Remedial Teaching Strategies for Different Age Groups

ST.
ANTHONY COLLEGE REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN

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Information Sheet 2.1

Principles of Helping Pupils with Learning Difficulties
Teaching preparation
Before preparing for their lessons, remedial teachers should identify pupils' diverse
learning needs as soon as possible so that they may design appropriate teaching
plans to facilitate pupils' effective learning.
Devise various learning activities

Since pupils have different characteristics in learning, teachers must devise different
learning activities with the same teaching objective to develop pupils' varied abilities
and skills in problem solving. It is more effective for teachers to adopt a series of
relevant and simple teaching activities than assigning one long teaching activity since
pupils may acquire the required knowledge and skills through diversified activities.
Design meaningful learning situations

Remedial teachers should specifically design meaningful learning situations, language
environments (especially for English subject), games or activities so as to provide
personal learning experiences for pupils and stimulate their interest and initiative in
learning.
Teaching approaches
Teachers should give concrete examples before proceeding to abstract concepts by
way of simple and easy steps at a pace in line with the learning abilities of students.
Teachers may teach new concepts from different perspectives by various approaches
so that pupils can grasp the ideas through meaningful and repeated illustrations.
Teachers should encourage pupils' active participation by more frequent use of
teaching aids, games and activities. They can also make use of information technology
and all the teaching resources available to help pupils understand the main points.
Provide clear instructions

Pupils with learning difficulties are less competent in understanding written language.
Therefore, remedial teachers should give pupils short and clear instructions to avoid
confusion. They must explain clearly the arrangement of each learning activity. If
necessary, they may ask pupils to repeat the steps of activities so that every pupil may
understand the instructions.
Summarize the main points

At the course of teaching, teachers should always sum up the main points in teaching
and write the key phrases on the board to enhance pupils' audio and visual memories.
Teachers can guide their pupils to link up the knowledge they learn from class with
their life experiences so as to enhance the effectiveness of learning. Besides, guiding
pupils to repeat the main points in verbal or written form is also an effective way of
ST. ANTHONY COLLEGE REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN
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learning.
Enhance learning interest and motivation

Suffering from frequent frustrations in their work, pupils with learning difficulties may
gradually lose their interest in learning. Therefore, teachers should adapt the
curriculum to meet the needs of pupils. With lesser pupils in the IRTP, teachers can
design interesting activities coupled with reward scheme to stimulate pupils' interest. It
is most important to help pupils overcome their learning difficulties so that they may
gain a sense of achievement and recover their confidence and interest in learning.
Encourage pupils' active participation in class activities

Pupils with learning difficulties usually lack self-confidence and are more passive in
class. They seldom ask questions or express their views. Remedial teachers should
patiently encourage active participation in class. Pleasurable learning experiences
may help enhance pupils' interest in learning.
Focus on the learning process

Teaching should not only focus on the transmission of knowledge. It is also important
to see that pupils are benefited from the entire learning process. Teachers should
provide ample opportunities in class for pupils to practice and think what they have
learnt, and allow them to solve problems by different means. Teachers should also
carefully observe the performances of pupils and give them appropriate assistance,
feedback and encouragement so as to help them acquire the learning skills, solve their
problems and understand their own capability, thus enhancing self-confidence and
improving their learning skills.
Show concern for the performances of individual pupils

Pupils may encounter different problems in their studies, therefore, teachers should
carefully observe the learning process of individual pupils in class. Whenever
necessary, they should provide individualized remedial teaching before and after
class, during recess or lunchtime, so that they can remove their learning obstacles as
soon as possible. When marking assignments, teachers should take note of the
common errors of pupils and deliver the correct concepts and knowledge to them
promptly.
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Learners and their Differences
A. Age
People of different ages have different needs, competencies and cognitive skills.
A.1. Young Children
 They respond to meaning even if they do not understand individual words.
 They often learn indirectly rather than directly – that is, they take information from
all sides, learning from everything around them rather than focusing only on the
precise topic they are being taught
 Their understanding comes not just from explanation, but also from what they
see and hear and, crucially, have a chance to touch and interact with.
 They find abstract concepts such as grammar rules difficult to grasp.
 They generally display an enthusiasm for learning and a curiosity about the world
around them.
 They have a need for individual attention and approval from the teacher.
 They are keen to talk about themselves and respond well to learning that uses
themselves and their own lives as main topics in the classroom.
 They have a limited attention span; unless activities are extremely engaging, they
can get easily bored, losing interest after ten minutes or so.
It is important, when discussing young learners, to take account of changes

which take place within this varied and varying age span. Keskil and Cephe (2001) for
example, note that while pupils who are 10 and 11 years old like games, puzzles and
songs most, those who are 12 and 13 years old like activities built around dialogues,
question-and-answer activities and matching exercises most.
The classroom: a.) bright and colorful with windows the children can see out
of, and with enough room for different activities to be taking place; b.) students should
be working in groups in different parts of the classroom, changing their activity every 10
minutes or so; c.) because children love discovering things and respond well to tasks
that require them to imagine, they should be involved in puzzle-like activities, in making
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things, in drawing things, in games, in physical movement or in songs; d.) mixes play
and learning in an atmosphere of cheerful and supportive harmony; e. children should
not spend their time sitting still in rows or talking only to the teacher.
The teacher: a.) needs to spend time understanding how the students think and
operate; b.) needs to be able to pick up on the students’ current interest so he/she can
use them to motivate the children; c.) needs good oral English skills since speaking and
listening are the skills which is used most of all at this age; d.) the teacher’s
pronunciation really matters because children imitate so well.
A.2. Adolescents
 the most exciting students of all, with their greater ability for abstract thought and
their passionate commitment to what they are doing once they are engaged
 bound up with a pronounced search for self-identity
 need to feel good about themselves and valued (hence, ‘a good teacher is
someone who knows our names’)
 often have an acute need for peer approval
What should be done:
1. Provoke student engagement with materials that are relevant and involving
2. Make use of humanistic approach to teaching
3. Material has to be designed at the students’ level, with topics which they can react to
4. They must be encouraged to respond to texts and situations with their own thoughts
and experiences, rather than just by answering questions and doing abstract learning
activities.
5. Avoid humiliating them
6. Provoke intellectual activity by helping them to be aware of contrasting ideas and
concepts which they can resolve for themselves – with the teacher’s guidance
A.3. Adult learners
 Can engage with abstract thought.
 They have a whole range of life experiences to draw on.
 They have expectations about the learning process, and they already have their
own set patterns of learning
 Tend to be more disciplined that other age groups, and, crucially, they are often
prepared to struggle on despite boredom
 They have a wide range of experiences which allow teachers to use a wide range
of activities with them.
 They often have a clear understanding of why they are learning and what they
want to get out of it.
 They can be critical of teaching methods
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 They may have experienced failure or criticism at school which makes them
anxious and under-confident about learning a language
 Many older adults worry that their intellectual powers may be diminishing with
age
What should be done:
1. involve students in more indirect learning through reading, listening and

communicative speaking and writing
2. Allow them to use their intellect to learn consciously where this is appropriate
B. Characteristics
B.1. Good learner characteristics (Lightbrown and Spada, 2006)
Different cultures values different learning behaviors. Our insistence upon one kind of
‘good learner’ profile may encourage us to demand that students act in class in certain
ways, whatever their learning background is. When we espouse some of the techniques
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mentioned above, we risk imposing a methodology on our students that is inimical to

their culture.
There is nothing wrong with trying to describe good language learning behavior.
Nevertheless, we need to recognize that some of our assumptions are heavily culture-
bound and that students can be successful even if they do not follow these
characteristics to the letter.
B.2. Learner styles and strategies

a. Tony Wright (1987)
 The ‘enthusiast’ looks to the teacher as a point of reference and is
concerned with the goals of the learning group.
 The ‘oracular’ also focuses of the teacher but is more oriented towards
the satisfaction of personal goals.
 The ‘participator’ tends to concentrate on group goals and group solidarity.
 The ‘rebel’, while referring to the learning group for his or her point of
reference, is mainly concerned with the satisfaction of his or her own
goals.
b. Keith Willing (1987)

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Describing Teachers
Teachers are:
 actors because they feel as if they are always on the stage.
 orchestral conductors because they direct conversation and set the pace and
tone.
 gardeners because they plant the seeds and then watch them grow.
A. The roles of a teacher
“Students pick up much from the way their teacher walks into the room at the
start of that first lesson” (Senior, 2000). In this sense, we need to make some kind of
distinction between who we are, and who we are as teachers. This does not mean that
we should somehow be dishonest about who we are when we face students. But it does
mean thinking about presenting a professional face to the students which they find both
interesting and effective. When we walk into the classroom, we want them to see
someone who looks like a teacher whatever else they look like. This does not mean
conforming to some kind of teacher stereotype, but rather finding, each in our own way,
a persona that we adopt when we cross the classroom threshold. The point is that we
should be able to adopt a variety of roles within the classroom which facilitate learning.
A.1. Controller: when teachers act as controllers, they are in charge of the class and of
the activity taking place and are often ‘leading from the front’. Controllers take the
register, tell students things, organize drills, read aloud and in various other ways
exemplify the qualities of a teacher-fronted classroom.
In many educational contexts it is the most common teacher role, and many
teachers fail to go beyond it since controlling is the role they are used to and are most
comfortable with.
A.2. Prompter: sometimes, when they are involved in a role-play activity for example,
students lose the thread of what is going on, or they are ‘lost for words’. They may not
be quite sure how to proceed. What should teachers do in these circumstances? If we
teachers ‘nudge’ students forward, we are adopting some kind of a ‘prompting’ role.
When we prompt, we need to do it sensitively and encouragingly but, above all,
with discretion. If we are too adamant, we risk taking initiative away from the student. If,
on the other hand, we are too retiring, we may not supply the right amount of
encouragement.
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A.3. Participant: the traditional picture of teachers during student discussiions, role-
plays or group decision-making activities, is of people who ‘stand back’ from the activity,
letting the learners get on with it and only intervening later to offer feedback and/or
correct mistakes. However, there are also times when we might want to join in an
activity not (only) as a teacher, but also as a participant in our own right.
The danger when teachers act as participants, or course, is that they can easily
dominate the proceedings. This is hardly surprising since teachers usually have more
english at their disposal that their students do. But is it also due to the fact that even in
the most egalitarian classroom, the teacher is still frequently perceived of as ‘the
authority’ and tends to be listened to with greater attention than other students.
A.4. Resource: At times students may need their teacher as a resource. They might
need to ask how to say or write something or ask what a word or phrase means. They
might want to know information in the middle of an activity about that activity or they
might want information about where to look for something - a book or a website. This is
where we can be one of the most important resources they have.
When we acting as a resource, we will want to be helpful and available, but at the
same time we have to resist the urge to spoon feed our students so that they become
over-reliant to us.
A.5. Tutor: when students are working on longer projects, such as process writing, or
preparation for a talk or a debate, we can work with individuals or small groups, pointing
them in directions they have not yet thought of taking. In such situations, we are
combining the roles of prompter and resource – in other words, acting as a tutor.
A.6. Performer: teachers are all performers in the classroom at some level and we all
perform differently. Not only that, but any one teacher probably also has many different
performance styles, depending on the situation. One minute we may be standing at the
front commanding or entertaining, but a few minutes late, we will be working quietly with
a pair while the other students are working in their own pairs.
B. The teacher as a teaching aid

In a language classroom there are specific ways in which we can help our
students both hear and understand language.
B.1. Mime and gesture

Mime and gesture probably work best when they are exaggerated since this
makes their meaning explicit. However, gestures do not necessarily have universal
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meanings, and what might seem acceptable in one situation or place will not be
appropriate in another.
One gesture which is widely used, but which teachers should employ with care,
is the act of pointing to students to ask then to participate in a drill or give some other
form of response. An alternative is to use the upturned palm of the hand in an inclusive
gesture which is far more welcoming.
B.2. The teacher as language model

Students get models of language from textbooks, reading materials of all sorts
and from audio and video tapes. But we can also model language ourselves, as in
reading aloud activities (reading passages and excerpts, story-telling, story/poem
reading)
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C. Native-speaker teachers vs. non-native-speaker teachers

For many years an opposition has been created between native-speaker
teachers of English and non-native speaker teachers. For much of that time, many non-
native speaker teachers have felt a sense of injustice and sometimes even inferiority at
what they perceive as the assumed superiority of the native speaker.
What Adrian Holliday calls native speakerism is still alive and well in some
quarters, not least in the minds of some students, who seem to think that being taught
by someone who has English as a mother tongue will somehow help them learn better.
But the world is changing and English is no longer owned by anybody in
particular. It is therefore clear that any superiority that native speakers might once have
had is rapidly becoming less sustainable. In the end, the value of a teacher depends not
just on their ability to use a language, but also on their knowledge about that language
and their understanding of how to facilitate both that ability and that knowledge in the
minds of their students.
Ten years ago it would have been impossible to find a single non-native speaker
teacher working in a language school in Britain or Australia. But that is no longer the
case. Progress may be slow in this respect, but there are signs of such progress. In the
end, it is the quality of teaching that counts not where the teachers come from or how
they learnt or acquired language.
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Remedial Teaching Strategies
Individualized Educational Programme (IEP)

 Geared to the learning needs of individual pupils, it aims to reinforce the
foundation of learning, help pupils overcome their learning difficulties and
develop their potentials.
 Includes short-term and long-term teaching objectives, learning steps,
activities and reviews to ensure that the programme is implemented
effectively.
 Teaching can be done in small groups or for individual.
Peer Support Programme
 Remedial teachers may train up pupils who perform better in a certain subject
to become ‘little teachers’ and who will be responsible for helping
schoolmates with learning difficulties in group teaching and self-study
sessions as well as outside class.
 It helps pupils reinforce their knowledge, and develop their communication
and cooperation skills as well as good interpersonal relationship.
 Remedial teachers must provide training to the pupils concerned beforehand
and make regular reviews on its effectiveness. Note: This programme is more
suitable for pupils of higher grades.
Reward Scheme
 The reward scheme has positive effect in enhancing pupils’ motivation. It aims
at guiding pupils to set their own objectives and plans, and positively
reinforcing their good performance.
 No matter what reward is provided, the most important thing is to help pupils
cultivate an interest in learning and gain a sense of satisfaction and
achievement during the learning process.
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Remedial Instruction Overview and Terminologies
Emergent/Beginning literacy skills

- These are the skills that form the foundation of speaking, reading, and writing
and develop into conventional or traditional reading and writing.
- Students who perform poorly in the classroom might have a weakness in one or
more of the emergent/beginning literacy skills areas. It is advisable to assess
students’ knowledge of emergent literacy skills if they are having difficulty
reading.
“All babies are born equal. Not one can speak, count, read, or write at birth, but by the
time they go to kindergarten they are not equal: (Trelease 2001, p.36).
A. Concepts of Print
 Neuman and Celano (2001) write that many children have very limited
experiences with print. As a result, they have not developed concepts of print.
Specific instruction is needed in order for children to learn letters, sounds, and
story structure. (Reutzel, Fawson, Young, Morrison, and Wilcox, 2003)
Terms
 Concepts of Print - the foundational, or emergent literacy, skills involved in how
to hold a book and turn the pages, identifying a word or sentence, where to begin
and end reading a page, having the eyes move in the correct direction, retelling a
story, or relating the author’s ideas to one’s own experiences.
 Directionality - moving one’s eyes in the correct direction for reading the printed
form of language.
 Story Structure – the ability to identify the characters, plot, and setting of a
story.
 Visual Discrimination – the skill of seeing likeness or differences among
objects, pictures, letters, numbers, or words.
 Words and sentences – identifying the individual words and sentences on a
page, identifying that sentences are made up of words, and recognizing that
these words and sentences contain meaning are important concepts of print.
Note: the best way to teach students concepts of print is to provide many
experiences with books and writing.
 Explicit Instruction: Reading Big books
 Environmental Print – the print that surrounds us is an excellent source for
teaching students that they can be successful in reading. Students can easily
identify many of the symbols and can feel successful as readers.
 Language Experience – provides an authentic learning experience for students.
It helps students understand that the printed word carries meaning. It is most
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often used with the beginning readers, but can be successfully used with adults
learning to read.
Roach Van Allen (1968) and Russell Stauffer (1970) provide thorough
discussions of the Language Experience Approach. Hoffner (2003-2004)
provides insight into the Language Experience Approach with the secondary
students in content areas.
What I think about, I can talk about.
What I can say, I can write down.
What I can write, I can read.
I can read what others write for me to read.
B. Letter identification
 Being able to identify and name the letters of the alphabet was found to be one of
the best predictors of reading success by Durrell (1958). Knowing letter names
assists students in associating phonemes, or sounds, with graphemes, or letters
(Walsh, Price, aandGillingham 1988).
Terms
 Grapheme – the physical representation of a symbol from a standard alphabet.
 Letter identification – the skill of naming a graphic symbol belonging to a
standard alphabet.
Note: Do not simultaneously teach letters with similar appearances.
C. Phonemic Awareness
 Is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds-phonemes--in
spoken words. Before children learn to read print, they need to become
more aware of how the sounds in words work.
Remediation through Phonemic Awareness

1. Sound Isolation. In sound isolation, use conspicuous strategies.
Example: The first sound in sun is /ssss/.
2. Blending (Example: /sss/ - /uuu/ - /nnn/ is sun). In blending instruction, use
scaffold task difficulty.
activities.
3. Segmenting (Example: The sounds in sun are /sss/ - /uuu/ - /nnn/) In phoneme
segmentation instruction, strategically integrate familiar and new information.
Word Analysis Skills

- These are the skills that students use when identifying words as they are
reading. These are used automatically by proficient readers. This automatic use
of word analysis skills allows readers to focus on comprehension – interacting
with text and attaching meaning to printed symbols.
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- It is the goal of educators to have students who are independent in their skills of
word analysis. If students have not developed sufficient skills in word analysis in
the early childhood grades, they will have difficulty encountering the high density
of vocabulary presented to them in grades four and above (Taylor 1996).
- Materials read by students in high school contain over 100, 000 different words
(Nagy and Anderson 1984).
Having good word analysis skills or developing automaticity in decoding words is not
sufficient to be a proficient reader. This must be combined with fluency and
comprehension.
A. Sight Word Recognition
Terms
 Sight words – are words that can be recognized instantly and pronounced
without resorting to the use of word analysis.
 High Frequency or Basic Sight Words – are words most frequently used in
written text.
3 basic sight word lists:

1. “Dolch Basic Sight Words” - account for approximately 70 % of the words
children encounter in grades 1 through 3, and approximately 40% of the words
that appear in adult text.
2. Edward Fry’s “Instant word list” - is a second high-frequency word list. The
first 100 words on the list account for about 50 % of all printed materials. The 300
words on this list account for about 65 % of all printed materials. These are the
words most frequently used to generate text in basal readers and other narrative
materials.
3. “Adult Basic Word list” - contains the 385 words that adults beginning to read
most frequently use to generate written text.
Note: Inadequate development of concepts of print, poor visual discrimination and lack
of phonic decoding skills may be possible causes of poor sight vocabulary. Practice
makes word recognition more accurate and faster.
Explicit instruction: Teaching Using Predictable big books
B. Picture Clues
 The use of picture clues is an emergent literacy skill that assists students in
identifying words in the text and predicting story content. They are useful in
developing sight vocabulary.
 Heilman (1998) says, “It is true that pictures may provide clues to unknown
words. Pictures may suggest words. They have high motivational value and will
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often lure the child into reading. Pictures help focus attention on meaning. They
serve as stimuli for oral language use in group discussion.
 Gunning (2003) identifies a second level of text and picture clues. There is a
simple text that is illustrated. Most, but not all of the words can be identified by
the picture.
Explicit instruction: Using book walls

C. Phonic Analysis
 The process of using the relationships between spelling and pronunciation at the
letter, syllable, and word levels to figure out unfamiliar words.
D. Syllabic Analysis
 The process of dividing words into pronounceable units that contain a vowel-like
sound. The way the story is written encourages the student to drum out the
syllables, or beats, like playing a drum.
Syllabication Principles
1. When two consonants stand between two vowels, the word is usually divided
between the consonants, e.g., dag-ger and cir-cus. In some of the newer
materials, materials are divided after the double consonant, e.g., dagg-er. It
should be remembered that in reading we are usually teaching syllabication as a
means of word attack. Therefore, we should also accept a division after double
consonants as correct even though the dictionary would not show it that way.
2. When one consonant stands between two vowels, try dividing first so that the
consonant goes with the second vowels, e,g., pa-per and motor, Students
should be taught that flexibility is required in using this rule; if this does not give
a word in the student’s speaking-listening vocabulary, then the student should
divide it so that the consonant goes with the first vowel, as in riv-er and lev-er.
3. When a word ends in a consonant and le, the consonant usually begins the last
syllable, e.g., ta-ble and hum-ble.
4. Compound words are usually divided between word parts and between syllables
in this parts, e.g., hen-house and po-lice-man.
5. Prefixes and suffixes usually form separate syllables.
Vocabulary
- As defined in Webster’s New World Dictionary, is all the words of a language.

Our knowledge of words and our ability to use them are essential to
comprehension.
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- “Reading instruction that focuses on the growth of children’s vocabulary results in

enhancing their abilities to infer meanings and to better comprehend what they
read” (Rupley, Logan, and Nichols 1998 – 1999).
- The basic vocabulary of 6th grade students is estimated to be about 32,000

words, and that of 12th grade students is 47, 000 (Smith 1991).
- Graves (1986) estimated that the listening vocabulary of first-grade students is
10,000 words.
Pavio (1971), Wolpert (1972), Reynolds and Flagg (1977), and Jiganti and Tindall
(1986) provided research supporting the promotion of mental imagery in learning words.
Four main principles of instruction by Blanchowicz and Fisher (2000):

1. Students should be actively involved in learning new words.
2. They should make personal connections to new words.
3. They should be surrounded – immersed – in learning new words.
4. They should see the words in multiple contexts and have many repeated
exposures to them.
Note: The goal of vocabulary instruction is not to have students memorize a list of
words and write definitions. Rather, it is to provide opportunities for students to
understand and use words. Wide reading provides many opportunities for students to
encounter new words in multiple contexts beyond the classroom.
A. Remedial Vocabulary Instruction

Vocabulary is initially acquired in four ways:
 reading and conversation

 direct instruction (when a teacher or auto-instructional program is used
intentionally to build vocabulary power)
 self-instruction (when words are looked up in a dictionary or when a child asks
other people for meanings of words)
 mental manipulation (while thinking, speaking,and writing)
1. Considerations in remedial vocabulary instruction

 Connect vocabulary instruction to the natural processes of word learning. The
literature on vocabulary acquisition tends to divide the teaching of vocabulary into
five phases. These are:
a. Disposition – opening the student’s mind and will to engage new words.
b. Integration – establishing ties between the meaning of a new word and the
student’s existing knowledge.
c. Repetition – provisions for practice distributed over time, as well as opportunities
for frequent encounters with the word in similar and differing contexts.
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d. Interaction and meaningful use – social situations conducive to using new

words in interactions with others and, thus, mentally referencing new words in
listening, reading, writing, and speaking.
e. Self-instruction – maintaining an awareness of new words outside the
classroom.
2. Concept-Based Approach to Vocabulary Building

a. Identify the relevant and irrelevant features of the concept in question.
b. Provide examples of the concept.
c. Provide examples of irrelevant but loosely related concepts with which it might be
compared.
d. Relate the concept by some possible smaller or subordinating concepts.
e. Relate or categorize the concept by some possible larger or superordinating
concepts.
f. Relate or categorize the concept alongside equal or coordinating terms.
3. Motor Imaging
 It appears that even the highest forms of vocabulary and concept learning have
psychomotor foundations, or equivalents. Hence, motor movements associated
with certain stimuli can become interiorized as a “symbolic meaning” (Piaget,
1963 in Manzo and Manzo, 1993). There are three considerable advantages to
knowing this where remediation is concerned:
a. First, since physical-sensory or pro-prioceptive learning can be interiorized, they

also can be self-stimulating, and as such, they are easier to rehearse and recall
with the slightest mental reminder, as well as from external stimulation.
b. Second, pro-prioceptive learning is so basic to human learning that it is common
to all learners, fast and slow, and hence, ideal for heterogeneously grouped
classes.
c. Third, the act of identifying and acting out a word becomes a life experience in
itself with the word – a value that Frederick Duffellmeyer (1980) in Manzo and
Manzo (1993) demonstrated when he successfully taught youngsters words via
the “experiential” approach.
A. Graphic Organizers
Terms
 Graphic organizers – provide visual representation of the relationships among
words. Usually geometric shapes and lines are used to slow these relationships.
They provide opportunities for students to develop a more thorough
understanding of words by seeing relationships and being active in the learning
process (Blanchowicz and Fisher 2000).
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 Definition word maps – help students see visual representations of definitions

(Schwarts and Raphael 1985). The concept is presented, and students organize
information to which concept belongs, its properties, examples, or illustrations of
the concept.
 Logo and pictomaps – at the emergent literacy stage, students may not have
developed the skills needed to decode words. A pictorial representation of the
words and their relationships is presented.
 Semantic feature analysis – is a grid that assists students in identifying
similarities and differences among concepts that are related to each other. It
helps students make comparisons.
 Semantic maps - are a diagrammatic way of showing relationships among
concepts, ideas, by using circles and lines.
 Word walls – are working bulletin boards (Padak 2001). It is a chart with atheme
or focus determined by the teacher. These charts are posted around the room
and used as a way of studying word patterns and word relationships.
Explicit Instruction:
Word walls can be created for any topic or skill being studied in class. The use of word
walls is limitless.
Logo and Pictomaps
Semantic Maps
Definition Word maps
Semantic Feature analysis
B. Morphology
Terms
 Morphology – is the study of word formations that include compound words,
contractions, and affixes. Knowledge of morphemes helps children expand their
vocabulary beyond root words and aids in comprehension of printed materials.
 Affix – a prefix, suffix, or inflectional ending that is added to a root word to
change the function of the word or to add its meaning.
 Compound word – a word that is formed by combing two or more words.
 Contraction – formed by omitting one or more letters or sounds from an
expression and replacing the omitted letters with an apostrophe.
 Root word – the word that is left after you take away all affixes.
 Description of compound words
- Usually do not create much difficulty because students already know each of the
smaller words that make up the compound word. Students who have difficulty
with compound words may not have recognized that the words are made by
combining already known words. Attention should be drawn to the compound
words’ makeup.
 Description of Contractions
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- Usually do not create problems because they maintain the same meaning and
often have similar structures. Directing students’ attention to the “lazy way of
writing” is often sufficient during silent or oral reading.
C. Context
- Words that surround a particular word and help identifying it.
NOTE: If students are to use context clues, they must be given specific instruction in
their use. They must be taught how to arrive at meanings that are unknown to them.
- Students taught through a strong decoding approach with heavy reliance on

phonics may not use context. Students taught with a strong meaning approach,
such as whole language, may tend to overuse context.
FACT: Better readers who view reading as “getting meaning” use context. Less able
readers tend to view reading as “decoding” or pronouncing words.
Six types of context clues:

1. Direct definitions and explanations. Words such as is and means give clues
that a definition or explanation will follow.
2. Explanation through example. Sometimes, writers us explanations to help the
reader understand a word’s meaning. “The car has rust spots; these are reddish
brown spots that have decayed.”
3. Words in a series. The reader can get an idea about a word’s meaning if it is
included among other words that belong to the same category. “We visited
Hirosaki, Tokyo, and Toyota.”
4. Synonym or restatement. Unknown words may be identified because different
words with similar meanings are used in conjunction with it.
5. Comparison or contrast. Words are compared or contrasted with words that
are known already.
6. Familiar expressions or figures of speech. At times metaphors and similes
may be used to convey meaning.
Explicit instruction: Teacher Modeling, Student Modeling
D. Word Relationships
 Words have many different relationships to each other that students should be
aware of in order to understand differences in meanings. Understanding these
differences in meaning helps students use the dictionary and comprehend
material they read (Crawley and Mountain 1995).
Terms
 Antonyms – words that are opposite in meaning.
 Figurative language – words that contain meanings that are different from their
literal meanings. Connotative rather than denotative meanings.
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 Homophones (homonyms) – words that have the same sound but are spelled
differently and have different meanings.
 Homographs – words that have the same spelling but are pronounced
differently.
 Multiple meanings – the various meanings and shades of meaning words can
have.
 Synonyms – words that have the same meanings.
Explicit instruction: Synonyms, Homophones, Homographs, Multiple meanings,

figurative language
E. Extending an Interest in Vocabulary

 Vocabulary development is an ongoing activity, and many opportunities should
be provided to encourage its expansion.
Reinforcement Activities
Providing real experiences
Providing vicarious experiences
Encouraging wide reading
Word histories
FLUENCY
Fluency – Being able to decode words automatically, group them meaningfully, and
read with expression. Being fluent in reading allows students to focus on
comprehension – interacting with text and attaching meaning to printed symbols. It also
helps students develop more positive self-image as readers.
Oral Reading – communicating an author’s message by reading aloud to an individual

or an audience.
Fluency instruction has been found to result in improved reading comprehension

(Dowhower 1987).
Blachman (2000) concluded that “without accuracy and fluent word recognition, there
will always be constraints in comprehension.
Round Robin oral reading instruction is used as a method of fluency. It involves

having students turning a page in their textbooks and selecting a student to begin
reading orally.
Problems with fluency may stem from a variety of causes: inadequate sight
vocabulary, poor decoding skills, an overdependence on word analysis skills, or
inattention to punctuation.
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A. Major Fluency Strategies
 Antiphonal Reading – groups of students are assigned to read parts of a

selection or text in unison.
 Choral reading - students read together text in unison and the selection is not
divided into parts for different groups of students to read.
 Echo reading – fluency is modeled. Students immediately echo a phrase read
by a skilled reader.
 Paired reading – a capable reader and a student who is having difficulty reading
materials written at an instructional level are paired or partnered together.
 Radio reading – students are asked to think back to the days when people sat
around the living room in anticipation of stories being told on the radio. In radio
reading, one student is the announcer. This promotes listening skills and
audience reading.
 Readers’ theater – students practice reading their script parts. After practicing
their parts, they present the script to an audience of parents or peers without
memorizing the script.
 Repeated readings – students practice reading a selection until it is read
perfectly.
 Tape – assisted reading – students read along in their books as they listen to
an audiotaped recording of their book by a fluent reader. This has been called
“talking books”.
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Remedial Instruction in READING
B. Correcting Perceptual and Decoding Deficits in Word Recognition
 We can identify the student who has insufficient competence in the visual
analysis of words in two ways. First, the student, when pronouncing words
verbally, selects inappropriate elements to sound out and often he/she tries
again and again to use the same analysis even when it does not work. The
second way can be done when the teacher shows him/her the word covering
up parts of it, if the student is able to recognize it, then at least one of his/her
problems in word recognition is faulty visual analysis (Ekwall & Shanker,
1988).
C. Definition of Terms
1. Alphabetic Knowledge: understanding that letters represent sound so that
words may be read by saying the sounds represented by the letters, and words
may be spelled by writing the letters that represent the sounds in a word.
2. Sight-Word Knowledge: all words any one reader can recognize instantly (with
automaticity) not necessarily with meaning.
3. Basic Sight Words: a designated list of words, usually of high utility.
4. Knowledge on Sound-Symbol Correspondence: (a.k.a. graphophonic
knowledge) the readers’ ability to use phonics, phonemic, and structural analysis
knowledge.
D. Correcting Sight-Word Knowledge Deficit

1. Write a sentence on the chalkboard with the new word used in context. Underline
the word.
2. Let students read the sentence and attempt to say the new word using context
clues along with other word-attack skills. If you are introducing a new story, it is
especially important that you do not tell them each new word in advance, as this
deprives them of the opportunity to apply word-attack skills themselves.
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3. Discuss the meaning of the word or how it is used in talking and writing. Try to tie
to something in their experience. If possible, illustrate the word with a picture or a
concrete object.
4. Write the word as students watch. Ask them to look for certain configuration
clues such as double letters, extenders, and descenders. Also ask them to look
for any well-known phonograms or word families, e.g. ill, ant, ake, but do not call
attention to little words in longer words.
5. Ask students to write the word themselves and to be sure have them say the
word while they write it.
6. Have students make up and write sentences in which the word is used in context.
Have them read these sentences to each other and discuss them.
E. Correcting Basic Sight Vocabulary Deficit

1. Have the students trace the word; write it on paper, or use chalk or magic slates.
2. Have the students repeat the word each time it is written.
3. Have the students write the word without looking at the flash card; then compare
the two.
4. Create “study buddies.” Match learners in the classroom with fellow students who
have mastered the words. Take time to teach the “tutors” how to reinforce new
words. Provide a big reward to both tutor and learner once the learner has
attained the goal.
5. Provide reinforcement games for students to use on their own or with their study
buddies. Games may be open-ended game boards or developed by levels
according to the sub-lists.
6. Provide charts, graphs, and other devices for students to display their progress.
These serve as excellent motivators, especially since students are competing
with themselves rather than each other.
7. Use your imagination. Have students dramatize phrases, build a sight-word
“cave,” practice words while lining up, read sight-word “plays,” etc.
F. Correcting Knowledge on Sound-Symbol Correspondence

Vowel Rules or Principles and Accent Generalizations
1. In words containing a single vowel letter at the end of the word, the vowel letter
usuallyhas the long vowel sound. (Note that this rule refers to words and not just
syllables.) There is a similar rule for single word letters at the end of syllables.
2. In syllables containing a single vowel letter at the end of the syllable, the vowel
letter may have either the long or short vowel sound. Try the long sound first.
(Note that this has the same effect as rule 1.)
3. A single vowel in a syllable usually has the short vowel sound if it is not the last
letter or is not followed by r, w, or l. When explaining this to students it is often
helpful to indicate that a single vowel in a closed syllable is usually short.
Students should be taught that a closed syllable is one in which there is a
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consonant on the right-hand side. They will also need to know, as indicated
above, the r, w, and l control rules.
4. Vowels followed by r usually have a sound that is neither long nor short
5. A y at the beginning of a word has the “y” consonant sound; y at the end of a
single-syllable word, when preceded by a consonant, usually has the long I
sound; and y at the end of a multi-syllable word, when preceded by a consonant,
usually has the long e sound. (Some people hear it as short i.)
6. In words ending with vowel-consonant-silent e the e is silent and the first vowel
may be either long or short. Try the long sound first. In teaching this rule, stress
that the student should be flexible; i.e. try the short vowel sound if the long one
does not form a word in his or her speaking-listening vocabulary. It has been
demonstrated that students who are taught to be flexible in attacking words when
applying rules such as this become more adept at using word-attack skills than
those who are not taught this flexibility.
7. When aj, ay, ea, ee, and oa are found together, the first vowel is usually long and
the second is usually silent.
8. The vowel pair ow may have either the sound heard in cow or the sound heard in
crow.
9. When au, aw, ou, oi, and oy are found together, they usually blend to form a
diphthong.
10. The oo sound is either long as in moon or short as in book.
11. If a is the only vowel in a syllable and is followed by l or w, then the a is usually
neither long nor short.
NOTE: Accent has less importance for a corrective reader than the vowel rules. This is
true partially because a student who properly attacks a new word in his or her speaking-
listening vocabulary but not sight vocabulary is likely to get the right accent without any
knowledge of accent generalizations.
Also, teach students the use of affixes so they will have better understanding of
contractions, inflectional and derivational endings for change tense, number form and
function. These will lead to students’ sufficient use of structural analysis strategy.
G. Remedial Vocabulary Instruction

Vocabulary is initially acquired in four ways:
 reading and conversation

 direct instruction (when a teacher or auto-instructional program is used
intentionally to build vocabulary power)
 self-instruction (when words are looked up in a dictionary or when a child
asks other people for meanings of words)
 mental manipulation (while thinking, speaking,and writing)
4. Considerations in remedial vocabulary instruction

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Connect vocabulary instruction to the natural processes of word learning. The

literature on vocabulary acquisition tends to divide the teaching of vocabulary into
five phases. These are:
f. Disposition – opening the student’s mind and will to engage new words.
g. Integration – establishing ties between the meaning of a new word and the
student’s existing knowledge.
h. Repetition – provisions for practice distributed over time, as well as opportunities
for frequent encounters with the word in similar and differing contexts.
i. Interaction and meaningful use – social situations conducive to using new
words in interactions with others and, thus, mentally referencing new words in
listening, reading, writing, and speaking.
j. Self-instruction – maintaining an awareness of new words outside the
classroom.
5. Concept-Based Approach to Vocabulary Building
a. Identify the relevant and irrelevant features of the concept in question.
b. Provide examples of the concept.
c. Provide examples of irrelevant but loosely related concepts with which it might be
compared.
d. Relate the concept by some possible smaller or subordinating concepts.
e. Relate or categorize the concept by some possible larger or superordinating
concepts.
f. Relate or categorize the concept alongside equal or coordinating terms.
6. Motor Imaging
It appears that even the highest forms of vocabulary and concept learning have
psychomotor foundations, or equivalents. Hence, motor movements associated with
certain stimuli can become interiorized as a “symbolic meaning” (Piaget, 1963 in
Manzo and Manzo, 1993). There are three considerable advantages to knowing this
where remediation is concerned:
d. First, since physical-sensory or proprioceptive learning can be interiorized, they

also can be self-stimulating, and as such, they are easier to rehearse and recall
with the slightest mental reminder, as well as from external stimulation.
e. Second, proprioceptive learning is so basic to human learning that it is common
to all learners, fast and slow, and hence, ideal for heterogeneously grouped
classes.
f. Third, the act of identifying and acting out a word becomes a life experience in
itself with the word – a value that Frederick Duffellmeyer (1980) in Manzo and
Manzo (1993) demonstrated when he successfully taught youngsters words via
the “experiential” approach.
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Remedial Instruction in LISTENING
A. Factors Affecting Students’ Listening Comprehension

1. Internal factors – refer to the learner characteristics, language proficiency,
memory, age, gender, background knowledge as well as aptitude, motivation,
and psychological and physiological factors
2. External factors - are mainly related to the type of language input and tasks
and the context in which listening occurs
B. Internal Factors
1. Problems in language proficiency (cover problems on phonetics and
phonology like phonetic discrimination, and phonetic varieties; problems in
grammar; and lexicological problems)
2. Poor background knowledge
3. Lack of motivation to listen
4. Psychological factors
5. Other internal factors (age, attention span, memory span, reaction and
sensitivity)
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C. External Factors
1. Speed of delivery and different accents of the speakers
2. The content and task of listening materials
3. Context - refers to the spatial-temporal location of the utterance, i.e. on the
particular time and particular place at which the speaker makes an utterance
and the particular time and place at which the listener hears or reads the
utterance.
4. Co-text - It refers to the linguistic context or the textual environment provided
by the discourse or text in which a particular utterance occurs. Co-text
constrains the way in which we interpret the response. Here we can infer that
the person is not going to a picnic by judging from the co-text.
A: Are you coming to Baguio with us?
B: I have a paper to finish by Monday.
D. How to Improve Students’ Listening Comprehension

1. Teach pronunciation, stress, and intonation of the critical sounds of English
2. Practice sound discrimination, liaisons, and incomplete plosives
3. Recognize stressed and unstressed words
4. Enrich vocabulary
5. Teach grammar
6. Practice inferring information not directly stated
7. Improve skills in predicting
8. Teach note-taking skills
LISTENING COMPREHENSION INSTRUCTION

Principles and Practices condensed from Joan Morley
♣ During the last quarter of the 20th century. Academicians have heralded new views
on the importance of:
1. individual learners and the individuality of learning;
2. listening and reading as nonpassive and very complex receptive processes;
3. listening comprehension’s being recognized as a fundamental skill;
4. real language used for real communication as a viable classroom model.
♣ In the 1970s, the status of listening began to change from one of neglect to one of
increasing importance. Instructional programs expanded their focus on pragmatic skills
to include listening as well as reading, writing, and speaking.
♣ During the 1980s, special attention to listening was incorporated into new instructional
frameworks. it featured functional language and communicative approaches.
♣ Throughout the 1990s, attention to listening in language instruction increased
dramatically. Aural comprehension in second/foreign language acquisition became an
important area of study.
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♣ In reality, listening is used far more than any other single language skill in normal
daily life. On average, we can expect to listen twice as much as we speak, four times
more than we read, and five times more than we write.
FOUR GENERIC INSTRUCTIONAL MODELS

MODEL # 1 – Listening and Repeating
Learner Goals: To pattern-match; to listen and initiate; to memorize
Instructional material: Features audio-lingual style exercises and/or dialogue
memorization – based on a hearing-and-pattern matching model.
Procedure: Ask students to a) listen to a word, phrase, or sentence pattern; b) repeat
and imitate it; and c) memorize it often, but not always a part of the procedure.
Value: Enables students to do pattern drills , to repeat dialogues, and to use memorized
prefabricated patterns in conversation; enables them to imitate pronunciation patterns.
Higher level cognitive processing and use; d) propositional language structuring are not
necessarily an intentional focus.
Model # 2 – Listening and Answering Comprehension Questions

Learner Goals: To process discrete-point information; to listen and answer
comprehension questions.
Instructional material: Features a student response-pattern based on a listening and
question answering model with occasional innovative variations on this theme.
Procedure: Ask students to a) listen to an oral text along a continuum from sentence
length to lecture length; and b) answer primarily factual question. Use familiar types of
questions adapted from traditional reading comprehension exercises. Also called a
“quiz-show” format of teaching.
Value: 1) enable students to manipulate discrete pieces of information, hopefully with
increasing speed and accuracy of recall; 2) Increase students’ stock of vocabulary and
grammar constructions; 3) Do not require students to make use of the information for
any real communicative purpose beyond answering the questions; 4) Is not interactive
two-way communication.
Model # 3 – Task Listening

Learner goals: To process spoken discourse for functional purposes; to listen and do
something with the information, that is, carry out real tasks using the information
received.
Instructional material: Ask students to a) Listening-and using (listen-and do) response
pattern; b) Complete a task, solve a problem, transmit the gist of the information orally
or in writing; listen and take lecture notes, etc.
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Procedure: Ask students to a) listen and process information b) use the orally
transmitted language input immediately to complete a task which is mediated thru
language in a context in which success is judged in terms of whether the task is
performed.
Value: The focus is task-oriented, not question-oriented. to use info., not to answer it.
There are two types of tasks:
1) language use tasks: to give students practice in listening, grab gist of it and
“make functional
use of it”
2) language analysis tasks: to help students develop cognitive and metacognitive
language
learning strategies, i.e., to guide them toward personal intellectual involvement
in their own
learning.
NOTE:
Metacognitive – is a term used in information-processing theory to indicate an
“executive” function, strategies that involve planning for learning, thinking about the
learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of one’s production or comprehension,
and evaluating learning after an activity is completed.
e.g., a composition, a lecture, a short essay, etc.
Cognitive – strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and involve more
direct manipulation of the learning material itself.
Model # 4 – Interactive Listening

Learner goals: To develop aural/oral skill in semiformal interactive academic
communication; to develop critical listening, critical thinking, and effective speaking
abilities.
Instructional material: Two-way communication by means of individual or small-group
presentation or discussion, followed by audience participation in Q&A.
Procedure: Ask students to participate in discussion activities that enable them to
develop all three phases of the speech act: speech decoding, critical thinking, and
speech encoding.
Value: the focus is communicative/competence-oriented as well as task oriented.
Learners have opportunities to engage in and develop the complex array of
communicative skills in the four competency areas: linguistic competence, discourse
competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence.
Some Psychosocial dimensions of Language and the Listening act
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Purpose: to bring students to an understanding that listening is not a passive skill, but
an active receptive skill which requires as much work as does becoming skilled in
reading, writing, and speaking in a second language.
Listening in three modes:

Bidirectional (two-way) listening mode – Two (or more) participants take turns
exchanging speaker role and listener role as they engage in face-to-face or telephone
verbal interaction.
Unidirectional (one-way) listening mode – auditory input comes from a variety of
sources: overheard conversations, public address announcements, recorded messages
(telephone answering machines), radio, TV, lectures, religious services, etc. Being
unable to interact, we respond by talking to ourselves or in self-dialogue manner. We
may sub-vocalize or even vocalize these responses.
Autodirectional listening mode – or self-dialogue communication. In our thought
process, as we think, plan strategies, and make decisions, we talk to ourselves and
listen to ourselves.
Psychosocial functions of listening:

Transactional function:
1) message-oriented
2) focus on content and conveying factual or propositional information
3) giving instructions, explaining, describing, giving directions, ordering, inquiring,
requesting, relating, etc.
4) The premium is on message clarity and precision. Speakers often use
confirmation checks to make sure what they are saying is clear.
5) It’s “business-type” talk.
Interactional function
1) person oriented
2) the objective is the establishment and maintenance of cordial social
relationships.
3) examples: identifying with the other person’s concerns, being nice to the other
person, and maintaining and respecting “face.”
4) It’s “social-type” talk.
Developing listening comprehension activities and materials
Three principles for materials development
a) Relevance
b) Transferability/Applicability
c) Task Orientation
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1. Relevance
–Both the listening lesson content (the information) and the outcome (the way the
information is put to use) need to be as relevant as possible to the learner. This serves
to hold learner attention and provide motivational incentive.
— The more the lessons focus on things with real-life relevance, the more they appeal
to students, and the better the chance of having learners’ wanting to listen.
–If the listening activities is self-created, relevance is easy to control. If published
materials are used, Richards suggests some ways to adapt materials to suit students’
needs: modifying the objectives; adding prelistening activities (warm-up); changing the
teaching procedures for class presentation and devising postlistening activities (wrap-
up).
2. Transferability/Applicability
–internally: can be used in other classes.
externally: can be used in out-of-school situations.
— The best listening lessons present in-class activities that mirror real life, i.e.,
the use of radio or television news broadcasts in adult classes can provide not only a
real experience in listening comprehension, but such lessons also contain content that
can be applicable outside of class as a source of conversation topics.
3. Task Orientation
–In children, teenage, and adult classes, it is productive to combine two
different kinds of focus: 1) language use tasks and 2) language analysis
activities.
–Define “Task”?
a) to provide “actual meaning” by focusing on tasks through language.
Success is judged in terms of whether the tasks are performed.
b) It is task-oriented, not question-oriented, providing learners with tasks which
use the information in the aural text, rather than asking learners to prove their
understanding of the text by answering questions.
Focus 1: Language use tasks
–to give students practice in listening and then doing something (“Listen-and do”), e.g.,
“Simon says”, taking phone messages, outlining info. etc.
Focus 2: Language analysis tasks

–aimed to give students opportunities to analyze selected aspects of language structure
(i.e., form) and language use (i.e., function) and to develop some personal strategies to
facilitate learning.
Focus 2: Language analysis tasks.

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To analyze “fast speech, to chunk the input into units for interpretation, to analyze
sociolinguistic dimensions, including participants and their roles and relationships,
settings, purpose of the communicative episode, and expected outcomes, and to
analyze strategies used by speakers to deal with miscommunication, communication
break-downs, distractions, etc.
Materials: Recordings of real-life conversations, talks, and discussions can be used to

introduce listening analysis tasks.
A Framework for Planning a Listening Skills Lesson

Listening is one of the most challenging skills for our students to develop and yet also
one of the most important. By developing their ability to listen well we develop our
students’ ability to become more independent learners, as by hearing accurately they
are much more likely to be able to reproduce accurately, refine their understanding of
grammar and develop their own vocabulary.
In this article I intend to outline a framework that can be used to design a listening
lesson that will develop your students’ listening skills and look at some of the issues
involved.
a. The basic framework
b. Pre-listening
c. While listening
d. Post-listening
e. Applying the framework to a song
f. Some conclusions
The basic framework

The basic framework on which you can construct a listening lesson can be divided into
three main stages.
Pre-listening, during which we help our students prepare to listen.
While listening, during which we help to focus their attention on the listening text and
guide the development of their understanding of it.
Post-listening, during which we help our students integrate what they have learnt from
the text into their existing knowledge.
Pre-listening
There are certain goals that should be achieved before students attempt to listen to any
text. These are motivation, contextualization, and preparation.
Motivation
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It is enormously important that before listening students are motivated to listen,

so you should try to select a text that they will find interesting and then design tasks that
will arouse your students’ interest and curiosity.
Contextualization
When we listen in our everyday lives we hear language within its natural
environment, and that environment gives us a huge amount of information about the
linguistic content we are likely to hear. Listening to a tape recording in a classroom is a
very unnatural process. The text has been taken from its original environment and we
need to design tasks that will help students to contextualise the listening and access
their existing knowledge and expectations to help them understand the text.
Preparation
To do the task we set students while they listen there could be specific
vocabulary or expressions that students will need. It’s vital that we cover this before
they start to listen as we want the challenge within the lesson to be an act of listening
not of understanding what they have to do.
While listening
When we listen to something in our everyday lives we do so for a reason.
Students too need a reason to listen that will focus their attention. For our students to
really develop their listening skills they will need to listen a number of times – three or
four usually works quite well – as I’ve found that the first time many students listen to a
text they are nervous and have to tune in to accents and the speed at which the people
are speaking.
Ideally the listening tasks we design for them should guide them through the text
and should be graded so that the first listening task they do is quite easy and helps
them to get a general understanding of the text. Sometimes a single question at this
stage will be enough, not putting the students under too much pressure.
The second task for the second time students listen should demand a greater
and more detailed understanding of the text. Make sure though that the task doesn’t
demand too much of a response. Writing long responses as they listen can be very
demanding and is a separate skill in itself, so keep the tasks to single words, ticking or
some sort of graphical response.
The third listening task could just be a matter of checking their own answers from
the second task or could lead students towards some more subtle interpretations of the
text.
Listening to a foreign language is a very intensive and demanding activity and for this
reason I think it’s very important that students should have ‘breathing’ or ‘thinking’ space
between listenings. I usually get my students to compare their answers between
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listenings as this gives them the chance not only to have a break from the listening, but
also to check their understanding with a peer and so reconsider before listening again.
Post-listening
There are two common forms that post-listening tasks can take. These are
reactions to the content of the text, and analysis of the linguistic features used to
express the content.
Reaction to the text
Of these two I find that tasks that focus students reaction to the content are most
important. Again this is something that we naturally do in our everyday lives. Because
we listen for a reason, there is generally a following reaction. This could be discussion
as a response to what we’ve heard – do they agree or disagree or even believe what
they have heard? – or it could be some kind of reuse of the information they have
heard.
Analysis of language
The second of these two post-listening task types involves focusing students on
linguistic features of the text. This is important in terms of developing their knowledge of
language, but less so in terms of developing students’ listening skills. It could take the
form of an analysis of verb forms from a script of the listening text or vocabulary or
collocation work. This is a good time to do form focused work as the students have
already developed an understanding of the text and so will find dealing with the forms
that express those meanings much easier.
Applying the framework to a song

Here is an example of how you could use this framework to exploit a song:
Pre-listening
Students brainstorm kinds of songs
Students describe one of their favourite songs and what they like about it
Students predict some word or expressions that might be in a love song
While listening
Students listen and decide if the song is happy or sad
Students listen again and order the lines or verses of the song
Students listen again to check their answers or read a summary of the song with errors
in and correct them.
Post-listening
Focus on content
Discuss what they liked / didn’t like about the song
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Decide whether they would buy it / who they would buy it for
Write a review of the song for a newspaper or website
Write another verse for the song
Focus on form
Students look at the lyrics from the song and identify the verb forms
Students find new words in the song and find out what they mean
Students make notes of common collocations within the song
Conclusion
Within this article I have tried to describe a framework for listening development that
could be applied to any listening text. This isn’t the only way to develop our students
listening or to structure a listening lesson, but it is a way that I have found to be effective
and motivating for my students.
Task Sheet
Make a lesson plan on Listening based on the framework that we have discussed last
meeting. Make sure that all the elements are present, such as:
 PRE-LISTENING
 DURING LISTENING
 POST-LISTENING
PREFINAL PROJECT
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Access your Prefinal project at this site (URL):

http://questgarden.com/147/94/2/120915011323/ This is a webquest. You are to follow
step-by-step instructions on the web. God Bless!

Remedial Instruction in SPEAKING
A. What makes speaking difficult (Brown, 2001)

1. Clustering
2. Redundancy
3. Reduced forms
4. Performance variables
5. Colloquial language
6. Rate of delivery
7. Stress, rhythm, and intonation
8. Interaction
Clustering also known as branching or mapping‘ is a structured technique based on the

same associative principles as brainstorming and listing.
Redundancy superfluous repetition or overlapping, especially of words.
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Reduced forms usually use during native speakers conversations.

Performance The accomplishment of a given task measured against preset known
standards of accuracy, completeness, cost, and speed.
Variables Hesitation, pauses, backtracking and corrections. You actually teach
learners how to pause and hesitate. (think time).
Colloquial language is informal language that is not rude, but would not be used in
formal situations. Ex. "The stench was really gross" is colloquial language. If talking
formally, you would say "The stench was really disgusting"...
B. Teaching Pronunciation
Below are techniques and practice materials (as cited in Murcia, Brinton, and
Goodwin, 1996) in teaching pronunciation which have been used traditionally and
continue to be utilized in speaking classes.
1. Listen and imitate. Learners listen to a model provided by the teacher and then
repeat or imitate it.
2. Phonetic training. Articulatory descriptions, articulatory diagrams, and a
phonetic alphabet are used.
3. Minimal Pair drills. These provide practice on problematic sounds in the target
language through listening discrimination and spoken practice. Drills begin with
word-level then move to sentence-level.
4. Contextualized minimal pairs. The teacher established the setting or context
then key vocabulary is presented. Students provide meaningful response to
sentence stem.
5. Visual aids. These materials are used to cue production of focus sounds.
6. Tongue twisters
7. Developmental approximation drills. Second language speakers take after
the steps that English-speaking children follow in acquiring certain sounds.
8. Practice of vowel shifts and stress shifts related by affixation
Vowel shift: mime (long i) mimic (short i)
Sentence context: Street mimes oftenmimic the gestures of passersby.
Stress shift: PHOtograph phoTOGraphy
Sentence context: I can tell from these photographs that you are very good at
photography.
9. Reading aloud/recitation. Passages and scripts are used for students to
practice and then read aloud focusing on stress, timing, and intonation.
10. Recording of learners’ production. Playback allows for giving of feedback and
self-evaluation.
C. The Use of Accuracy-based Activities

Accuracy precedes fluency. Form-focused activities prepare students for
communicative tasks. These activities have a high degree of control and focuses
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on specific language components. To strike a balance, Hedge (2000) describes

how to make accuracy-based activities meaningful.
1. Contextualized practice.This aims to establish the link between form and

function. The activity should highlight the situation where the form is commonly
used.
2. Personalizing language. Personalized practice encourages learners to express
their ideas, feelings, and opinions. These activities help learners to use
language in interpersonal interactions. A variety of gambits or useful
expressions should be provided.
3. Building awareness of the social use of language . This involves
understanding social conventions in interaction. Communication strategies are
directly taught and practiced through contextualized activities.
4. Building confidence. The key is to create a positive climate in classroom
where learners are encouraged to take risks and engage in activities.
D. Talking to Second Language Learners in the beginning level

Cary (1997) suggests that teachers need to make speech modifications as a form
of instructional support when teaching with second language learners.
1. Speak at standard speed. This means providing more and slightly longer
pauses to give students more time to make sense of the utterances.
2. Use more gestures, movement, and facial expressions. These provide
emphasis on words and give learners extra clues as they search for meaning.
3. Be careful with fused forms. Language compressions or reduces forms can
be difficult for learners. Use these forms without overusing or eliminating them
altogether.
4. Use shorter, simpler, sentences.
5. Use specific names instead of pronouns.
“Great speakers are not born, they re trained.” --Dale Carnegie—
Oral skill is the ability to speak well. More specifically, ability to articulate one’s
knowledge and understanding, use language creatively, use and present material
effectively in spoken form, whether in one’s own language or foreign language, in the
latter case, to display a command structure, appropriate pronunciation, use of register,
and range of vocabulary.
The communication process conducted through spoken words is referred to as
Oral Communication. Oral communication is defined as the effective interpretation,
composition, and presentation of information, ideas, and values to a specific audience.
Communication is the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech,
visuals, signals, writing, or behavior. Derived from the Latin word "communis", meaning
to share. Communication requires a sender, a message, and a recipient, although the
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receiver need not be present or aware of the senders intent to communicate at the time
of communication; thus communication can occur across vast distances in time and
space. Communication requires that the communicating parties share an area of
communicative commonality. The communication process is complete once the receiver
has understood the message of the sender.
How to Teach Oral Skills:
The Five Golden Rules

• Give students as much opportunity as possible to practice speaking.
• Provide ample listening practice.
•Create opportunity for real communication.
•Expand the range of topics students practice talking about.
•Build discussion skills.
Other Rules in Oral Skills:

•Pronouncing the words clearly is an important thing to be remembered. The
need to repeat a particular word/sentence affects the flow of presentation.
•To emphasize the importance of a particular thought, words have to be
pronounced by changing their tones.
•Avoiding fillers while speaking is necessary. The sound of fillers (um, ah, etc.)
could be irritating for listeners.
While in a face-to-face communication process, interrupting the speaker is

considered a sign of poor communication.
•Careful listening is as important as speaking clearly while in the process of oral
communication. It helps respond in a proper manner.
•One should always make an eye contact with the listeners; this way, the
attention of listeners is not lost and their interest is kept intact.
•Asking questions in order to obtain information is one of the important aspects.
One should keep the questions precise in order to get a clear answer. Same is
the case when a person has to answer a question. Answering the question with
correct details and also in quick time is of great importance.
•It is not advisable to carry on the communication process without understanding
a particular point
.•In a communication process, body language of a person is considered as
important as the spoken words. Body language of the speaker has a great impact
on the listener(s). This is because it gives them an idea or indication of the
direction in which the communication process is heading. The listener either gets
positively or negatively influenced by the body language of the speaker.
Different Settings for Oral Communication

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Interpersonal communication is one of the best ways to start with the process of
developing your communication skills. You can speak freely and without getting tensed
when you just have to speak to a single person at a time. Through interpersonal
communication, a person learns how to phrase his/her ideas clearly and also listen to
others carefully.
Group discussion exercises play an important role in developing the

communication skills. People get to know each others views and thoughts through
such exercises. More importantly, discussing on a particular topic compels the
participants to listen to each other carefully. Group discussion exercises can be used
both at school/college level and professional level.
Speaking in front of a large audience for many of us, is quite difficult. It is okay to
feel nervous in front of a large audience. However, you can overcome the fear of
public speaking completely by making presentations on a regular basis. This form of
oral communication is very different from interpersonal communication. Here, you must
speak precisely and present the topic in a concise manner. Holding the attention of
listeners is the key to become a proficient public speaker.
It is necessary to develop oral communication skills in order to survive in todays

information- oriented world. Dissemination of information can be conducted in a proper
manner only if you possess good communication skills.
OUR QUEER LANGUAGE
When the English tongue we speak, Why is break not rhymed with freak? Will you tell
me why its true, We say sew but likewise few? And the maker of a verse, Cannot cap
his horse with worse ?Beard sounds not the same as heard, Cord is different from word;
c - o - w is cow but l - o - w is low; Shoe is never rhymed with foe.
Think of hose and whose and lose, And think of goose and yet of loose, Think of comb
and tomb and bomb; Doll and roll and home and some; And since pay is rhymed with
say, Why not paid with said, I pray? We have blood and food and good, Wherefore
done and gone and lone? Is there any reason known? And, in short, it seems to me,
Sounds and letters disagree.
Oral Speech Corrections

•Affective feedback
•Cognitive feedback
•Avoiding fossilization
•Effective feedback, development of teacher intuition
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Principles for Designing Speaking Techniques

•Cover learners need of accuracy, intention, meaning and fluency
•Be intrinsically motivating
•Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts
•Provide appropriate feedback and correction
•Focus on the natural link between speaking and listening
•Give opportunities to initiate oral communication

Remedial Instruction in WRITING
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A. Areas of Difficulty for Students with Writing Problems (Troia, 2002; Troia &
Graham, 2003)
1. Knowledge Difficulties
Students with writing problems show:
a. Less awareness of what constitutes good writing and how to produce it;
b. Restricted knowledge about genre-specific text structures (e.g., setting or plot
elements in a narrative);
c. Poor declarative, procedural, and conditional strategy knowledge (e.g.,
knowing that one should set goals for writing, how to set specific goals, and
when it is most beneficial to alter those goals);
d. Limited vocabulary;
e. Underdeveloped knowledge of word and sentence structure (i.e., phonology,
morphology, and syntax);
f. Impoverished, fragmented, and poorly organized topic knowledge;
g. Difficulty accessing existing topic knowledge; and
h. Insensitivity to audience needs and perspectives, and to the functions their
writing is intended to serve.
2. Skill Difficulties
Students with writing problems:
a. Often do not plan before or during writing;
b. Exhibit poor text transcription (e.g., spelling, handwriting, and punctuation);
c. Focus revision efforts (if they revise at all) on superficial aspects of writing
(e.g., handwriting, spelling, and grammar);
d. Do not analyze or reflect on writing;
e. Have limited ability to self regulate thoughts, feelings, and actions throughout
the writing process;
f. Show poor attention and concentration; and
g. Have visual motor integration weaknesses and fine motor difficulties.
3. Motivation Difficulties
Students with writing problems:
a. Often do not develop writing goals and subgoals or flexibly alter them to meet
audience, task, and personal demands;
b. Fail to balance performance goals, which relate to documenting performance
and achieving success, and mastery goals, which relate to acquiring
competence;
c. Exhibit maladaptive attributions by attributing academic success to external
and uncontrollable factors such as task ease or teacher assistance, but
academic failure to internal yet uncontrollable factors such as limited aptitude;
d. Have negative self efficacy (competency) beliefs;
e. Lack persistence; and
f. Feel helpless and poorly motivated due to repeated failure.
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B. Qualities of Strong Writing Instruction

In order for teachers to support all students' writing ability development, certain
qualities of the writing classroom must be present. Four core components of
effective writing instruction constitute the foundation of any good writing program:
1. Students should have meaningful writing experiences and be assigned
authentic writing tasks that promote personal and collective expression,
reflection, inquiry, discovery, and social change.
2. Routines should permit students to become comfortable with the writing
process and move through the process over a sustained period of time at their
own rate.
3. Lessons should be designed to help students master craft elements (e.g., text
structure, character development), writing skills (e.g., spelling, punctuation),
and process strategies (e.g., planning and revising tactics).
4. A common language for shared expectations and feedback regarding writing
quality might include the use of traits (e.g., organization, ideas, sentence
fluency, word choice, voice, and conventions).
C. Teaching Handwriting
1. Curriculum Considerations
a. Place special emphasis on difficult-to-form letters and those that are
frequently reversed like p, q, b & d.
b. Introduce lowercase letters before upper-case letters, unless they are formed
using similar strokes like C, c
c. Group letters with common strokes, for instance o, c, d & a.
d. Stagger the introduction of easily confused letters like b, d, p & q.
e. Model the formation of individual upper- and lowercase letters and, for
cursive, difficult letter transitions
f. Guide letter formation through visual cues like verbal descriptions, numbered
dots and arrows, even short anecdotes about letters.
g. Conduct activities to reinforce letter recognition and naming
h. Ensure that students practice using a comfortable and efficient tripod pencil
grasp.
i. Demonstrate appropriate posture and paper positioning for their handedness.
j. Develop handwriting fluency through frequent writing and speed trials, but
stress the importance of legible handwriting.
2. Strategies for Remediation
a. In the primary grades, allocate 60–75 minutes per week for handwriting
instruction.
b. Encourage students to compare letters to discover patterns and to highlight
their similarities and differences.
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c. Give students opportunities to reinforce target letters by tracing them, copying

them, and writing them from memory.
d. Monitor students’’ handwriting and immediately reinforce for correct letter
formation, spacing, alignment, size, slant, and line quality.
e. Ask students to self-evaluate their handwriting and to set goals for improving
specific aspects of their handwriting each day.
f. Encourage students to correct poorly formed letters and to rewrite illegible
work.
D. Teaching Spelling
1. Curriculum Accommodations
a. Spelling vocabulary includes words drawn from children’s reading materials,
children’s writing, self-selected words, high-frequency word lists and pattern
words.
b. Teach students phonemic awareness and phoneme-grapheme
associations in kindergarten and first grade. Common spelling patterns
(e.g., phonograms or rime families) are taught in first and second grades.
Morphological structures (i.e., roots and affixes) and helpful spelling rules
(e.g., add -es to make words ending in s, z, x, ch, or sh plural) are taught in
second grade and beyond.
c. Teach students systematic and effective strategies for studying new
spelling words (e.g., mnemonic spelling links, multi-sensory strategies).
d. Periodically review previously taught spelling words to promote retention.
e. Monitor and reinforce correct use of spelling vocabulary
f.Teach and encourage students to use dictionaries, spell checkers, and other
resources to determine the spelling of unknown words
g. Use wall charts to help students master spelling “demons” and other
difficult words.

Remedial Teaching Strategies for Different Age Groups

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ST.

ANTHONY COLLEGE REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN

Information Sheet 2.1

Devise various learning activities

Design meaningful learning situations

Provide clear instructions

Summarize the main points

Enhance learning interest and motivation

Encourage pupils' active participation in class activities

Focus on the learning process

Show concern for the performances of individual pupils

Information Sheet 2.2

It is important, when discussing young learners, to take account of changes

What should be done:

1. involve students in more indirect learning through reading, listening and

B.1. Good learner characteristics (Lightbrown and Spada, 2006)

mentioned above, we risk imposing a methodology on our students that is inimical to

B.2. Learner styles and strategies

b. Keith Willing (1987)

Information Sheet 2.3

A. The roles of a teacher

B. The teacher as a teaching aid

B.1. Mime and gesture

B.2. The teacher as language model

C. Native-speaker teachers vs. non-native-speaker teachers

Information Sheet 3.1

Individualized Educational Programme (IEP)

Information Sheet 3.2

Emergent/Beginning literacy skills

Remediation through Phonemic Awareness

Word Analysis Skills

A. Sight Word Recognition

3 basic sight word lists:

Explicit instruction: Using book walls

- As defined in Webster’s New World Dictionary, is all the words of a language.

- “Reading instruction that focuses on the growth of children’s vocabulary results in

- The basic vocabulary of 6th grade students is estimated to be about 32,000

Four main principles of instruction by Blanchowicz and Fisher (2000):

A. Remedial Vocabulary Instruction

 reading and conversation

1. Considerations in remedial vocabulary instruction

d. Interaction and meaningful use – social situations conducive to using new

2. Concept-Based Approach to Vocabulary Building

a. First, since physical-sensory or pro-prioceptive learning can be interiorized, they

 Definition word maps – help students see visual representations of definitions

- Students taught through a strong decoding approach with heavy reliance on

Six types of context clues:

Explicit instruction: Teacher Modeling, Student Modeling

Explicit instruction: Synonyms, Homophones, Homographs, Multiple meanings,

E. Extending an Interest in Vocabulary

Oral Reading – communicating an author’s message by reading aloud to an individual

Fluency instruction has been found to result in improved reading comprehension

Round Robin oral reading instruction is used as a method of fluency. It involves

A. Major Fluency Strategies

 Antiphonal Reading – groups of students are assigned to read parts of a

Information Sheet 3.3

D. Correcting Sight-Word Knowledge Deficit

E. Correcting Basic Sight Vocabulary Deficit

F. Correcting Knowledge on Sound-Symbol Correspondence

G. Remedial Vocabulary Instruction

 reading and conversation

4. Considerations in remedial vocabulary instruction

Connect vocabulary instruction to the natural processes of word learning. The