ECE4132 Formula sheet

Laplace transform pairs

f (t) F (s)

δ(t) 1

1
1(t)
s
1
t1(t)
s2
n!
tn 1(t)
sn+1
1
e−at 1(t)
s+a
ω
sin(ωt)1(t)
s2 + ω2
s
cos(ωt)1(t)
+ ω2 s2
In the table above, δ denotes the unit impulse and 1 denotes the unit step.

Laplace transform theorems

Signal Laplace transform Name
R∞
f (t) F (s) = 0− f (t)e−st dt Definition

k1 f1 (t) + k2 f2 (t) k1 F1 (s) + k2 F2 (s) Linearity

e−at f (t) F (s + a) Frequency shifting (modulation)

f (t − T ) e−sT F (s) Time shifting

1 s


f (at) (where a > 0) aF a Time-scaling

df
dt sF (s) − f (0− ) Differentiation

d2 f
dt2
s2 F (s) − sf (0− ) − f 0 (0− ) Differentiation

dn f Pn n−k f (k−1) (0− )

dtn sn F (s) − k=1 s Differentiation
Rt F (s)
0− f (τ ) dτ s Integration

limt→∞ f (t) = lims→0 sF (s) Final value theorem

limt→0+ f (t) = lims→∞ sF (s) Initial value theorem

In the table above, for the final value theorem to be valid, the denominator of F (s) must have at
most one root at the origin, and all other roots must have negative real part. For the initial value
theorem to be valid, the integral of f must be continuous at t = 0.

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Models for capacitors, inductors, and resistors
Component Voltage-current Current-voltage Voltage-charge Impedence Admittance
V (s)/I(s) I(s)/V (s)
Z t
1 dv(t) 1 1
Capacitor v(t) = i(τ ) dτ i(t) = C v(t) = q(t) Cs
C 0− dt C Cs

1 dq(t) 1
Resistor v(t) = Ri(t) i(t) = v(t) v(t) = R R G=
R dt R

t
d2 q(t)
Z
di(t) 1 1
Inductor v(t) = L i(t) = v(τ ) dτ v(t) = L Ls
dt L 0− dt2 Ls

In the table above, voltage v is in units of volts (V). Current i is in units of amps (A). Charge q is in units of Coulombs
(Q). C is in units of Farads (F). R is in units of Ohms Ω. G is in units of mhos (Ω−1 ). L is in units of Henries (H).

Models for springs, viscous dampers, and masses

Component Diagram Force-velocity Force-displacement Impedence (F (s)/X(s))

Z t
Spring f (t) = K v(τ ) dτ f (t) = Kx(t) K
0−

dx(t)
Viscous damper f (t) = fv v(t) f (x) = fv fv s
dt

dv(t) d2 x(t)
Mass f (t) = M f (t) = M M s2
dt dt2

In the table above, force f is in units of Newtons (N). Position x is in units of metres (m). Velocity v is in units of
metres/second (m/s). K is in units of N/m. fv is in units of N s/m. M is in units of kilograms (kg).

Models for rotational springs, viscous dampers, and inertia

Component Diagram Torque- Torque- Impedence
angular velocity angular disp. (T (s)/Θ(s))

Z t
Spring T (t) = K ω(τ ) dτ T (t) = Kθ(t) K
0−

dθ(t)
Viscous damper T (t) = Dω(t) T (t) = D Ds
dt

dω(t) d2 θ(t)
Inertia T (t) = J T (t) = J Js2
dt dt2

In the table above, torque T is in units of Newton-metres (N m). Angle θ is in units of radians (rad). Angular
velocity ω is in units of radians/second (rad/s). K is in units of N m/rad. D is in units of N m s/rad. J is in units of
N m s2 /rad.

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Canonical second-order system
σd2 + ωd2 ωn2
Transfer function: G(s) = =
s2 + 2σd s + (σd2 + ωd2 ) s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2
If 0 ≤ ζ ≤ 1 and ωn > 0 and ωd > 0:
p
• Poles: −σd ± ωd j = ωn (−ζ ± j 1 − ζ 2 )
 
−σd t σd
• Step response: ystep (t) = 1 − e (cos(ωd t) + sin(ωd t)) for t ≥ 0
ωd
σ
−π ωd 4 π 1
π/2 + tan−1 (ωd /σd )


• Properties: %OS = e d , Ts = σd , Tp = ωd , T0−100 = ωd

Steady-state error
reference
System type unit step unit ramp unit parabola
1
0 1+Kp ∞ ∞
1
1 0 Kv ∞
1
2 0 0 Ka
3 0 0 0

where Kp = lims→0 L(s), Kv = lims→0 sL(s), Ka = lims→0 s2 L(s)

Partial fraction decomposition

Qm nk
r X
(s − z` ) X c`k 1 dnk −`
G(s) = K Qr `=1
= where c`k = [(s − pk )nk G(s)]|s=pk
k=1 (s − pk )
n k (s − pk )` (nk − `)! dsnk −`
k=1 `=1

State space models

Nonlinear: Linear:
dx dx
= f (x(t), u(t)) = Ax(t) + Bu(t)
dt dt
y(t) = h(x(t), u(t)) y(t) = Cx(t) + Du(t)

Linearisation:

∂ f˜i ∂ f˜i ∂ h̃i ∂ h̃i

Aij = Bij = Cij = Dij =
∂zj ∂vj ∂zj ∂vj
(z,v)=(0,0) (z,v)=(0,0) (z,v)=(0,0) (z,v)=(0,0)

where z = x − xe , v = u − ue , w = y − h(xe , ue ), dz
dt = f˜(z(t), v(t)), and w(t) = h̃(z(t), v(t))
Z t
Response of linear state-space models: x(t) = eAt x(0) + eA(t−τ ) Bu(τ ) dτ
0

Reference gain: With state feedback of the form u = kr r − Kx and when D = 0, choosing
kr = −(C(A − BK)−1 B)−1 gives unity DC gain.

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Reachable canonical form:
   
−a1 −a2 ··· −an−1 −an 1
 1
 0 ··· 0 0 
0
 
A=
 0 1 ··· 0 0  B = 0
 
 .. .. .. .. ..   .. 
 . . . . .  .
0 0 ··· 1 0 0
 
C = b1 b2 · · · bn−1 bn D=d

An−1 B has full rank.

 
Reachability: if and only if Wr = B AB · · ·

Observable canonical form:

   
−a1
1 0 ··· 0 b1

 −a2
0 1 ··· 0 



 b2
A=
 ..
.. .. . . ..  B=
  ..
 .
. . . . 

 .
−an−1 0 0 · · · 1 bn−1 
−an 0 0 · · · 0 bn
 
C = 1 0 0 ··· 0 D=d
 
C
 CA

Observability: if and only if Wo =   has full rank.
 
..
  .
CAn−1

Transfer functions for continuous-time linear state space models

General formula: Reachable/observable canonical form:

G(s) = C(sI − A)−1 B + D. b1 sn−1 + b2 sn−2 + · · · + bn−1 s + bn

G(s) = +d
sn + a1 sn−1 + · · · + an−1 s + an

Bode’s integral formula: Z ∞ X

log |S(jω)| dω = π pk
0

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