2.4.

1
2.4.2

2.4 What is bandwidth?

An introductory example sinc(2t/T ) T

2 rect(f T /2)

1 T
2
x(t) = sinc(2t/T ) (2.80)
t ←→ f
−1 1
T T
Combining sinc(t) ↔ rect(f ) with the time scaling T
property, x(at) ↔ |a|−1X(f /a), yields
( Figure 2.16: The Fourier transform pair sinc(2t/T ) ↔ T
rect(f T /2).
, |f | < T1
T 2
T
sinc(2t/T ) ↔ rect(f T /2) = 2 (2.81)
2 0, |f | > T1

2.4.4
2.4.3

The nonzero frequency content of sinc(t/T ) is

conned to the frequency band (or interval) [− T1 , T1 ].
rect(t/T ) T sinc(f T )
sinc(2t/T ) has Fourier bandwidth W = 1/T Hz. 1 T

It is not always so easy to quantify the Fourier t ←→ f

−1 1
bandwidth of a signal. T
T T

rect(t/T ) has the Fourier transform T sinc(f T ) which

Figure 2.17: The Fourier transform pair rect(t/T ) ↔ T sinc(f T ).
is nonzero outside any nite frequency band.

What is the Fourier bandwidth of such a signal?

2.4.5 2.4.6

In practice, we usually have to restrict our signals A softer restriction is that the signal x(t) has a
to not involve frequencies outside a certain nite fraction η of its energy inside the frequency band
band, [−W, W ] say. [−W, W ]; that is,
RW
However, mathematically such a strict restriction |X(f )|2df
on the frequency content of a signal cannot be
R−W
∞ =η (2.82)
−∞|X(f )|
2df
combined with the assumption of nite time-
duration!

2.4.7 2.4.8

1 It seems reasonable to dene the Fourier

Letting W = T also for rect(t/T ) we nd that
bandwidth of a signal to be the smallest value of W
RW R 1/T
2 2
−1/T T sinc (f T )df
2
|X(f )| df such that essentially all of its energy is conned to
R−W
∞ R
= ∞ 2 2 = 0.903 (2.83) the frequency band [−W, W ].
−∞|X(f )| df −∞ T sinc (f T )df
2

There is a certain arbitrariness to this denition,

About 90% of the energy of rect(t/T ) is contained which reects the fact that except for strictly
within the frequency band [−W, W ] = [− T1 , T1 ]. band-limited signals there is no compelling absolute
measure of Fourier bandwith.
 2.4.9 2.4.10

Sampling Theorem
It certainly seems reasonable to say that the signal
rect(t/T ) has a Fourier bandwidth of W = 1/T Hz Consider the function
as our denition implies. √ sin 2πW t √
φ(t) = 2W = 2W sinc(2W t) (2.84)
To be more precise, we could say that the 90%- 2πW t
energy Fourier bandwidth of the signal rect(t/T ) is with Fourier transform
W = 1/T Hz, but we will usually not have need for   ( 1
1 f √ , |f | < W
such precision. Φ(f ) = √ rect = 2W (2.85)
2W 2W 0, |f | > W

2.4.11 2.4.12

φ(t) is conned to the frequency band [−W, W ]. Orthogonality is an important notion in signal
k analysis.
Versions of φ(t) delayed by 2W form the set of
orthonormal functions It means that
     Z 
k √ k ∞
ek , l = k
φk (t) = φ t − = 2W sinc 2W t − φk (t)φ∗l (t)dt = (2.87)
2W 2W −∞ 0, l = 6 k
(2.86)
where ek is the energy of φk (t).
where k is an integer.

2.4.13
2.4.14

φk (t), k integer, are orthogonal since Furthermore, since

Z ∞ Z ∞ Z Z
∞ ∞
φk (t)φ∗l (t)dt = Φk (f )Φ∗l (f )df 2
−∞ −∞ |φk (t)| dt = |φ(t)|2dt = 1 (2.89)
Z W −∞ −∞
1
= ejω(l−k)/2W df
2W −W
all k, these functions are normalized (energy ek =
Z   (
2 W
ω(l − k) 1, l=k 1).
= cos df = A set of orthogonal and normalized functions is
2W 0 2W 0, l 6= k
called an orthonormal set of functions.

2.4.16

2.4.15

Proof. View the process of sampling as taking the

Theorem 2.1 (Sampling theorem) product of the signal x(t) with a train of impulses
1
If x(t) is a signal whose Fourier transform spaced 2W seconds apart.
is identically zero for |f | ≥ W , then x(t) Then, sampling gives a train of impulses x†(t) whose
is completely determined by its samples taken coefcients are the samples of x(t):
1
every 2W seconds in the manner  ∞
X 
k
∞      x†(t) = x(t) δ t−
X k k 2W
x(t) = x sinc 2W t − (2.90) k=−∞
   
2W 2W ∞
X k k
k=−∞
= x δ t−
2W 2W
k=−∞
 2.4.18
2.4.17

The sampled version of the signal x(t) has a

Use Property 12 and Fourier transform pair (n) to spectrum that can be written as copies of X(f )
compute the transform of x†(t): spaced 2W Hz apart!
∞
X     ∞
X 1
k k If we multiply this periodic spectrum by
x δ t− ↔ 2W X(f ) ∗ δ(f − l2W )   2W
2W 2W rect f
we obtain X(f ).
k=−∞ l=−∞ 2W
∞
X  
= 2W X(f − l2W ) (2.91) ∞
X   
1 f
l=−∞
x(t) ↔ 2W X(f − l2W ) rect
2W 2W
l=−∞

2.4.19 2.4.20

Property 11, (2.84), (2.85), and (2.91) yield:

  The sample points {x( 2W
k
)}
∞
X    are taken at the rate
k k 2W
x(t) =  x δ t−  ∗ sinc(2W t) samples per second.
2W 2W
k=−∞ If W is the smallest frequency such that the
X  k 
∞  
k

Fourier transform of x(t) is identically zero for
= x sinc 2W t −
2W 2W |f | ≥ W , then the sampling rate 2W is called the
k=−∞
Nyquist rate.
The proof is complete. 2

2.4.22
2.4.21

Because the functions sinc 2W t − 2W
k
are
Let x(t) be any signal whose Nyquist rate is 2W . 1
essentially 0 outside an interval of length W
By sampling x(t) at its Nyquist rate, we obtain n= seconds centered at their peaks, it follows from
2W T samples in the interval of T seconds starting (2.90) that we can write
1
at time − 12 2W = 1
− 4W . n−1     
X k k
We now assume that the length of this time
x(t) ≈ x sinc 2W t − ,
T 2W 2W
k=0
interval is very large so that n >> 1.
1 1
− <t<T − (2.92)
4W 4W

2.4.23 2.4.24

Since the dimension of a vector space is the number

This equation expresses x(t) as a linear combination
of elements in a basis for the space, we have
of then orthonormal


functions φk (t) =
sinc 2W t − 2W
k
for k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1.
Theorem 2.2 (Dimensionality Theorem)
Another way to say this is that, over the The set of time functions whose Fourier
considered interval of length T
x(t) seconds, transforms are identically zero for |f | ≥ W ,
lies in the n-dimensional subspace having the n when restricted to a time interval of length T



orthonormal functions sinc 2W t − 2W for k =
k
where 2W T >> 1, forms a real vector space of
0, 1, . . . , n − 1 as a basis. dimension n = 2W T .
 2.4.25

2.4.26

Let ψ(t) be a normalized signal of Fourier bandwith

W Hz.

Let TN denote the smallest τ such that ψ(t) is The Shannon bandwidth B of the basis signal ψ(t)
orthogonal to every time-shift of itself ψ(t − kτ ) is B = 1/2TN , or equivalently,
by a nonzero multiple of τ.
2B = 1/TN basis functions per second (2.94)
We call TN the Nyquist-shift of the basis signal
ψ(t).
The Nyquist-shift


of the signal φk (t) =
1
sinc 2W t − k
2W is TN = 2W .

2.4.28
2.4.27

Theorem 2.3
The full space of signals whose Fourier transform (Fundamental theorem of bandwidth)
is essentially zero for |f | ≥ W and that are
The Shannon bandwidth B of a basis signal is at
essentially time-limited to an interval of length T =
most equal to its Fourier bandwidth W; equality
mTN seconds has, according to the dimensionality
holds when the signal is a sinc function.
theorem, dimension n = 2W T while the dimension
of the subspace of these signals that can be
The signicance of B<W is that the considered
represented withψ(t) and its shifts is 2BT . Thus
signal and its shifts can then represent only
we must have 2BT ≤ 2W T , or equivalently
a proper subspace of the space of bandlimited
B≤W signals.

2.4.29 2.4.30

The Shannon bandwidth can be thought of as the Example 2.7

amount of bandwidth a signal needs and
Use the basis signal ψ(t) to transmit binary data.
the Fourier bandwidth as the amount of
     
bandwidth a signal uses. 1 3 T 3t
ψ(t) = √ sinc t+ + sinc
3 T 3 T
Since the usage of the Fourier spectrum is   
3 T
regulated (and sometimes sold) by authorities, + sinc t− (2.95)
a reasonable goal when designing communication T 3
systems is to make the Fourier bandwidth close ψ(t) consists of three shifted sinc-pulses.
to the Shannon bandwidth.

2.4.32
2.4.31

The Fourier transform of ψ(t) is ψ(t) Ψ(f )

T
√
1
3
T − 3 3

Ψ(f ) = √ (rect(f T /3))(ejωT /3 + 1 + e−jωT /3) t ←→

2T 2T
f
3 3 −T
3
T
3
T
− √
3 3

T T
= √ (rect(f T /3))(1 + 2 cos(ωT /3)) (2.96)
3 3
Figure 2.18: The triple-sinc signal and its Fourier transform.
 2.4.34

2.4.33

Example 2.8
The Fourier bandwidth of the signal ψ(t) is seen to
3 Consider the basis signal
be W = 2T .
The Nyquist-shift of this signal is TN = T and 7
X   
1
8 iT
hence its Shannon bandwidth is B = 2T .
ψ(t) = ai rect t− (2.98)
T 8
We see that i=0

W = 3B (2.97) where the 8-tuple

This basis signal has a Fourier bandwidth that is
a = (a0, a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, a7)
three times its Shannon bandwidth.
= (1, 1, −1, −1, 1, −1, 1, −1)

2.4.35 2.4.36

The smallest τ such that ψ(t) is orthogonal to every

Its Fourier transform is time-shift of itself ψ(t − kτ ) by every nonzero
!
T X7 multiple of τ is TN = T
4.
Ψ(f ) = sinc(f T /8) e−jωiT /8 (2.99)
8 i=0 The Shannon bandwidth for the basis signal ψ(t) is
4 2
B= 2T = T and we obtain
If we let the Fourier bandwidth be determined by
the main lobe of the sinc function we have W = 8/T . W = 4B (2.100)
This basis signal has a Fourier bandwidth that is
four times its Shannon bandwidth.

2.4.37

The rate at which we can modulate a basis signal

is 2B where B is its Shannon bandwidth. Thus we
will be interested in Shannon bandwidth when we
study digital modulation.

The Shannon bandwidth will also be exploited in

Chapter 5 when we discuss the channel capacity of
the band-limited Gaussian channel.