FRUITS
SIMPLE, AGGREGATE, MULTIPLE
SIMPLE
• developed from a single or compound pistil
and thus consists of a SINGLE matured ovary
together with any accessory structures
PERICARP
• developed ovary wall (carpel wall)
• ripened ovary wall
• ground tissue may either be relatively
homogeneous & parenchymatic or
differentiates into parenchyma and
scelerenchyma DRY FRUITS
• in fruits derived from syncarpous epigynous • pericarp and accessory structures become
flowers (unit cup fruits), the pericarp merges more or less dry when matured
more or less completely with the accessory
parts of the fruit. DEHISCENT FRUITS
• ovary wall — little differentiated parenchyma • fruits that split open at maturity
cells, vascular tissues, and outer & inner • if the ovary differentiating into a dry fruit
epidermal layers -> undergoes frequent contains several ovules, it commonly dehisces
increase in number of cells during at maturity
development • will develop into a SINGLE CARPEL (FOLLICLE
and LEGUME) or SEVERAL UNITED CARPELS
(CAPSULE)

FOLLICLE 4. PORICIDAL
• splits open at maturity only at ONE SUTURE • opens by small pores
(suture —- seams)
• pericarp has a simple structure
• narrow exocarp of thick-walled cells and a
thin-walled parenchymatic mesocarp and
endocarp
• examples: Larkspur, Milkweed, and
Columbine
SILIQUE
LEGUME • made up of TWO carpels that SPLITS at
• at maturity, the fruit splits along BOTH maturity and is separated by a seed-bearing
DORSAL and VENTRAL SUTURES into two valves SEPTUM
• in legume flowers, the gynoecium consists of • examples: Water Cress, Rapeseed
a single, simple pistil with a SUPERIOR ovary
containing a single cavity or LOCULE INDEHISCENT FRUITS
• in maturation of pistil, the fruit or POS is SCHIZOCARP
formed • composed of MULTIPLE CARPELS, that SPLITS
• fruits that are constricted between the seeds APART when mature, but remains indehiscent
and finally break up are called LOMENT
• example: Pea CARYOPSIS or GRAINS
CAPUSLE • contains a SINGLE SEED with its seed coat
• formed from a ovary that consists of TWO or FUSED to the fruit wall
MULTIPLE CARPELS • looks like a seed rather than a fruit
• splits along TWO or MORE SUTURES or PORES • examples: Corn, Wheat
to release its seeds
• examples: Iris foetidissima, Cotton, Opium ACHENE
poppy, Red Bucheye, Purslane • contains a SINGLE SEED, but the seed coat is
NOT FUSED to the fruit wall
FOUR METHODS OF DEHISCENCE IN CAPSULES • instead, the single seed is attached to the
1. SEPTICIDAL fruit wall at ONE POINT only
• split along the septa • examples: Sunflower, Buckwheat, Quinoa,
Caraway
NUTS
• have a stony wall
• usually large and one-seeded
2. LOCULICIDAL • examples: Acorn, Pecan, Chestnut, Walnut
• split along the locules
SAMARA
• is a peculiar indehiscent, one-seeded fruit
similar to an achene, but except the pericarp
wall extends into a THIN, PAPERY WING
• examples: Maple, Russel Bush Willow, Tree of
3. CIRCUMSCISSILE Heaven, Hop Tree
• opens by a lid
FLESHY FRUITS
• have most of its pericarp soft or fleshy at
maturity
• all fleshy fruits are INDEHISCENT

BERRY
• made up of TWO or MORE CARPELS ACCESSORY FRUITS
• has SOFT TISSUES • ovary + other plant tissues
• few to many seeds • strawberry — red edible part is the fleshy
• fleshy throughout, but exocarp may be soft, receptacle; each pistil is the achene on the
leathery, or hard surface
• examples: Tomato, Grapes, Banana,
Blueberry POMES
• outer part is an enlarged floral tube,
PEPO consisting of receptacle tissue, along with
• modified berry in which the fruit wall is THICK portions of the calyx that surrounds the ovary
and HARD RIND • examples: Apple, Pear, Quince
• examples: Watermelon, Cucumber, Pumpkin
FRUIT DISPERSAL
HESPERIDIUM • to expand their geographic range where
• is a berry with LEATHERY RIND and they can germinate and grow
PARCHMENT-LIKE PARTITIONS between sections
with numerous OIL GLANDS surrounding the DISPERSAL by WIND
succulent cavities where the seeds occur • samara of Maple — curved wing causes the
• TERPENES and PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS fruit to spin; can be carried up to 10km away
(essential oils) are responsible for the aroma from the source
when peels are bruised or ground up • Button snake roots and Jerusalem sage —
• LIMONIN — bitter chemical found in large but spherical fruits; rolled by the wind
mesocarp and partitions • Buttercup, Sunflower family, Dandelion —
• examples: Grapefruit, Orange have plumes
• Willow family — fruits are surrounded by
DRUPE cottony or wooly hairs
• with a hard inner layer (endocarp or STONE)
surrounding the seed DISPERSAL by ANIMALS
• Walnut, Pecan, Date Palm, Macadamia Nut, • Burdock burs and similar fruits — spines &
Pistachio Nut, Tung Oil, and Kukui Nut are barbs get caught in animal fur
drupes because of their outer, green, fleshy • Twinflowers and Flax — puncture vines
husk and stony, seed-bearing endocarp penetrates the skin by mean of hard little
(DRUPACEOUS NUTS) prickles
• examples: Peach, Almond, Avocado, Olive, • Blue Jay, Woodpecker, and other birds carry
Cherry and drop nuts or fruits
• Squirrels and birds bury acorns, fruits, and
AGGREGATE FRUITS seeds for winter use
• a fruit that develops from a single flower with
several to many pistils DISPERSAL by WATER
• individual pistils develop into tiny drupes and • some fruits contain trapped air, adapting
other fruitlets them to water dispersal.
• they mature as a CLUSTERED UNIT on a single • heavy down pour will create a torrent of
receptacle water that dislodges masses of vegetation
• examples: Raspberry, Blackberry, Magnolia along stream banks carrying a whole plant
fruit and fruits to new
location.
MULTIPLE FRUITS • Coconut — has air spaces that make it
• forms from the carpels of many flowers that buoyant and capable of being carried by
grow close to one another on a common floral ocean currents. When it washes ashore, the
stalk seed may germinate and grow into a coconut
• example: Pineapple palm tree
SEEDS • SEED COAT (TESTA) — in dicot seed, seed
coat is the outermost covering which functions
FUNCTIONS OF SEEDS: to protect the seed from environmental factors
1. SEED PROTECT THE EMBRYO • HILUM — in dicot seed, it marks the point
a. Seeds maintain dormancy under where the ovule was attached to the ovary
unfavorable conditions and wall
postpone development until • MICROPYLE — next to hilum, allowed the
pollen tube to enter during fertilization
better conditions arise
• ENDOSPERM — both monocot and dicot
b. Seeds afford maximum
have endosperm which is the major source of
protection to the young plant at
food for the embryo, however, a mature dicot
its most vulnerable stage of seed does not contain endosperm because it
development is absorbed by the cotyledon during
c. Seeds contain stored food that germination.
allows a young plant to grow and • COTYLEDON — the major source of food for
develop before photosynthetic dicot seed. In monocotyledon seed, it is called
activity begins SCUTELLUM
2. SPECIALIZED SEED ADAPTATIONS • EMBRYO — the young developing plant,
IMPROVE SURVIVAL contains the embryonic shoot, embryonic root,
a. Seeds are adapted for dispersal and embryonic stem
facilitating the migration of plant - PLUMULE — a part the embryo that will
genotypes into new habitats develop into shoot. In monocotyledons,
the plumule is covered with a protective
sheath called COLEOPTILE
• FRUIT SEED — packed inside nice smelling - COLEOPTILE — a sheath protecting a
and colourful looking fruit, which animals eat,
young shoot tip in a grass or cereal
digest and poop out
- In dicotyledons, EPICOTYL is the very
• CATAPULTING POD — seeds are launched
great distances by the parent plant, short part of the embryonic stem above
establishing plants in new locations and away the cotyledons while HYPOCOTYL is
from certain threats below the attachment point.
• HITCHHIKERS — seeds are caught on animal - RADICLE — a part of the embryo that
fur or human clothing, which help in will develop into root. In
transporting these seeds to new locations monocotyledons, the radicle is covered
• HAIRLIKE — seeds can float on a breeze, with a protective sheath called
allowing seeds to travel away from the parent COLEORRHIZA.
plant
CLASSIFICATION OF SEEDS SEED GERMINATION

• MONOCOTS — produce embryos with one EPIGEOUS — seedling develops its cotyledons
cotyledon that use endosperm as food above ground; cotyledons produce
• DICOTS — produce embryos with two chloroplasts until true leaves develop
cotyledons, some dicots use their cotyledons HYPOGEOUS — seedling develops its
as a source of food, while others use a tissue cotyledons below the ground; cotyledons
called endosperm provide food for developing plants
STRUCTURE OF SEEDS FACTORS AFFECTING GERMINATION:

• PERICARP — in monocot seed, pericarp is the 1. Water / Moisture
outermost layer also functions for protection. It 2. Oxygen
is the dried tissue of the fruit fused with the 3. Optimal Temperature
seed coat 4. Viability of the Seed
5. Presence of Sunlight
STEPS IN SEED GERMINATION: • cells grow in size and begin divisions to form
1. IMBIBITION the seedling
2. RESPIRATION
3. EFFECT OF LIGHT SEED DISPERSAL
4. MOBILIZATION OF RESERVES AND ROLE 1. WIND
OF GROWTH REGULATORS • light feathery plumes
5. DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO AXIS TO • winged fruits
SEEDLING 2. ANIMALS
3. WATER
4. FRUIT
IMBIBITION
• absorption of water by the dry seed
• results in swelling of the seed as the cellular HORMONES AND PLANT MOVEMENT
constituents get rehydrated
• ruptures the seed coats and enables the HORMONES
radicle to come out in the form of primary root • chemical substances that brings about
physiological respones
RESPIRATION • produced in tissues that carry out other
• imbibition of water causes the resumption of functions
metabolic activity in the rehydrated seed
• aerobic respiration takes place as oxygen MAJOR PLANT HORMONES:
begins entering the seed 1. AUXIN
• seeds of water plants, and also rice, can 2. CYTOKININS
germinate under water by utilizing dissolved 3. GIBBERELLINS
oxygen 4. BRASSINOSTEROIDS
5. OLIGOSACCHARINS
EFFECT OF LIGHT 6. ETHYLENE
• seeds which respond to light for their
7. ABSCISIC ACID
germination are named as PHOTOBLASTIC
• POSITIVE PHOTOBLASTIC — do not germinate OTHER PLANT HORMONES:
in darkness but require exposure to sunlight for 1. JASMONATES
germination 2. SALICYLIC ACID
• NEGATIVE PHOTOBLASTIC — do not 3. SYSTEMIN
germinate if exposed to sunlight 4. FLORIGEN
• NON-PHOTOBLASTIC — germinate
irrespective of the exposure or non-exposure of
light
• PHYTOCHROME — regulatory pigment which 1. AUXIN
controls many light- dependent • first plant hormone to be discovered
developmental processes in plants besides • increases the plasticity of cell walls by
germination in light-sensitive seeds
acidifying cell walls
• elongation of stems
MOBILIZATION OF RESERVES AND ROLE OF
• PHOTOTROPISM — differences in auxin
GROWTH REGULATORS
• ALEURONE LAYER — secretes hydrolytic concentration; auxin migrates to the
enzymes (amylase, protease) shaded region
• gibberellins • APICAL DOMINANCE — focuses
growth on the shoot apical meristem
DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO AXIS TO SEEDLING rather than on their axillary buds; auxin
• cells of the embryo in the growing regions inhibits lateral bud growth
become metabolically very active • PARTHENOCARPY — seedless fruits

• promotes the activity of the vascular 5. OLIGOSACCHARINS
cambium and the vascular tissues • carbohydrate fragment of
• present in pollen in large quantities oligosaccharides that acts as hormones
• works with cytokinins and aids in • can be released from the cell wall by
ethylene production enzymes secreted by pathogens
• auxin can be found on apical • trigger the production of
meristems or other immature parts of a PHYTOALEXINS, which are antimicrobial
plant compounds that helps in deterring
viruses or diseases
• inhibit root formation, stimulate flower
2. CYTOKININS
production, and auxin-stimulated
• induces cell division as its name
elongation of stems
permits (cytokinesis)
• found in cell walls
• promote the growth of lateral buds
into branches
6. ETHYLENE
• since cytokinins and auxin work
• gas
together, their balance determines the
• natural product of plant metabolism
form of a plant
• suppresses stem and root elongation
• can be found in root apical meristem
• major role in fruit development
and in immature fruits
• ethylene production increases rapidly
when a plant is exposed to ozone and
3. GIBBERELLINS
other toxic chemicals, temperature
• restore normal growth and
extremes, drought, attack by pathogens
development in dwarf plants
or herbivores, and other stresses
• stem elongation
• roots, shoot apical meristems, leaf
• BOLTING — rapid elongation of floral
nodes, aging flowers, and ripening fruits
stalk
• prompt flowering
7. ABSCISIC ACID
• stimulate the production of a-amylase
• does not promote abscission
& other hydrolytic enzymes for seed
• induces the formation of winter buds—
germination
these are dormant buds that remain
• synthesized in the apical portions of
through the winter
stem and roots, even in young leaves
• suppresses growth of dormant lateral
and seeds
buds
• plays a role in seed dormancy, and is
4. BRASSINOSTEROIDS
antagonistic gibberellins during
• reverse the effects of infertility
germination
• elongation, cell division, bending of
• prevents VIVIPARY — development of
stems, vascular tissue development,
the seed while attached to the parent
delayed senescence, membrane
plant
polarization, and reproductive
• aids in stomata closing/opening
development
• found in mature green leaves, fruits,
• found in pollen, shoots, leaves, and
and root caps
immature seeds

1. JASMONATES • THERMOTOLERANCE — when a plant is
• lipid-derived gradually exposed to lethal temperatures and
• affect pollen development, root survives
growth, fruit ripening, and
senescence DORMANCY
• response to water, temperature, and light
• produced in response to the
• impossible for most plants to grow due to
presence of pests and disease-
freezing temperatures and the unavailability of
causing organisms water
2. SALICYLIC ACID QUIESCENCE

• signaling molecule that helps in the • seed cannot germinate unless environmental
defense against insects and viruses conditions normally required for growth are
present
3. SYSTEMIN • “resting” phase of a seed
• first plant polypeptide with
hormonal properties GROWTH MOVEMENT
• may trigger the production of
molecules that may disrupt insect INTERNAL STIMULI
1. NUTATIONS
digestion, thus restraining additional
• spiraling movements not visible to the
damage that may be done to the
eye
plant
• asymmetrical movement seen in
plants due to change in pressure where
4. FLORIGEN
the tendrils show spiral movements
• responsible for controlling and/or
triggering flowering in plants surrounding a rigid support
• growing point on some plants is
• produced in the leaves, and acts
in the shoot apical meristem of buds observed to trace a spiral pattern
• Example: Tulipa, Helianthus
and growing tips
2. NODDING MOVEMENTS
TEMPERATURE • exhibit a slow, oscillating movement
as the seedling pushes up through the
LOW TEMPERATURE (COLD) soil
• lipid composition
• this movement facilitates the progress
- SATURATED = SOLID at room temp.
of the growing plant tip through the soil
- UNSATURATED = LIQUID at room temp.
• Example: Phaseolus vulgaris
• the more unsaturated the lipids are, the more
resistant the plant is to chilling 3. TWINING MOVEMENTS
• ice crystals form and cells die from • when cells in the stems of climbing
dehydration plants, such as morning glory, elongate
• increased solute concentration -> lowers the to differing extents, causing visible
temp. at which plant cells become turgid spiraling in growth
• antifreeze proteins
• tendril twining, which is initiated by
contact, results from an elongation of
HIGH TEMPERATURE (HOT)
• proteins denature cells on one side of the stem and a
• HSPs or HEAT SHOCK PROTEINS — stabilize shrinkage of cells on the opposite side,
other proteins to prevent them from followed by differences in growth rates
denaturing • Example: Ipomoea

4. CONTRACTION MOVEMENTS the stem elongate due to the presence
• involve contractile roots that pull roots of auxin.
deeper • NEGATIVE PHOTOTROPISM – occurs
• involves the formation of bulbs • where plant growth curves away from
Example: Oxalis light. Roots, depending on the species
examined, are either insensitive to light
5. NASTIC MOVEMENTS or exhibit negative phototropism. Plant
• nondirectional movements such as growth curves away from light.
when flattened plant organs, such as • Example: Zea mays shoot, Helianthus
leaves or flower petals, first expand from shoot
buds, they characteristically alternate in
bending down and then up as the cells 2. GRAVITROPISM
in the upper and lower parts of the leaf • growth response of roots and stems of
alternate in enlarging faster than those plants to the Earth’s gravity.
in the opposite parts • POSITIVE GRAVITROPISM – downward
• may involve differential growth or growth of root; occurs at the primary
turgor changes in special cells roots of plants
• Examples: Mimosa pudica & Dionaea • NEGATIVE GRAVITROPISM – upward
muscipula growth of shoot; occurs at the shoots
forming the main axis of plants
6. EPINASTY • Example: Zea mays root, Arabidopsis
• permanent downward bending of an Thaliana stem
organ, often the petiole of a leaf, in
response to either an unequal flow of
3. THIGMOTROPISM
auxin through the petiole or to ethylene.
• permanent directional growth of a
• Example: Salix babylonica
plant toward or away from a stimulus
• unequal growth due to contact with
EXTERNAL STIMULI solid objects, as the coiling of tendrils
• referred to as TROPISMS around a pole
• TROPISM — growth of a plant toward or • POSITIVE THIGMOTROPISM –
away from a stimulus movement of plant organ toward the
stimulus; occurs in tendrils.
Tropic movements are divided into three
• NEGATIVE THIGMOTROPISM –
phases:
movement of a plant away from the
a. INITIAL PERCEPTION - Organ receives greater
stimulus on one side. stimulus; occurs in roots.
b. TRANSDUCTION - One or more hormones • Example: Ipomoea stem
become(s) unevenly distributed across organ.
c. ASYMMETRIC GROWTH - Result of greater TURGOR MOVEMENT
cell elongation on one side. • changes in internal water pressure initiated
by contact with objects outside of the plant
1. PHOTOTROPISM • not involve growth of an organ toward or
• growth response of plant stems to light away from a stimulus
• directional growth of a plant caused
by light 1. CIRCADIAN RHYTHM
• POSITIVE PHOTOTROPISM – occurs • day-night cycling changes that refer
because the cells on the shady side of to metabolic activities in plants such as
the stem elongate due to the presence cellular respiration and photosynthesis
of auxin. The cells on the shady side of
• cycle through periods of high activity FLOWERING AND PHOTOPERIODISM
and low activity in a 24-hour period
• controlled by a biological “clock” on 1. SHORT-DAY PLANTS
cycles of approximately 24 hours period • this type of plant flowers when the day
• BIOLOGICAL CLOCK — internal is shorter than a critical length
mechanism by which a circadian • the plant does not flower when the
rhythm is maintained in the day is longer than the critical length
absence of appropriate environmental • it also does not flower if the longer-
stimuli than-critical-length night is interrupted
by a flash of light
2. SOLAR TRACKING
• response of leaves to illumination
whereas leaves often twist on their 2. LONG-DAY PLANTS
petioles and become perpendicularly • this type plant flowers when the day is
oriented to a light source longer than a critical length
(HELIOTROPISM) • when the day is shorter than a critical
length, this type of plant does not flower
• however, it does flower if the slightly
3. WATER CONSERVATION MOVEMENTS
longer-than-critical-length night is
• bulliform cells lose their turgor, and the interrupted by a flash of light
leaf rolls up or folds
3. DAY-NEUTRAL PLANTS
PHOTOPERIODISM
• The flowering of this plant is
PHYTOCROME independent of photoperiod
• light-sensitive pigments that occur in all • these plants are not by periods of dark
higher plants and play a role in many different and light
plant responses
• Pr -> Pfr
• Pr absorbs RED light; stable indefinitely in the
dark
• Pfr absorbs FAR-RED light
FUNCTIONS OF PHYTOCHROME
• Pr -> Pfr conversion cycle is known to control
various growth functions in plants
• Pfr promotes seed germination, inhibits shoot
elongation, promotes flowering, and affects
plant spacing and accumulation of chlorophyll
biological clocks are synchronized by external
stimuli to 24-hour rhythms.

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BOTANY LECTURE FINALS SUBAERIAL

• run parallel to the ground

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

• CAULESCENT — a plant with an above- VASCULAR CAMBIUM

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

• WOOD – accumulated as secondary

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

g. Petiole INTERNAL STRUCTURE

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

B. GUARD CELLS • Anisocytic — usually three subsidiary cells

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

beneath the epidermis responsible for

• compass plants are one example of • involves a large, thin walled

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

PHYLLOTAXY How is leaf structure related to the leaf’s

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

1. LEAVES AS FOOD 3. Jan Ingenhousz

OTHER ECONOMIC USES OF LEAVES 5. Theodor Wilhelm Engelmann (T. W.

6. Cornelius Bernardus van Niel (C.B. van

Photosynthesis is the metabollic pathway by 7. Frederick Frost Blackman (F. F.

LIGHT AND DARK (CALVIN CYCLE) REACTIONS

LIGHT reactions use energy from the sun where

DARK reactions or CALVIN CYCLE where sugar

Ground state — lowest energy state an LIGHT REACTION

PHOTOSYNTHESIS STARTER PACK RAW

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

PHOTOSYSTEM — group of hundreds of

B. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN AND

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

CALVIN CYCLE or LIGHT-INDEPENDENT or DARK PHASE 2: REDUCTION

1. 3 CO2 molecule, one molecule at a time,

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

1. The enzyme PEP carboxylase found in the

C3 PLANTS: CAM PLANTS:

CELLULAR RESPIRATION - It accounts for almost 90% of the ATP

A. ENERGY INVESTMENT PHASE

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

TRANSPIRATION AND GUTTATION

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

*root pressure, essentially a phenomenon of EFFECTS OF GUTTATION:

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

• HELICOID CYME or BOSTRYX

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

1. TRIMEROUS — in each whorl, petals in three

1. ACTINOMORPHIC (Radial Symmetry)

I. FLORAL PARTS ON THALAMUS

1. ACYCLIC or SPIRAL — all floral parts are

• Plants have 2 multicellular stages

FLOWERS AS REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

Reproductive energy is directed towards:

© Kamilah Lasco BS Biology 1-3

DEVELOPMENT OF MALE GAMETOPHYTE POLLINATION