Chapter 4

Angle Modulation

4.1 Introduction to Angle Modulation

⁂ Angle modulation is a method of modulation in which either frequency or phase of the

carrier wave is varied according to the message signal.

⁂ In this method of modulation the amplitude of the carrier wave is maintained constant.

The frequency modulator performs the modulation index task, in this carrier signal from
radio frequency generator and the information signal from the information source is
introduced. The modulated signal is then passed to RF amplifier which ameliorates the
necessary attenuations.

⁂ The main advantage of the using the frequency modulation technique for transmission
is that the quality of the transmitted signal does not deteriorate. But the frequency
modulation system is complex to design, thus, the cost of such system is quite high.

⁂ The frequency modulation system is immune to noise distortion. Thus, the effect of
noise on the frequency modulated signal is extremely low that it can be neglected.

⁂ The angle modulated signal can be represented as

φ ( t )=a (t ) cos ( ωc t +γ (t) )

Also called exponentially modulated signal

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Chapter 4
φ ( t )=a (t ) cos ( ωc t +γ (t) ) =ℜ { a ( t ) e }
j (ωc t +γ ( t ) )

Where,

a ( t ) :- is the envelope [time varying amplitude], and it is kept constant ( Ac ¿ .

γ (t) :- is the phase angle and it is varied in proportion to m ( t ) .

ω c t +γ ( t )=θ (t) :- is the time varying angle.

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Chapter 4
4.2 Representation of FM and PM Signal

If a sinusoidal signal has a constant angular rate , then its frequency is .

The phasor representation of a constant amplitude sinusoid is illustrated in figure below.

This phasor has a magnitude of Ac and a phase angle . If increases linearly

with time , we say that the phasor has an angular rate, or

“frequency”, of .

If the angular rate is not constant, we can still write a relation between the instantaneous

angular rate and as follows,

t
θ ( t )=∫ ω i ( τ ) . dτ +θ o
0

Taking the derivative of both sides,

t
d d
θ ( t ) = ∫ ω i ( τ ) .dτ +θ o
dt dt 0

d
∴ ωi ( t )= θ (t )
dt

Therefore, we conclude that the instantaneous frequency of a sinusoidal signal is given by

the derivative of its phase.

We know that

ω i ( t )=2 π f i (t)

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Chapter 4
1
f i ( t )= ω (t )
2π i

d
∴ θ ( t )=2 π f i (t)
dt

Now,

θ ( t )=ω c t+ γ ( t )

d
∴ [ ω t +γ ( t ) ] =2 π f i(t)
dt c

d
ωc+ γ ( t ) =2 π f i (t)
dt

1 1 d
f i ( t )= ωc + γ (t)
2π 2 π dt

2π f c 1 d
¿ + γ (t )
2 π 2 π dt

1 d
∴ f i ( t )=f c + γ (t )
2 π dt

⁂ Examples:- Determine the instantaneous frequency of the signal at t=0 .

φ ( t )= A cos ( 10 πt +π t 2 )

10 π
ω c =10 π =2 π f c ⇒ f c = =5
2π

d d 2
γ ( t )= π t =2 πt
dt dt

1 d
∴ f i ( t )=f c + γ (t )
2 π dt

¿ 5+2 πt

At t=0

f i ( 0 )=5 Hz

⁂ Examples:- Determine the instantaneous frequency of the following waveform.

1) si ( t ) =A c cos ( 100 πt +0.25 π )

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Chapter 4
1 d
f i ( t )=f c + γ (t )
2 π dt

100 π 1 d
¿ + ( 0.25 π )
2π 2 π dt

∴ f i ( t )=50 Hz

2) si ( t ) =A c cos ( 100 πt +sin ⁡(20 πt ) )

1 d
f i ( t )=f c + γ (t )
2 π dt

100 π 1 d
¿ + ( sin ( 20 πt ) )
2π 2 π dt

1
¿ 50+ ( 20 π cos 20 πt )
2π

∴ f i ( t )=50+10 cos 20 πt

At t=0 ,

f i ( 0 )=50+10=60 Hz

3) si ( t ) =A c cos ⁡( 100 πt+ π t 2)¿

1 d
f i ( t )=f c + γ (t )
2 π dt

100 π 1 d 2
¿ + (π t )
2π 2 π dt

∴ f i ( t )=50+t Hz

At t=0 ,

f i ( 0 )=50 Hz

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Chapter 4

4.3 Angle Modulation Types

⁂ The concept of instantaneous frequency permits us to describe two obvious possibilities

for angle modulation.

a] The phase vary with m ( t ) .

If the phase angle θ(t) is varied linearly with the input signal f (t), we can write

θ ( t )=ω c t+ k⏟
p . m ( t ) +θo
γ (t)

Where k p, ω c and θ o are constant

Because the phase is linearly related to m(t) , this type of modulation is called Phase
Modulation (PM).

The instantaneous frequency of this phase-modulated signal is given as follows,

1 d
f i ( t )=f c + γ (t )
2 π dt

1 d
¿ f c+ [ k . f ( t ) +θ o ]
2 π dt p

1 d
∴ f i ( t )=f c + k p m(t )
2 π dt

a] The instantaneous frequency may vary with m ( t ) .

If the instantaneous frequency is varying linearly with the input signal m(t) , then

θ ( t )=ω c t+ γ (t)

d
ω i ( t )= θ (t )
dt

d
¿ [ ω t+ γ ( t)]
dt c

ω i ( t )=ω c

∴ ωi ( t )=ω c + k f m(t)

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Chapter 4
Where ω c ∧k p are constant

Because the frequency is linearly related to m(t) , this type of angle modulation is
called Frequency Modulation [FM].

The phase angle of this type of frequency-modulated signal is given by

d
ω i ( t )= θ (t )
dt
t
θ ( t )=∫ ω i ( τ ) . dτ +θ o
0

t
¿ ∫ [ ω c + k f m ( τ ) ] dτ +θ o
0

[∫ ]
t t
¿ ω c dτ+∫ k f m ( τ ) dτ +θ o
0 0

t
¿ ω c t+∫ k f m ( τ ) dτ +θ o
0

⁂ Note:- In PM , the phase angle of the carrier signal is varied linearly with the
modulating signal, so if e integrate m(t) and use it to phase modulate a carrier, we will
obtain a frequency-modulated signal.

{
A c cos ( ωc t+k p m ( τ ) ) ,∧PM
φ ( t )=
( )
t
Ac cos ωc t+∫ k f m ( τ ) dτ , FM
0

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Chapter 4
4.4 Frequency Modulation

⁂ The instantaneous frequency in FM is given by:

ω i ( t )=ω c + k f m(t )

Assume that m ( t ) =a cos ω m t , then

ω i ( t )=ω c + a k f cos ω m t

Defining a new constant called “frequency deviation” ∆ ω=a k f

∴ ωi ( t )=ω c + ∆ ω cos ω m t

⁂ Notes: The frequency deviation indicates the amount of frequency change in the FM
signal from the carrier frequency ω c on either side. Or it is a useful parameter for
determining the bandwidth of the FM signal. Or it is the amount of change in carrier
frequency produced by the modulating signal.

⁂ FM signals will have the frequency component between ω c −∆ ω to ω c + ∆ ω.

ω lowest =ω c −∆ ω

ω highest=ωc +∆ ω

⁂ Carrier Swing:- The total variation in frequency from the lowest to the highest

CS=ωhighest −ω lowest

¿ ω c + ∆ ω−ω c + ∆ ω

∴ CS=2 ∆ ω

⁂ Notes: For a modulating signal, which has equal positive and negative peaks, such as a
pure sinusoidal signal, the carrier swing equal to two times the frequency deviation.

⁂ The phase of this FM signal [θ o=0 ¿

t
θ(t)=ω c t +∫ k f m ( τ ) dτ
0

t
¿ ω c t+∫ ak f cos(ω m τ )dτ
0

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Chapter 4
t
¿ ω c t+ ∆ ω ∫ cos (ω m τ )dτ
0

∆ω
¿ ω c t+ sin(ω m t)
⏟
ω m
β

β :- Is the modulation index [dimensionless ratio of the peak frequency deviation to the
modulating frequency].

⁂ The resulting FM signal is given by

j (ωc t + β sin ( ωm t ))
φ FM ( t )= A e

¿ A cos ( ωc t+ β sin ( ω m t ) ) + jA si ( ω c t + β sin ( ωm t ) )

ℜ { φFM ( t ) }= A cos ( ω c t+ β sin ( ω m t ) )

From the trigonometric identities of the sinusoidal signals

cos ( α ± β ) =cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β

Then

φ FM ( t )= A cos ω c t cos β sin ( ω m t )− A sin ωc t sin β sin ( ωm t )

⁂ Notes: The modulation index, β represents the phase deviation of the FM signal and is
measured in radians. Depending on the value of β , FM signal can be classified into two
types

1) Narrow Band FM β ≪ 1
2) Wide Band FM β ≫ 1

a] Narrow Band FM

cos ( βsinω m t ) ≈ 1

sin ( βsin ωm t ) ≈ βsin ω m t

∴ φ NBFM ( t )= A c cos ωc t− A c β sin ωm t sin ω c t

Thus, the narrow band FM signal could be written as follows,

φ NBFM ( t )=A c cos ω c t− [ Ac β

2
cos ( ω c −ω m ) t−
Ac β
2
cos ( ω c + ωm ) t ]
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Chapter 4
Taking the Fourier transform

φ NBFM ( f )=A c [ 1
2
1
]
δ ( f −f c ) + δ ( f + f c ) −
2
Ac β 1
2 2 [ 1
]
δ ( f −( f c −f m ) ) + δ ( f + ( f c −f m ) ) +
2
Ac β 1
2 2 [ 1
δ ( f −( f c + f m ) ) + δ ( f
2

⁂ Expanding the exponential term in φ FM (t)

j ( ωc t +β sin ( ωm t ))
φ FM ( t )= A c e
jβ sin ( ωm t )
¿ Ac e j ω t e
c

[
¿ Ac e j ω t 1+ jβ sin ω m t−
c
1 2 2
2!
1
β sin ωm t− j β 3 sin 3 ω m t+…
3! ]
If he value of β is very small, then FM modulated signal is given by;

φ NBFM ( t )=A c e
j ωc t
[1+ jβ sin ω m t ]
⁂ Examples:- A sinusoidal wave of amplitude 10 volts and frequency of 1 KHz is
applied to an FM generator that has a frequency sensitivity constant of 40
Hz/volt. Determine the frequency deviation and modulating index.

∆ f =a k f → 10 ×40=400 Hz

∆f 400
β= → =0.4
fm 1 ×10
3

Since 0.4 <1 indicate a narrow band FM.

⁂ Examples: A modulating signal m ( t ) =10 cos(10,000 πt) modulates carrier signal

Ac cos (2 π f c t). Find the frequency deviation and modulation index of the
resulting FM signal, use k f =5 KHz /volt .
3
∆ f =a k f → 10 ×5 ×10 =50 kHz

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Chapter 4
∆ ω 2 π × 5000
β= → =10
ωm 10000 π

Since β >1 indicate a wide band FM

⁂ Examples: A 107.6 MHz carrier with unity amplitude is frequency modulated by a 7

kHz sinusoidal signal. The resultant FM signal has a frequency deviation of
50kHz.

1) Find the carrier swing

3
CS=2 ∆ ω →2 × a k f ⇒ 2 ∆ f =2× 50× 10 =100 kHz

2)Determine the highest and the lowest frequencies attained by the modulated signal.

6 3
f highest=f c +∆ f →107.6 ×10 +50× 10 =107.65 MHz

6 3
f lowest =f c −∆ f →107.6 × 10 −50 ×10 =107.55 MHz

3)What is the modulation index of the FM wave.

∆f 50000
β= → =7.143
fm 7000

4)Write an expression representing the NBFM in the time domain.

φ NBFM ( t )=A c e
j ωc t
[1+ jβ sin ω m t ]
¿ Ac e
j (2 π ×107.6 ×10 6 ) t
[ 1+ j 7.143 sin ( 2 π ×7 × 103 ) t ]
⁂ Examples: Determine the frequency deviation and the carrier swing for an FM signal which
has a resting frequency of 105MHz, and whose upper frequency is 105.007 MHz,
when modulated by a particular wave. Find the lowest frequency reached by the
FM signal.
6 6
f highest=f c +∆ f →105.007 × 10 =105 ×10 + ∆ f
6 6
∆ f =105.007 × 10 −105 ×10 =7000 Hz

CS=2 ∆ f =2× 7000=14000 Hz

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Chapter 4
6
f lowest =f c −∆ f →105 ×10 −7000=104.993 MHz

⁂ Examples: What is the modulation index of an FM signal having a carrier swing of

100kHz when the modulating signal has a frequency of 8kHz.

CS=2 ∆ f ⇒ 100,000=2 ∆ f

100,000
∆f= =50 kHz
2

∆f 50,000
β= → =6.25
fm 8000

⁂ Examples: A frequency-modulated signal which is modulated by a 3kHz sine wave

reaches a maximum frequency of 100.02 MHz and minimum frequency of
99.98 MHz.

1)Determine the carrier swing

CS=2 ∆ f ⇒ f highest −f lowest

6 6
CS=100.02× 10 −99.98 × 10 =40 kHz

2)Find the carrier frequency

f highest=f c +∆ f
f lowest =f c + ∆ f

f highest + f lowest
f highest + f lowest ⇒f c =
2

6 6
100.02 ×10 +99.98 × 10 6
∴ f c= =100 ×10 Hz
2

3)Calculate the frequency deviation of the signal

6 6
f highest=f c +∆ f ⇒∆ f =100.02 ×10 −100 ×10 =20 kHz

b] Wide Band FM

φ FM ( t )= A c cos ( ω c t+ β sin ( ω m t ) )

Using Euler identity

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Chapter 4
j ( ωc t +β sin ( ωm t ))
φ FM ( t )= A c e

ℜ { φFM ( t ) }=ℜ { Ac e }
j ( ωc t + β sin (ωm t ) )

{ }
jβ sin ( ωm t )
e⏟
j ωc t
¿ ℜ Ac e .
Periodic functionof time
with fundamental frequency of
ωm rad/ sec

This term can be expanded using complex Fourier series

∞
m ( t ) =e
jβ sin ( ωm t )
= ∑ C n e jn ω m t

n=−∞

T¿
1
C n= ∫ m ( t ) e− jn ω t dt
T −T ¿
m

T¿
1
¿ ∫ e
jβ sin ( ω t ) − jn ω t
e dt
m m

T −T ¿
T¿
1 j ( β sin (ω t )− jnωm t )
¿ ∫
T −T ¿
e m
dt

Assume ω m t=ξ

2π
t=ξ
T

Then

2π
dξ= dt
T

When t=± T /2, then

2π T
T
± =± π
2 ( )
T/2
1
C n= ∫ e j( β sin ( ξ )− jnξ ) dξ . 2Tπ
T −T /2
T /2
1
∴ Cn = ∫
2 π −T / 2
e
j ( β sin ( ξ ) − jnξ )
dξ

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Chapter 4
This function can be evaluated numerically by means of two variables n∧β , denoted by
J n (β ) and called Bessel functions of the first kind of nth order and argument β .
T /2
1
J n ( β )= ∫
2 π −T /2
e
j ( β sin ( ξ ) − jnξ )
dξ

Then,
∞
m ( t ) =e
jβ sin ( ωm t )
= ∑ C n e jn ω m t

n=−∞

∞
¿ ∑ J n ( β ) e jn ω m t

n=−∞

So,

φ FM ( t )=ℜ { A c e }
j ( ωc t+ β sin (ωm t ) )

¿ ℜ{ Ac . e }
j ωc t jβ sin ( ωm t )
.e

{ }
∞
¿ ℜ A c .e j ω t . c
∑ J n ( β ) e jn ω m t

n=−∞

{ }
∞
¿ ℜ Ac ∑ J n ( β ) e j(ω t+ n ω
c m t)

n=−∞

∞
∴ φWBFM ( t )= A c ∑ J n ( β ) cos ( ωc +n ω m ) t
n=−∞

⁂ The Bessel functions have the following properties

1- J n ( β ) are real valued

2- J n ( β )=J −n ( β ) for n even
3- J n ( β )=−J −n ( β ) for n odd
∞
4- ∑ J 2n ( β )=1
n=−∞

⁂ φ WBFM ( t ) can be expanded as follows;

[
φ WBFM ( t )=A c [ J 0 ( β ) cos ( ωc +0 ω m ) t + J 1 ( β ) cos ( ω c +ω m ) t + J −1 ( β ) cos ( ω c −ω m ) t + J 2 ( β ) cos ( ωc +2 ωm ) t +J −2 ( β ) c

When,

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Chapter 4
J −1 ( β )=−J 1 ( β )
n
J −n ( β )=(−1 ) J n ( β )

Then

[
φ WBFM ( t )=A c [ J 0 ( β ) cos ( ωc ) t+ J 1 ( β ) cos ( ω c + ωm ) t−J 1 ( β ) cos ( ωc −ω m ) t+ J 2 ( β ) cos ( ω c +2 ω m ) t−J 2 ( β ) cos ( ω c −

[
∴ φWBFM ( t )= A c [ J 0 ( β ) cos ( ωc ) t + J 1 ( β ) ( cos ( ωc +ω m ) t −cos ( ω c −ωm ) t ) + J 2 ( β ) ( cos ( ω c + 2ω m ) t −cos ( ωc −2 ω m ) t

⁂ Notes: It is evident that an FM waveform with sinusoidal modulation has an infinite

number of side bands.

BW WBFM =ω c +n ω m−( ωc −n ω m )

¿ 2 n ωm

⁂ Notes: We observe that spectrum consists of a carrier component of f c plus an infinite

number of side bands components at f c + n f m where n=1 ,2 , 3 , … ..

⁂ For large β ⇒ n=β , then

BW WBFM ≈ 2 β ω m

∆ω
≈2 ω ≈2∆ω
ωm m

⁂ Notes: For very small value of β , only J 0 ( β )∧J 1 ( β ) have significant magnitudes, thus,

BW =ω c + ωm −ω c +ω m

∴ BW =2 ωm

⁂ A general case can be written as follows;

BW =2 ω m ( 1+ β )

(
¿ 2 ωm 1+
∆ω
ωm )
¿ 2 ωm
( ω m +∆ ω
ωm )
∴ BW =2 ( ωm + ∆ ω )⇒ Carson’s Rule

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Chapter 4
⁂ Notes: The average power in angle modulation
2
Ac
P FM =
2R
2
Ac 2
Pcarrier = J (β)
2 0
2
Ac 2
PSB = J (β)
2 n

⁂ Examples: A 10 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal signal such that

the peak frequency deviation is 50 kHz. Determine the approximate
BW of the FM signal if the frequency of the modulating sinusoid is

1)500 kHz

∆ f =50 kHz

BW =2 ω m ( 1+ β )

∆f 50,000
β= → =0.1< 1(narrowband FM )
fm 500,000

BW =2 f m=2 ×500,000=1 MHz

2)500 Hz

∆f 50,000
β= → =100> 1(Wideband FM )
fm 500

BW =2 βf m=2 ×100 × 500=100,000 Hz

Or sing Carson’s rule

BW =2 f m ( 1+ β )

¿ 2 ×500 ( 1+100 )=101 kHz

3)10 kHz

∆f 50,000
β= → =5> 1(Wideband FM )
fm 10,000

BW =2 βf m=2 ×5 × 10,000=100 kHz

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Chapter 4
Or sing Carson’s rule

BW =2 f m ( 1+ β )

¿ 2 ×100,000 ( 1+5 )=120 kHz

⁂ Examples: A given FM signal is

φ FM ( t )=10 cos [ 106 πt + 8 sin(103 πt ) ]

Determine the following

1)The carrier frequency f c

ω c =2 π f c
6
10 π
f c= =500 kHz
2π

2)The modulation index β

β=8

3)The peak frequency deviation ∆ f

3
∆ f =a k f , 10 π
f m= =500 Hz
2π

∆f
β= ⇒ ∆ f =β f m → 8 ×500=4 kHz
fm

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Chapter 4

4.5 FM Generation Methods

Methods of
FM
generation

Direct Indirect
Method Method

Reactance Varactor Armstrong

Modulator Modulator Method

4.5.1 Direct Method

** The instantaneous frequency of the carrier ( f i) is varied directly with the message signal
by means of a device known as a “voltage controlled oscillator” [VCO].

156
Chapter 4
** VCO:- Any oscillator whose frequency is controlled by the modulating signal voltage is
called voltage controlled oscillator.

** The oscillator frequency is thus changed by the modulating signal amplitude.

f ( t )=v ¿ (t ) f out =f c + k f f (t ) v o ( t )=cos 2 π f out t

t t
θ out =2 π ∫ f out ( t ) dt ⇒ 2 π f c t+2 π k f ∫ f (t ) dt
0 0

Thus, the VCO output signal is

v o ( t )=cos θout ( t )

[ ]
t
¿ cos 2 π f c t+ 2 π k f ∫ f ( t ) dt
0

Which is the desired FM signal.

** VCOs produce a sinusoidal with a frequency that is proportional to the input signal.

** If the input signal to the VCO is the message signal, the output of the VCO will be an FM
modulated signal of the message signal. Since the frequency of this FM changes according to
the input message signal.

1-Reactance Modulator

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Chapter 4
** In the reactance modulator, a transistor (transistor amplifier) as a variable reactance
(inductive or capacitive).

**When the circuit is connected across the tuned circuit of an oscillator, the oscillator
frequency can be varied by applying the modulating signal to amplifier.

** Reactance modulator can produce frequency deviation over a wide range.

** The figure, shows the basic circuit of FET reactance modulator across terminals A−A .

** The terminal A−A of the circuit may be connected across the tuned circuit of the oscillator
to get FM output.

** The varying voltage (modulating voltage) v , across the terminals A-B changes reactance of
the FET.

** This change in reactance can be inductive or capacitive.

** Neglecting gate current, the current through C and R be I b .

** At the carrier frequency, the reactance of ‘C’ is much larger than R [ X c ≫ R ].

** We can write an equation for I b as,

v
I b=
1
R+
⏟
jωC
Xc

Since X c ≫ R , we can write the above equation as,

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Chapter 4
I b= jωCv

From the circuit

v g=I b . R= jωCvR

From the FET,

i=gm v gs=gm . v g= jωCvR gm

From the circuit, Impedance of the FET is,

v v 1 1
z= = = =
i jωCvR g m jω [ g m CR ] jω C eq

The C eq=g m CR . Thus the impedance of the FET is capacitive reactance.

** This indicates, FET is equivalent to variable capacitance.

** As the modulating voltage changes, the effective capacitances between terminals A-A
changes.

- With increase in g g , v m will decreases, so C eq will decrease.

- Hence, the frequency of oscillation will increase and FM is generated.

** By varying the modulating voltage across FET, the operating point gm can be varied. Hence
this varies C eq.

** This change in the capacitance will change the frequency of the oscillator.

** If we connect inductance instead of capacitor, we get inductive reactance in the circuit.

2-Varactor Diode

** Varactor diode is a semiconductor diode, whose junction capacitance varies linearly with
the voltage applied across it.

** The varactor diode must be reverse biased.

** The varactor diode modulator is the direct method of the FM generation wherein the carrier
frequency is directly varied by the modulating signal.

156
Chapter 4
** Varactor diodes are used along with the reactance modulator to provide automatic frequency
correction for an FM transmitter.

1- Varactor diode is arranged in reverse bias to offer junction capacitance effect.

2- The modulating voltage which is in series with the varactor diode will vary the bias and
hence the junction capacitance –resulting the oscillator frequency to change accordingly.
3- The external modulating AF voltage adds to and subtracts from the DC bias, which changes
the capacitance of the diode and thus the frequency of oscillation.
4- Positive alternation of the modulating signal decreases the frequency of oscillation.
5- Negative alternation of the modulating signal decrease the frequency of oscillation.
6- The RFC and capacitor C b act as a filter which transmits only the AF variations to the
varactor diode and blocks high frequency RF voltage from reaching the AF stage.

156
Chapter 4

** The varactor diode is reversed biased by negative DC source −v b.

** The modulating AF voltage appears in series with the negative supply voltage. Hence, the
applied across the varactor diode varies in proportion with modulating voltage.

** This will vary the function capacitance of varactor diode.

** The varactor diode appears in parallel with the oscillator tuned circuit. Hence, the oscillator
frequency will change with the change in varactor diode capacitance and FM is produced.

4.5.1 Indirect Method

** The modulation index obtainable by use of this method is restricted to very low values
( β <o .2∈theory ; β <o .5∈ practice ).

** To generate WBFM, a method of increasing the modulation index must be used and this
done using frequency multiplier.

** A frequency multiplier:- is a nonlinear device designed to multiply the frequencies of the

input signal by a given factor.

156
Chapter 4
** For example, the input –output characteristics of an ideal square law device (order device)
[second order relationship between the input and the output].

2
e o ( t ) =a e i (t)

If the input signal in the FM signal,

e i ( t )= A cos ( ω c t+ β sin ω m t )

The output is,

2
e o ( t ) =a [ A cos ( ωc t + β sin ωm t ) ]

2 2
¿ a A cos ( ω c t + β sin ωm t )

1
¿ a A [ 1+cos ( 2 ω c t +2 β sin ω m t ) ]
2
2

** The first term is constant level and is easily removed with a filter.

** We conclude that both the carrier frequency and the modulation index have been doubled.

** The use of an nth order device followed by a filter yields a carrier and modulation index
which have been increased by a factor of n . The peak frequency deviation ∆ ω has been
increased by n in the multiplication (ω m has remained unaltered).

** The use of frequency multiplication increases the carrier of the FM waveform as well as the
modulation index. This may result in very high carrier frequencies in order to achieve a given
modulation index.

** To avoid this, frequency converters are often used to control the value of the carrier
frequency.

** Frequency converter:- translate the spectrum of a signal by a given amount, but does not
alter its spectral content [frequency content].

** Block diagrams of the frequency multiplier and the frequency converter are shown in the
figure below.

156
Chapter 4

** In the frequency multiplier all spectral components of the input signal are multiplied by
themselves.

** In the frequency converter all spectral components of the input signal are multiplied by a
sinusoid of a fixed frequency.

** This method is called as an indirect method because we are generating a wide band FM
wave indirectly. This means, first we will generate NBFM wave and then with the help of
frequency multipliers we will get WBFM wave and this method is called “ Armstrong Indirect
FM Transmitter”.

** The output of the NBFM is given as follows;

(
φ 1 ( t )= A cos ω 1 t+
∆ ω1
ωm
sin ω m t
)
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Chapter 4
Since using nth order device followed by a filter may be used to multiply β by n and the peak
frequency deviation ∆ ω has been increased by n in the multiplication ( ω m has remained
unaltered). The output of the first multiplier is given by:

1
aA
2
(
φ 1 ( t )= k⏟ cos n1 ω1 t+n1
∆ ω1
ωm
sin ωm t
)
2

The frequency converter is used to translate the frequency using frequency ω 2 as follows:

(
k cos n1 ω 1 t+ n1
∆ ω1
ωm )
sin ω m t × cos ω 2 t

k
(
¿ cos ( ω2−n 1 ω 1 ) t +n1
2
∆ ω1
ωm
k
) (
sin ω m t +¿ cos ( ω 2 +n1 ω1 ) t+ n1
2
∆ ω1
ωm
sin ωm t ¿
)
** By using the second frequency multiplier, the result will be as follows,

'
(
φ ( t )=k cos n2 ( ω 2−n1 ω1 ) t+ n2 n1
∆ ω1
ωm )
'
(
sin ωm t +¿ k cos n2 ( ω 2+ n1 ω 1 ) t+n 2 n1
∆ ω1
ωm )
sin ω m t ¿

Using a BPF centered on ω c will translate the spectrum without altering its frequency contents.
The result of this is multiplying β by n1 to produce a WBFM from a NBFM signal.

That is;

ωc=
{
|n2 ( ω2−n1 ω1 )|
¿
|n2 ( ω 2+ n1 ω 1 )|
, ∆ ω=n1 n2 ∆ ω1

⁂ Examples: A given 1MHz FM modulated signal has a peak frequency deviation of 20 Hz for
an input sinusoid of unit amplitude and a frequency of 50 Hz.

a] Determine the required frequency multiplication factor, n, to produce a peak frequency

deviation of 20 kHz.

∆ ω 2 π ×20,000
∆ ω=n ∆ ω1 ⇒ n= = =1000
∆ ω1 2 π ×20

b] What would be the frequency converter frequency to produce a carrier frequency of 10MHz.

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Chapter 4

ωc=
{
|( ω 2−n1 ω1 )|
¿
|( ω 2+ n1 ω1 )|
⇒ ω 2=
{
|( ω c + n1 ω1 )|
¿
|( ω c −n1 ω1 )|
=2 π
{
|( 10000+1000 ×1000 )|
¿
|( 10000−1000 ×1000 )|
krad /s

{ {
1010000 1010
¿2π ¿ krad /sec=2 π ¿ Mrad/ sec
990000 990

{
1010
f 2= ¿ MHz
990

⁂ Examples: Compute the carrier frequency f c and the peak frequency deviation ∆ f of the
output of the FM Armstrong transmitter if f 1=200 ×103 Hz;
6
f 2=10.8 ×10 Hz ; ∆ f 1=25 Hz ; n1=64 , n2=48

ωc=
{
|n2 ( ω2−n1 ω1 )|
¿
| 2 ( 2 n1 ω 1 )|
n ω +
=2 π
{
|48 ( 10800−64 ×200 )|
¿
|48 ( 10800+64 × 200 )|

{ {
96000 96
¿2π ¿ krad /sec ⇒ f c = ¿ MHz
1132800 1132.8

∆ ω=n1 n 2 ∆ ω1=64 × 48 ×25=76.8 kHz

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Chapter 4

4.6 Advantages of Frequency Modulation

1- The amplitude of the FM wave remains constant. This makes FM more immune to noise
due to variations in amplitude of the FM waveform which can be eliminated in FM
receivers by amplitude limiters.
1 2
2- In AM systems, only of the total power is carried by the side bands and wasted in the
3 3
carrier signal transmission. While in FM signal most of the energy is carried in its side
bands. For large modulation index carrier power becomes less while sideband increases.
3- In FM systems, the power of a transmitted signal depends on the amplitude of the un-
modulated carrier signal and hence is constant. While in AM systems, transmitted power
depends on the modulation index.

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Chapter 4

4.7 Disadvantages of FM over AM system

1- Infinite number of side bands in an FM signal give rise to a need of an infinite bandwidth
channel to accommodate FM signal. Reducing higher order side bands to accommodate FM
in band limited channel give rise to distortion at the receiver end.

BW FM =2 ( no of significant side bands ) × modulating frequency

2- The equipment of an FM system is more complex than AM system, due to complex

circuitry FM systems tend to be costlier than AM ones.
3- FM reception is limited to line of sight. Hence less area is covered.

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Chapter 4

4.9 FM Demodulation Methods

4.9.1 Direct Method

** A frequency detector, often called a discriminator, produces an output voltage that should
vary linearly with the instantaneous frequency of the input.

** The simplest conceptually is that of the ideal differentiator, for we recall that its transfer
function is given by

H ( ω )= jω

** An expression for the general FM waveform is given by the following:

( )
t
φ FM ( t )= A cos ωc t +k f ∫ f ( τ ) dτ
0

Assuming that A is constant (a limiter can be inserted prior to the differentiator to ensure this),
we have the following differentiation of the FM signal

( )
t
d φFM ( t )
=− A ( ωc t+ k f f (t) ) sin ωc t+ k f ∫ f ( τ ) dτ
dt 0

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Chapter 4
** Any device or circuit whose output equals the time derivative of the input produces “FM-to-
AM conversion”.

** If we observe the above equation carefully, it is both amplitude and frequency modulated.

** To recover the original signal back, an envelope detector can be used. The envelope detector
takes the form

Envelope= A ( ωc t+k f f (t) )

** When removing the DC term from the recovered signal, the resulting signal is as follows,
which represent the demodulated signal

Demodulated= A k f f (t)

4.9.2 Indirect Method- Phase Locked Loop

** The phase loop consists of the following 3 basic components

1- Phase detector:- compares an input signal with an output from a VCO. Its input is
proportional to the phase difference between these 2 signals.

LPF

2- Loop Filter:- control the loop characteristic, in general, smooths the output from the phase
detector and applies it to the VCO.

3- VCO:- oscillator in which the output frequency deviation is proportional to the input signal
level. [It produces an output whose frequency deviation depends on the input voltage].

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Chapter 4
** Assume the input signal to the PLL is an angle modulated signal

s ( t )=V o sin ( ω c t+ φ s (t) ) ……….. [1]

Whose carrier (unmodulated) frequency is ω c and whose modulation is represented by the

time varying phase.

φ s ( t )=k f ∫ m ( t ) dt ……….. [2]

Where m(t) is the modulating signal we wish to recover and k f is the FM modulator’s
voltage to frequency conversion gain value.

** The local oscillator input to PD comes from a VCO and can, in a similar way, be
represented as;

r ( t )=sin ( ω c t +φ L ( t) ) ……….. [3]

Where

φ L ( t )=k l∫ v ( t ) dt ……….. [4]

And v ( t ) is the control voltage which sets the VCO’s output frequency at any instant, k l is
the VCO’s frequency to voltage conversion gain value.

** The output from the PD smoothed by the LPF, will therefore be;

e ( t )=V o sin ( φs −φl ) ……….. [5]

Where φ s−φl=φ is called the “phase error” between the input signal and VCO output.

** It is conventional to call e ( t ) the “ error voltage” produced by the phase detector

v ( t )= A v e (t) ……….. [6]

Where A v is the voltage gain of the amplifier which follows the LPF.

** Therefore, we can say that

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Chapter 4
φ l ( t )=k l A v ∫ e ( t ) dt ……….. [7]

** Putting equation [7] in equation φ s−φl=φ

φ=φ s−φ l

¿ φ s−k l A v ∫ e ( t ) dt ……….. [8]

** Differentiating equation [8]

dφ(t ) d φ s (t)
= −k l A v ……….. [9]
dt dt

** Putting equation [5] in equation [9]

dφ(t ) d φ s (t)
= −k l A v V o sin φ ¿ ¿) ……….. [10]
dt dt

** When the system is locked [φ L is a good estimate of φ s ¿, so

φL ≈ φs

** This will imply that, the error between these would be small

φ s−φL ⇒ small

sin [ φ s−φL ]=sin φ ≈ φ ……….. [11]

** Putting equation [11] in [10]

dφ(t ) d φ s (t)
= −k φ (t) ……….. [12]
dt dt

Where

k =k L A v V o ……….. [13]

Is called the phase locked loop’s loop gain

** The output from the PLL will be

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Chapter 4
v out =v ( t )= A v e ( t )

¿ A v V o sin φ (t)

¿ A v V o φ (t) ……….. [14]

k
¿ Av φ (t )
k L Av

k
∴ v out = φ (t ) ……….. [15]
kL

** If we observe an output voltage

v out =a sin ( ωm t ) ……….. [16]

** The phase error must therefore be;

kL
φ ( t )= × a sin ( ω m t ) ……….. [17]
k

** Putting equation [17] into equation [12]

dφ(t ) d φ s (t)
= −kφ (t)
dt dt

[
d kL
dt k
× a sin ( ω m t ) = ]
d φ s (t)
dt
−k
kL
k [
×a sin ( ωm t ) ]
d φs (t ) kL
=a ω m cos ( ω m t ) +a k L sin ( ωm t ) ……….. [18]
dt k

** From equation [2]

φ s ( t )=k f ∫ m ( t ) dt

Then

d φs (t )
=k f m(t ) ……….. [19]
dt

** Equation [18] become;

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Chapter 4
kL
k f m ( t )= ω cos ( ωm t ) + a k L sin ( ω m t )
k m

kL kL
∴ m ( t )=a ωm cos ( ω m t ) + a sin ( ω m t )
kf k kf

** By using a system which has a very high loop gain, we can ensure that

k L ωm
→0
kf k

And this means that;

kL
m ( t ) =a sin ( ω m t )
kf

And finally, discover that from equation [16]

v out =a sin ( ωm t )

kL
⇒ m ( t )= v
k f out

kL
∴ v out = m(t)
kf

** This result shows that the PLL’s output voltage varies in proportional with modulation
m(t).

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Chapter 4

4.10 Phase Modulation

⁂ PM or phase modulation is the process of varying the instantaneous phase of the carrier
signal accordingly with the instantaneous amplitude of message signal.

⁂ We know that

φ ( t )=a (t ) cos( ωc t+ γ ( t ))

¿ Ac cos(ωc t+ γ ( t ))

Now,

θ ( t )=ω c t+ γ ( t )

Then

θ ( t )=ω c t+ k p m ( t ) +θo

Assume that

f ( t )=a cos ω m t

∴ θ ( t )=ωc t+ a k p cos ω m t +θo

Where ∆ θ=a k p is the peak phase deviation

∴ φ PM ( t )= Ac cos (ωc t+ ∆ θ cos ω m t +θo )

156
Chapter 4
⁂ The instantaneous frequency is given by

dθ ( t )
ω i ( t )=
dt

d
¿ [ ω t+ ∆ θ cos ω m t +θo ]
dt c

¿ ω c −∆ θ ω m sin ωm t

¿ ω c −a⏟
k p ω m sin ωm t
∆ω

¿ ω c −∆ ω sin ωm t

∆ ω=
{ a k f FM
a k p ωm PM

⁂ Notes: We see that the peak frequency deviation in PM is proportional not only to the
amplitude of the modulating signal but also to its frequency.

⁂ Examples: The message is 1 cos(20 πt) and let the carrier is 10 cos (200 πt ) and k f =50
and k p=5. Find

1) The final expression for modulator signal for FM

φ FM ( t )= A c cos ( ω c t+ β sin ( ω m t ) )

∆ ω a k f 50
β= ⇒ =
ωm ω m 20 π

(
∴ φ FM ( t )=10 cos 200 πt +
50
20 π
sin ( 20 πt ) )
2) The modulation index for FM

∆ ω 1× 50
β= ⇒
ωm 20 π

3) The power for modulator

2
A c 102
P FM = ⇒ =50 W
2R 2

4) The final expression for modulator signal for PM

156
Chapter 4
φ PM ( t )= A c cos ( ωc t+ ∆ θ cos ω m t +θo )

¿ Ac cos ( ω c t +a k p cos ωm t )

¿ 10 cos ( 200 πt+1 ×5 cos 20 πt )

¿ 10 cos ( 200 πt+5 cos 20 πt )

⁂ Examples: An angle modulation signal is given by

s ( t )=cos 2 π ( 2× 106 t +30 sin 150 t+ 40 cos 150 t )

The maximum frequency and phase deviation of s ( t ) are

1] 10.5 kHz, 140 π rad

2] 6 kHz, 80 π rad

3]10.5 kHz, 100 π rad

4] 7.5 kHz, 100 π rad

Given s ( t )=cos 2 π ( 2× 106 t +30 sin 150 t+ 40 cos 150 t )

this expression can be related to standard angle modulated wave. Two sinusoid terms can
be combined to a single sinusoid.

A cos ωt+ B sin ωt=r cos ( ωt−θ o )

r =√ 30 2+ 402

∴ 30 sin150 t +40 cos 150 t=5 cos (150 t−θo )

(
s ( t )=cos 4⏟ ⏟π cos ⁡(150t−θ o ) )
6
π ×10 t +100
ωc ∆θ

Phase deviation = 100 π rad

150
Frequency deviation ⇒∆ f =∆ θ f m =100 π × =7.5 kHz
2π

⁂ Examples: An angle modulation signal with carrier frequency ω c =2 π ×10 5 is

describing the equation

φ EM ( t )=10 cos ( ω c t+ 5sin 3000 t +10 cos 2000 πt )

156
Chapter 4
1)Find the power of the modulated signal
2
A c 102
P FM = ⇒ =50 W
2R 2

2)Find the frequency deviation

∆ f =β ω m

∆ f =β 1 ω1m + β 2 ω2m

3000 2000 π
¿5× +10 ×
2π 2π

¿ 2387.324+ 10000=12387.324 Hz

3)Find the deviation ratio β

∆f
β=
fm
f m:- The highest frequency in m(t)

f 2000 π
m=¿ =1000 Hz ¿
2π

12387.324
∴ β= =12.387324
1000

4)Find the phase deviation ∆ θ

∆ θ=5+10=15 rad

156