Module in Gender and Society

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino 1
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE
IN
ESP 3 (GENDER AND SOCIETY)
BY:
AMELIA BUMMAR-PASCUA
Instructor 1
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The leading center for academic and technological excellence Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley. Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.
“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

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Module 1 Introduction to Sociology

Competencies 1. Explain the distinctive characteristics of sociology;
2. Identify the forerunners of sociology
Discussion Introduction: What is Sociology?
Are you curious about why some your friends think or act differently than
you do? Do you ever wonder how things were different for teenagers when
your parents or grandparents were young? Do you ever speculate about
why some families are rich and some are poor, why some people commit
crimes and other people do not, or why some students are popular and
others have no friends? If so, you are enrolled in the right course, because
sociologists think about these things too.
Sociology is the “systematic, scientific study of human society.” Human

society is a pretty big topic. Sociologists study dyads, groups and
networks, organizations, communities, culture, society, and even global
relations. In some senses it seems like you can study almost anything and
call it sociology. It isn’t what they study that makes someone a sociologist,
however, but how they think about it and how they study it.
Imagine a friend of yours confides in you that she is pregnant and is not
planning to marry the father. At first you wonder if she was raped, but she
tells you the father is someone she was dating, she agreed to have sex
with him, and she turned down an invitation to marry him. You might
wonder why her behavior is so different from what you think it should be.
If you were raised in this country, where we tend to be better amateur
psychologists than we are amateur sociologists, you would probably
conclude that your friend has mental problems, isn’t thinking very clearly,
or is not a very good person. In other words, you would probably explain
your friend’s behavior in terms of what goes on inside of her and think
that she has a personal problem. In contrast, a sociologist would be
curious about what life at home was like for your friend, whether people
from her background respect mothers more than they respect women
without children, and if the father of her child was ready for the
responsibility of a family. In other words, a sociologist would explain your
friend’s pregnancy and decision to remain single in terms of the
circumstances she is facing that are basically out of her control. Studying
the immediate social circumstances surrounding people and how it
shapes their behavior and attitudes is the subject matter of micro-
sociology.
To tell you the truth, some sociologists wouldn’t actually be that

interested in your friend’s problem per se, but they would be interested in
understanding why so many young women today have children without
getting married. One out of three children born in the United States today
has an unmarried mother. Back in the 1950’s, only one out of twenty
children in the United States was born to an unwed mother. Do families
no longer have control over the behavior of their teenagers? Is it easier
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and therefore more attractive to be a single mother now than it was in the
past? Are men less desirable as mates than they were before? What is
different now? So someone with a sociological imagination would see
unwed motherhood as a public issue, rather than as a personal problem,
and your friend as an unknowing victim of a societal-level social forces
rather than as someone who was totally in control of her destiny. The
study of large social phenomena such as changes in the rates of births to
unwed mothers is known as macro-sociology.
Today the large number of unwed mothers poses a practical problem for
society, and sociologists are conducting research to try to understand why
it is happening. Practical problems like this appear, are solved, and
disappear, however, and then new ones develop. It would be a pretty big
waste of time to start from scratch to solve a problem each time a new one
pops up. Instead, what sociologists do is keep track of what they learn
each time they conduct a research project, share it with other sociologists,
and make a note of findings that repeat themselves in different situations.
For example, let’s say one sociologist finds that married couples with a
child are less likely to divorce than married couples without a child. And
another sociologist finds out that treaties among three countries are more
likely to last than treaties between two countries. Hmmm? Could it be
that three-person or three-country groups are more likely to survive than
two-person or two-country ones? Now you have a hypothesis that you can
test in yet another circumstance, perhaps by studying friendship
networks or rock ‘n’ roll acts. After studying comparing a lot of three-
entity and two-entity groups, you might even be able to develop a theory
to explain why the former is more likely to survive than the latter. Then
you would have a tool that can be used the next time a relevant problem
arises or research findings need to be explained.
Theories are explanations of why things happen the way they do, but they
are also lenses we wear when we view the world. Depending on what
theoretical lenses we wear, we ask different types of questions, collect
different types of data, and find different answers. In this course you will
learn about three different theories of social life—functionalism, conflict
theory, and symbolic interactionism. Depending on which set of these
theoretical lenses you choose to wear, you would ask different questions
about the increase in the rate of births to unwed mothers. By the time you
finish this unit, you should be able to figure out what those questions
would be.
Of course, you can’t answer any theoretical questions without data. Just
as sociologists study a wide variety of topics and view them through
different types of theoretical lenses, they also collect different types of
information to develop theory and to solve practical problems. Sometimes
they conduct surveys, other times they analyze documents, and still other
times they observe people interacting. Sometimes they summarize their
findings by reporting statistics and other times they summarize their
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findings in words. Whatever sort of research they do, however, sociologists

want to know what the facts are and whether they are accurate. If they
are interested in theoretical development, they want to know if the existing
theories stand up to empirical testing. If they are interested in solving a
problem, they want to know what solution the facts suggest.
Webster Dictionary defines sociology as the systematic study of society

and social interaction. The word “sociology” is derived from the Latin
word socius (companion) and the Greek word logos (speech or reason),
which together mean “reasoned speech about companionship”. How can
the experience of companionship or togetherness be put into words or
explained? While this is a starting point for the discipline, sociology is
actually much more complex. It uses many different methods to study a
wide range of subject matter and to apply these studies to the real world.
The sociologist Dorothy Smith (1926) defines the social as the “ongoing

concerting and coordinating of individuals’ activities” (Smith 1999).
Sociology is the systematic study of all those aspects of life designated by
the adjective “social.” These aspects of social life never simply occur; they
are organized processes. They can be the briefest of everyday interactions
—moving to the right to let someone pass on a busy sidewalk, for example
—or the largest and most enduring interactions—such as the billions of
daily exchanges that constitute the circuits of global capitalism. If there
are at least two people involved, even in the seclusion of one’s mind, then
there is a social interaction that entails the “ongoing concerting and
coordinating of activities.” Why does the person move to the right on the
sidewalk? What collective process lead to the decision that moving to the
right rather than the left is normal? Think about the T-shirts in your
drawer at home. What are the sequences of linkages and social
relationships that link the T-shirts in your chest of drawers to the
dangerous and hyper-exploitive garment factories in rural China or
Bangladesh? These are the type of questions that point to the unique
domain and puzzles of the social that sociology seeks to explore and
understand.
The main characteristics of sociology are as follows:
Sociology is one of the several social sciences. Each of the sciences

represents a particular way of looking at a common subject matter-human
behaviour.
There are no hard and first boundary lines between the social sciences
since each of these perspectives has implications for each of the others.
Still, it is useful at the outset to have a survey of the characteristics of
sociology to distinguish its particular perspective from those of other
social sciences. The following are the main characteristics of sociology.
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1. Sociology: a Generalising Science:

Sociology is a generalising sciences and not a particularising science. It
aims to establish general laws of principles about interactions and
associations. It seeks to find general principles about the nature, form,
content and structure of human groups and societies. Like history, it does
not attempt to make a description of particular events or particular
societies.
History is the study of human behaviour from particularising perspective.

But sociology is generalising in its perspective. Whereas history is
concerned with particular wars and revolutions, sociology is concerned
with war and revolution in general as social phenomena, as forms of social
conflict and not with their particular and concrete manifestations.
2. Sociology: a Generalised Science:

Sociology is a general science. It is not a specialised science like history,
political science and economics. These social sciences have specialised
subject matters and these are all parts of one general subject matter:
Man’s social behaviour, which sociology studies. Only certain kinds of
behaviour engage their attention. The economist, for example, is
interested in one kind of behaviour, economic behaviour. The political
scientist likewise is concerned with political behaviour.
In contrast to these specialised sciences, the generalised sciences of

sociology, psychology, and anthropology recognise no such limitations of
scope of interest. One may readily speak of noneconomic or nonpolitical
behaviour. But it simply makes no sense to speak of non-psychological or
non-sociological or non-anthropological behaviour. All behaviour has
psychological, sociological and anthropological dimensions and the
scientists in any one of these fields must necessarily take all kinds of
behaviour into account.
Sociology studies social factors that all social phenomena have in

common, whether they are economic or political. Like economics, it does
not deal with the ‘economic’ behaviour of man as such but sees economic
behaviour “as simply a partial abstraction from the total social behaviour
of the individual.” Although the focus of sociology is also special one, the
area of enquiry of sociology is general.
3. Sociology: a Social Science:

Sociology is a social science, a humanistic science. It is a social science
like economics, political science and psychology etc. It is not a physical
science. Sociology deals with social universe and not with the physical
universe. Sociology, deals with social facts, social phenomena, man’s
social relationships and behaviour.
4. Sociology: a Special Kind of Abstraction:
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Psychology, anthropology and sociology have in common in their interest

in all aspect of human behaviour. The difference between them seems to
lie in their different ways of thinking about human behaviour in general.
These differences may be understood by noting that human behaviour is a

variable and that these three social sciences represent different system of
explanation of this variability. In other words these three social sciences
adopt three different kind of explanation of single fact of human
behaviour, namely the variability in amount of discrimination practised by
people against other racial groups.
The Psychologist tends to explain variability in behaviour in terms of the

personalities of the behaving persons. Each kind of behaviour is a specific
manifestation of kind of organisations of psychological traits or elements.
For the anthropologist, variations in human behaviour tend to be

explained by variations in culture. Different groups of people have
different ideas and moral conceptions, and persons living in groups with
different cultures may be expected to display different patterns of
behaviour.
Sociology tends to explain variability in human behaviour in terms of

variation in society of social structure. Different persons are seen to have
occupied different positions or statuses in that structure and these
positions condition the behaviour of the occupants in a number of ways.
These differences among psychology, “anthropology and sociology are

differences of emphasis rather than absolute differences. However,
Sociology is a special kind of abstraction. It has its own system of
explanation.
5. Sociology: an Objective Science:

Sociology is an objective, but not a normative science. This means that
sociology is primarily concerned with facts and not with value judgments
upon them. Durkheim shared the vision of an objective sociology and in
his Rules of Sociological Method, he urged that the sociologist must
‘eradicate all preconceptions’ and deal with facts rather than with his
ideas about social facts. The German Sociologist, Max Weber devoted
major essay to the problem of objectivity or “Value- neutrality” in
sociology.
Sociology studies values as social facts but does not deal with the
problems of good or bad, desirable or undesirable. It is ethically neutral.
According to Weber, the sociologist may well be involved in partisan
political activity to stimulate his intellectual curiosity but that, as a social
scientist (e.g. a teacher of sociology) he must leave out his personal bias,
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remembering always that a ” podium is not a pulpit”.
6. Sociology: a Pure or Theoretical Science:
Sociology is a pure science. It is not an applied science. This means that

sociology aims at the acquisition of knowledge and it has no concern
whether the acquired knowledge is useful or applied. Sociology aims at
exact description by the analysis of the properties and relation of social
phenomena and explanation by the formulation of general statements.
In this way sociology adds to our knowledge about human society. The
aim of sociology is the acquisition of knowledge about human society.
Such knowledge can be used to solve social problems, but it is not an
applied science. The knowledge acquired by sociology is helpful for
administrators, legislators and social workers etc.
7. Sociology: a Rational and Empirical Science:

Sociology is both a rational and empirical science. It is empirical in the
sense that it is based on observation and experimentation. To quote H.M.
Johnson, “It is empirical, that is, it is based on observation and reasoning,
not on supernatural revelation and its results are not speculative.
Sociology is rational as it stresses on reason. Sociological theories are
built on the basis of logical inference.
The theoretical sociology emerged historically as a kind of speculation as

illustrated in the broad theoretical schemes of August Comte, Herbert
Spencer and other pioneers. In the twentieth century, most sociologists
have shifted their attention to the gathering of empirical data about social
life, a stage that perhaps reached its climax in the 1930’s.
Development of the Science of Sociology —A Historical Sketch:

Sociology – a science of recent origin. Sociology as a science and
particularly as a separate field of study is of recent origin. According to
Prof. MacIver ‘Sociology as a more or less definite body of systematic
knowledge with a distinct place and name among the family of sciences
must be dated by decades rather than by centuries.’
To be more exact it was in 1839 that Auguste Comte, the French

philosopher and sociologist, had coined the term ‘Sociology’ and defined
the scope of this social science and the methods which it should employ.
Auguste Comte is, for this reason, traditionally considered to be the
‘Father of Sociology.’ He had directed his labours towards determining the
nature of human society and the laws and principles underlying its
growth and development.
In his chief work Course de philosophic (positive Philosophy) he had

clearly pointed out the need for the creation of a distinct science of society
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which he first railed ‘social physics’ and later ‘sociology’ that should
concern itself with an analysis and explanation of social phenomena.
To Comte and to other social thinkers of his day, ignorance about society
was the root of all social evil; and he believed that knowledge about
society obtained by scientific method then proving so useful in the natural
sciences would make possible the development of the good society. He
predicted that man would become the master of his social destiny as soon
as he had developed a science of society.
The Greeks:
It is true that science of Sociology as we understand it today definitely
emerged very late but it does not mean that no attempts were made to
explain human relations and behaviour earlier than 1839. As has already
been mentioned, attempts to understand social phenomena have been
made since earliest times, though they were more of a speculative rather
than of scientific nature.
The earliest attempts at systematic thought regarding social life in the

West may be said to have begun with the ancient Greek philosophers
Plato (427-347 B.C.) and his disciple Aristotle (384-322 B.C.).
Plato’s Republic is an analysis of i he city community in all its aspects,

and in Aristotle’s Ethics and Politics we find the first major attempts to
deal systematically with the law, the society and the state. But one defect
of Greek approach was that it lacked the concepts of community as
distinct from the state, that is, the study of social relationships was
dominated by political aspects.
Furthermore, though Aristotle showed more realistic approach to social

phenomena than did Plato, who was his teacher, yet their investigations
resulted in depicting the character of an ideal social order.
They used their wisdom in bolstering up a cause, never to find “the cause”
of social life itself. Since they were either attacking or defending their own
social systems, their interpretation of the facts of social life was
prejudiced. Plato vastly underestimated the complexity of social
organisation.
In his plan, everything was to go on according to plan, but in social life

nothing ever goes quite according to plan. Aristotle’s philosophy, since it
supported the ‘status quo was highly conservative in character. The only
evidence that Aristotle advanced to prove the natural basis for society,
was existence of society, he explained society in terms of itself.
The Romans:
Among the Romans, the most outstanding author is Cicero who in his
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book De Officus (On Justice) transmitted to the western world the

treasures of Greek learning in philosophy, politics, law and sociology. But
the Romans were mainly occupied with giving Europe “The Law and Hence
they did not think in terms of non-legalistic aspect of society. They have
produced few original social philosophies.
The Scholastics:
The period thereafter was overshadowed and overwhelmed by scholastic
thinking. The scholastics propounded the Biblical thesis that man is a
special creation of God. He is subject to no laws but those of God. The
church men are God’s earthly representatives empowered by Him to
interpret His decree:’ and enforce His will.
The social system existing at the time was the divinely sanctioned one.
Anyone who thought of changing it was a heretic. The scholastic
philosophy was a conservative philosophy. It gave theological
interpretation to social attitudes. The scholastics have been proved false
in their thesis that nothing social can be changed since men have been
constantly changing their societies.
The Moderns:
It was not until the sixteenth century that clear cut distinction was made
between state and society and there appeared writers who treated life’s
problems on a more realistic level. The most notable among these were
Hobbes and Machiavelli. ‘The Prince’ of Machiavelli is an objective
discussion of the state and statecraft and is devoted chiefly to an
exposition of the principles governing the successful state, which he had
been able to formulate on the basis of historical data.
Sir Thomas More was another notable author of this period who had in
his book ‘Utopia’, published in 1515, tried to deal with every day social
problems albeit by means of depicting an ideal social order, which
presumably was meant for emulation. More’s technique of presenting a
picture of the ideal life as a way of pointing out what real life ought to be
was utilised by several other writers in their works for example by Thomas
Campanella in his City of the sun. Sir Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis
and James Harrington in the Commonwealth of Nations.
Italian writer Vico and the French writer Montesquieu deserve special
mention for their notable contribution towards the scientific investigation
of social phenomenon. Vico, in his book The New Science contended that
society was subject to definite laws which can be observed through
objective observation and study.
Montesquieu in his celebrated work The Spirit of Laws had analysed the
role that external factors, especially climate, play in life of human
societies. According to Montesquieu “Laws were an expression of national
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character and the spirit which they exhibited was to be explained in the
light of the social and geographical conditions under which men lived.”
Climate is the principal determinant of social life. Montesquieu

conclusions were little better than those of the speculative philosophers.
His fault was that he tried to know the whole truth about social life on the
basis of one element alone. Like Aristotle he arrived at the very
conservative conclusion that what is, it must be.
Auguste Comte:
Then came the age of Auguste Comte who is rightly called the founder of
Sociology because it was he who sought to establish a science which
would embrace the totality of human life and activities. He was the first
thinker of the modern world clearly to set the fact that all the aspects of
social life are bound in a unity and to show that this unity has an
evolutionary character.
According to him, mangoes progressively through three stages of social

development theological, metaphysical and scientific. Man has now
reached the scientific stage so far as his thinking about natural
phenomenon is concerned but his thinking about society was-still in the
metaphysical stage. Fortunately, the metaphysical stage had almost run
its course; and mankind was on the threshold of the scientific stage.
Comte was, However, overtly optimistic.
The Biologists:
With the publication of Origin of Species by Darwin, considerable studies
were made towards the development of Sociology. Darwin’s theory is that
all complete forms of life have evolved from the simple, and through the
process of the ‘survival of the fittest.’
It was left to Herbert Spencer, one of the most brilliant Englishmen of

modern times, to take these principles of the survival of the fittest and
natural selection and apply them to the field of Sociology. Sociology can be
said to have come into its own as an autonomous discipline with his
sociological writings.
Spencer attempted to integrate all the sciences into one system and to
find one fundamental law that would explain all phenomena, natural and
social. One of his most noteworthy theories was that the social
phenomena like the organic, undergo an evolutionary process of growth
from the simple and homogeneous to the complex and heterogeneous.
Primitive man to him represented the simple human type from which
civilized man evolved Another significant contribution of his is the so
called organic analogy, in which society is compared with the human
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organism.
Spencer, because of such contributions, occupies the foremost place in

the biological school of Sociology. His treatment of society as a natural
phenomenon, subject to the same kind of study as the other natural
phenomena anticipated by many decades the scientific treatment of social
data.
The Psychologists:
Herbert Spencer had many followers and his theory of organic evolution
remained in vogue till the end of the 19th century. But by the beginning of
the 20th century his biological interpretation of the social phenomena was
displaced by psychological interpretation.
Attempts were made to show how the evolution of society is dependent

upon the evolution of human mind. Graham Wallace, Me Dougall and
Hobhouse in England and Ward, Giddings, Cooley, Mead and Dewey in
America all tried to interpret social evolution in psychological terms in
their own ways and fields.
Durkheim:
Durkheim—a French philosopher (1858-1917) was the first modern
thinker who emphasized on the reality of society. He laid emphasis on
social facts and provided a separate ground to sociology from that of
psychology. According to him social facts are exterior and can be the
subject of a general science because they can be arranged in categories.
He studied division of labour as a social institution – a collectivity wherein

the multiplicity о individuals secure social coherence. He introduced the
concept of ‘anomie’ which is the product of (i) Separation of management о
industry from labour; (ii) disregard to individual natural talent, and (iii)
improper coordination of functional activities.
Durkheim also held that traditional religion has not been able to fulfill the
exigencies of scientific spirit and failed to serve any common purpose. He
rejected the moral authority of the church as a necessity to the betterment
of common life. According to him, “Divinity is merely society transfigured
and symbolically conceived.” He even said, “We must choose between God
and Society.”
His main works are: De La Division du Travail Social and Les Formes
Elementaries de lavie Religieves.
German Sociologists:
The German Sociologists – Von Wiese. Tonnies, Vier Kandt, Simmel and
Max Weber have also greatly influenced the development of sociology.
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The pioneering contributions of Max Weber are his theory of Social Action,
concept of Authority, concept of Bureaucracy and concept of Ideal Type.
Max Weber regarded sociology as a comprehensive science of social action.
He classified social action into four types according to its mode of

orientation, i.e., (i) in terms of rational orientation to a system of discrete
individual ends; (ii) in terms of rational orientation to an absolute value;
(iii) in terms of affectional orientation and (iv) in terms of tradition.
According to Max Weber, state is the most prominent form of Authority

which claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a
given territory. He classified authority into three types – traditional,
rational legal and charismatic.
In his study of Bureaucracy, Max Weber though conscious of its

advantages, feels, however, doubtful of its future. He apprehended that in
future bureaucracy might become a hard core of Iron Gate.
The Ideal Type, according to Max Weber, is not related to any type of
perfection and has no connection at all with value judgments. It is purely
a logical one, a methodical device which tries to render subject matter
intelligible by revealing or constructing its internal rationality
The function of ideal “type is the comparison with empirical reality in

order to establish its divergences or similarities, to describe them with the
most unambiguously intelligible concepts and to understand and explain
them causally.”
Karl Marx (1818-1883) has exerted remarkable impact not only on human
thinking but on social structure as well. His main thought is found in the
‘Communist Manifesto’ and ‘Das Kapital.’ His main sociological
contributions are (i) Historical Materialism, (ii) Theory of private property
(iii) Class struggle and (iv) Stateless society.
(i) Historical Materialism:

Briefly put, Marx holds “All the social, political and intellectual relations,
and religious and legal systems, all the theoretical outlooks which emerge
in the course of history, are derived from the material conditions of life.”
In other words, the super structure of society is erected on the
foundations of productive forces.
In order to understand, a society, we must understand its mode of

production and distribution. According to the theory of historical
materialism, “the ultimate causes of all social changes and political
revolutions are to be sought not in the minds of men, in their increasing
insight into external truth and justice, hut in changes in the mode of
production and exchange, they are to be sought not in the philosophy but
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in the economics of the period concerned.” Through his theory of

historical materialism, Marx has given the economic factor a pivotal role
in the causation of social change.
(ii) Theory of Private Property:

Private property is the basis of capitalism which makes it exploitative.
According to Mane, private property is derived from alienated man,
alienated labour, alienated life and estranged man.”
The worker gets alienated from his job. For him job is a means of physical
subsistence and he himself is a commodity. Alienation is acute in
capitalist society. Man has become alienated from himself, from each
other and from nature. In order to remove alienation, the system of private
property is to be abolished.
(iii) Class Struggle:

According to Karl Marx, “the history of all hitherto existing society is the
history of class struggle.” Marx holds that in every age, society becomes
divided into two major classes—the oppressor and the oppressed that are
always in conflict because their interests collide.
The present class struggle between the workers and employers will
ultimately lead to the victory of the proletariat. As a result of this victory,
class distinctions will disappear from society, and with that
disappearance, class struggle too would come to an end and a classless
society would be born.
(iv) Stateless Society:

According to Karl Marx, the state will ultimately wither away. Before the
state finally withers away, it will be preceded by a transitional phase of
the dictatorship of the proletariat.
The proletarian state will only prepare the way for the ushering in of a
stateless society in place of the bourgeois society, state as an agency of
force will no longer be required because people in the communistic society
will gradually become accustomed to the observance of the elementary
rules of social life without compulsion and without subordination.
Mankind will make an ascent from the kingdom of necessity to the
kingdom of freedom.”
Talcott Parsons:
The two major contributions of Talcott Parsons are:
(i) Action frame of Reference and its components, and (ii) The Structural
Functional Analysis. Parsons’ book, ‘The Structure of Social Action’ (1937)
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is considered as the “watershed in the development of American sociology

in general and sociological theory in particular. It was a landmark in that
it set a new course – the course of functional analysis.” Another book,
‘Social System’ emphasized the “importance of institutionalized values and
norms and differentiated social roles corresponding to different status
position.”
Action-Frame:
According to Talcott Parsons, there are four elements of action:
(i) An actor (may be an individual or collectivity)
(ii) An end,
(iii) A situation
(iv) Means
As such, any action is determined by three systems:

(i) Personality System, (ii) Social System and (iii) Cultural System. Of these
three, the cultural system consisting of values, norms and symbols is the
most important. These three are not interchangeable, though they inter-
penetrate each other and are essential for each other. Thus they are
separate yet related aspects of reality.
From his action frame of reference, Parson derived his concept of pattern
variables. According to him,
There are five basic pattern variables:

(i) Affectivity—Affective neutrality (The Gratification Discipline Dilemma),
(ii) Self-orientation collectivity orientation (The Private vs. Collective
interest Dilemma),
(iii) Universalism—Particularism (The Choice between the types of value
orientation standard)
(iv) Ascription-Achievement (The Choice between Modalities of social
object)
(v) Specificity—Diffuseness (The Definition and Scope of interest in the
subject)
(ii) The Structural-Functional Analysis: Parsons used the structural
functional method in the study of social phenomena. The structural-
functional analysis revolves round the two concepts of functions and
structures.
The basic questions involved are:

(a) What basic functions are fulfilled in any given system, (b) by what
structures, and (c) under what conditions, while functions deal with the
consequences—involving objectives as well as processes-of patterns of
actions, structures refer to those arrangements within the system which
perform the functions?
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Talcott Parsons has mentioned four types of functional requisites as

essential for the survival of a social system. These are (i) pattern
maintenance and tension-management, (ii) goal attainment, (iii)
Adaptation, and (iv) Integration.
Sociology—a distinct science:

Sociology has by now been able to establish itself as a distinct science
concerned with the scientific study of social phenomena. It has
accumulated around itself an impressive array of positive knowledge
about social life. The ultimate purpose of Sociology is the deliberate
modification of social life.
It is hoped that men armed with knowledge of underlying principles and

processes of social life would be better able tо mould their societies more
nearly to their own desires. Such knowledge would be useful in shaping
human affairs. Sociology is sure to progress and develop like other social
sciences in due course.
Enrichment In Class Activity

Activities
1. How would you define sociology to someone who knows nothing
about it?
2. What are the benefits of studying sociology?
3. Make a diagram on the development of Sociology.
Comprehension Essays:
Check
1. Describe the history of sociology, naming and describing the
contributions of three different sociological theorists.
2. Should we raise the minimum wage? Present arguments for and
against raising the minimum wage. Identify which of the three
sociological theories would best match arguments for and against
raising the minimum wage.
References https://www.sociologydiscussion.com/sociology/sociology-definition-
development-and-its-scope/2184date retrieved: August 20, 2020
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-
introductiontosociology/chapter/in-class-activities/date retrieved: August
23, 2020
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Module 2 Culture
Competencies 1. Discuss etymology, definition, pertinent meanings, elements, senses,
characteristics and importance of culture
2. Distinguish different cultures and society
Discussion
Culture is an important part of our lives. It tells us how to cooperate among

groups of people and how to survive as a species. Culture is defined as a
body of learned behaviors shared by individuals within a society. It is made
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up of shared values, norms, and beliefs as well as material objects such

as tools, automobiles, televisions, shoes, and anything else that is made by
humans. The Latin root of the word cultura means “to cultivate.” We
humans shape or cultivate the world around us to suit our needs. Culture
is something that we cannot live without.
Culture is also about species survival. What makes us different from other

animals is that rather than living on instincts, we must rely on culture for
survival. Birds instinctively know to fly south for the winter, and bears
know that they need to hibernate to survive harsh climates. Humans,
however, cannot survive harsh climates unless we learn from one another
how to change our environment to suit our needs. If you were to be
dropped off in the desert with no knowledge of how to survive, would you
be able to? The Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert have survived the climate
of the desert for many years. Their culture is an important tool for survival.
They have extensive knowledge of their environment and can locate water
sources and identify animal tracks in the sand. They are
a Hunter/Gatherer society which is one of the oldest and smallest
societies in the world. They are a sharing culture and live as nomads,
traveling in small bands or tribes. Every element found in their culture is a
tool for survival.
Many of us exhibit ethnocentrism when looking at the practices of certain

cultures. Ethnocentrism is when we judge another culture from the
viewpoint of our own. The truth is however, that even though we may not
agree with certain cultural practices, they make sense within their own
context.
THE SEVEN ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Creates social structure by organizing its members into small units to meet
basic needs.
Family Patterns: family is the most important unit of social organization.

Through the family children learn how they are expected to act and what to
believe.
Extended family: Several generations living in one household, working and

living together: grandparents, aunts and uncles, cousins. Respect for elders
is strong.
Social classes: rank people in order of status, depending on what is

important to the culture (money, job, education, ancestry, etc.)
CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS

Rules of Behavior are enforced ideas of right and wrong. They can be
customs, traditions, rules, or written laws.
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RELIGION
· Answers basic questions about the meaning of life.
· Supports values that groups of people feel are important.
· Religion is often a source of conflict between cultures.
· Monotheism is a belief in one god.
· Polytheism is a belief in many gods.
· Atheism is a belief in no gods.
LANGUAGE
· Language is the cornerstone of culture.
· All cultures have a spoken language (even if there are no developed forms
of writing).
· People who speak the same language often share the same culture.
· Many societies include a large number of people who speak different
languages.
· Each language can have several different dialects.
ARTS AND LITERATURE

They are the products of the human imagination.
· They help us pass on the culture’s basic beliefs.
· Examples: art, music, literature, and folk tales
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
People form governments to provide for their common needs, keep order
within society, and protect their society from outside threats.
· Definition of government: 1. Person/people who hold power in a society; 2
Society’s laws and political institutions.
· Democracy: people have supreme power, government acts by and with
consent.
· Republic: people choose leaders who represent them.
· Dictatorship: ruler/group holds power by force usually relying on military
support for power.
ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
How people use limited resources to satisfy their wants and needs.
· Answers the basic questions: what to produce, how to produce it, and for
whom.
· Traditional Economy: people produce most of what they need to survive
(hunting, gathering, farming, herding cattle, make own clothes/tools).
· Market Economy: buying and selling goods and services
· Command Economy: Government controls what/how goods are produced
and what they cost. Individuals have little economic power
· Mixed Economy: Individuals make some economic decisions and the
government makes others.
Characteristics of Culture
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Culture has five basic characteristics: It is learned, shared, based on

symbols, integrated, and dynamic. All cultures share these basic features.
 Culture is learned. It is not biological; we do not inherit it. Much of

learning culture is unconscious. We learn culture from families,
peers, institutions, and media. The process of learning culture is
known as enculturation. While all humans have basic biological
needs such as food, sleep, and sex, the way we fulfill those needs
varies cross-culturally.
 Culture is shared. Because we share culture with other members of

our group, we are able to act in socially appropriate ways as well as
predict how others will act. Despite the shared nature of culture,
that doesn’t mean that culture is homogenous (the same). The
multiple cultural worlds that exist in any society are discussed in
detail below.
 Culture is based on symbols. A symbol is something that stands for

something else. Symbols vary cross-culturally and are arbitrary.
They only have meaning when people in a culture agree on their use.
Language, money and art are all symbols. Language is the most
important symbolic component of culture.
 Culture is integrated. This is known as holism, or the various parts

of a culture being interconnected. All aspects of a culture are related
to one another and to truly understand a culture, one must learn
about all of its parts, not only a few.
 Culture is dynamic. This simply means that cultures interact and

change. Because most cultures are in contact with other cultures,
they exchange ideas and symbols. All cultures change, otherwise,
they would have problems adapting to changing environments. And
because cultures are integrated, if one component in the system
changes, it is likely that the entire system must adjust.
ADAPTATIONS OF CULTURE AND THE MODES OF

ACQUIRING CULTURE
Cultural Adaptation is a way of persons or people by doing what is the

traditions or celebrations of what they are in. It is when a person adjust his
or her own way to fit or to be long in new country. It is not an easy
transition. It covers adapting the language, traditions, food, daily lifestyle
or habits and etc of the country you migrate in or live in. It took ages to
adapt a culture positively but if you have the heart to make it or do it you
will get it easily. Living in a new culture can be jarring and very difficult to
process, especially if it is very different from your own. It is the way to
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make ourselves comfortable in the place we live, we will not be felt like left
out. Many people especially here in the Philippines migrate to other
countries to have a good job and they are also struggling in doing what is
the common or lifestyle in the place they’ve migrated in and that adaptation
can also be carried when they will come back to their own country or home
place.
Adaptation are imitation, indoctrination, socializing and conditioning
. The first is imitation it is when you imitate or mirrors the doings of the
people or country men in the new country. Example you imitate like you
dress like what they used to dress, the foods they eat and the religious
practices they do it means to them that you are respecting their culture
and giving honor to them. Indoctrination is when you need to learn what
is their language because it is hard to understand each other if you didn’t
know what is their national language, also their different beliefs that you
need also to adapt to make you more comfortable in the
place. Socializing is the term that means talking or understanding other
people to establish a relationship with them. It is also important because
you socialize to make friends in that specific place to make you more
welcome and they can also teach about their living in that
country. Conditioning is the way to make you remember what are the
beliefs or traditions or culture you want to adapt. It is called a punishment
for yourself to not forget their beliefs. It is the way to make us more skilled
or for us to practice and always remember what are things in need to be
remembered.
ETHNOCENTRISM AND THE EVALUATION OF CULTURE
The diversity of cultural practices and adaptations to the problems of

human existence often lead some to question which practices are the
best. Ethnocentrism is when one views their own culture as the best and
only proper way to behave and adapt.
 Since most humans believe their culture is the best and only way to
live, there are small amounts of ethnocentrism everywhere in the
world.
 Small doses help to create a sense of cultural pride and to build

strong, cohesive groups.
 But taken to extremes, and certainly when it includes an

unwillingness to be tolerant, it can be destructive. Ethnocentrism is
at the heart of colonization and genocide.
 Cultural anthropologists have, however, pushed for cultural

relativism, the principle that all cultures must be understood in
terms of their own values and beliefs, not by the standards of
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another. Under this principle, no culture is better than any other

and cultures can only be judged on whether they are meeting the
needs of their own people.
Multiple Cultural Worlds

Most individuals are members of multiple cultural worlds. Culture exists at
several levels. We typically refer to smaller cultures within a larger culture
as subcultures. People have some type of connection to that subculture but
must also be able to operate effectively within the larger culture. Some of
the diversity we see across subcultures is based on class, race, ethnicity,
age, and gender. Social stratification is often the result of our recognition of
these worlds as different and a belief that they are somehow inferior to our
own or to the larger culture.
 Class is a social category based on people’s economic position in

society. Not all societies exhibit class differences; ones who do not
are called egalitarian. Class societies are hierarchical, with one
class having more access to resources than others. Class is a recent
feature of culture, as all early humans lived in egalitarian bands or
tribes.
 Race (in a cultural sense) is the socially constructed meanings

assigned to the perceived differences between people based on
physical traits (skin color, facial features, hair types). What
differences we recognize and the meanings we assign those
differences are all culturally determined and not biologically created.
These physical features do not determine a person’s actions or
explain their behavior.
 Ethnic group refers to people who identify themselves as a distinct

group based on cultural features such as common origins, language,
customs and beliefs. Ethnic groups can be historically constituted (a
group of people who shared a territory, language or religion) or they
can be more recently claimed (African Americans). Just because
people choose to see themselves as members of a specific ethnic
group doesn’t mean that all members of that group are the same or
share beliefs and values. Ethnicity, because it is a marker of group
membership, can be used to discriminate.
 Indigenous peoples, “are groups who have a long-standing

connection with some territory that predates colonial or outside
societies prevailing in the territory.” Indigenous peoples are groups
that were in a territory before Europeans or colonists arrived, thus
Native Americans are an indigenous group. They are frequently
called First Peoples, and often suffer from discrimination.
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 Gender refers to the cultural meanings assigned to the biological

differences between the sexes. Most societies only have masculine or
feminine cultural roles, but some have a third, or even a blended,
gender. Gender roles vary widely cross-culturally. Closely tied to
gender roles are issues relating to homosexuality. In many cultures
around the world, there is discrimination based on gender and
sexual orientation.
 Age is both a biological fact as well as being culturally constructed.

While we can reckon how many years old an individual is (biological
age), what that means in terms of rights and responsibilities is
culturally constructed. Most societies have obligations and
responsibilities that are assigned based on individuals reaching
specific ages. Think of driving, drinking, and voting.
Enrichment Learning Activity:

Activities My culture, my pride
Try to look deeper in your culture and tradition. Identify a practice of a

belief peculiar in your culture. Describe your practice or tradition and
explain why is it peculiar to you. Use separate sheet for your answer.
Comprehensio Quiz: Choose the letter of the correct answer.

n Check 1. This means to cultivate.
a. Culture b. cultura c. belief d. norms
2. It is when we judge other culture from point of our own.
a. Ethnocentrism c. society
b. Culture d. classes
3. It is the most important unit of social organization.
a. Culture c. religion
b. Family d. customs and tradition
4. These are the rules of behaviour and are enforced ideas of right and
wrong.
a. Religion c. language
b. Custom and tradition d. arts and literature
5. Which of the following is not a characteristics of culture?
a. Culture is learned c. culture is wide
b. Culture is based on culture d. culture is integrated
6. It is a way of persons or people by doing what is the tradition or
celebrations of what they are in.
a. Conditioning c. indoctrination
b. Cultural adaptation d. socializing
7. It is a principle which states that all cultures must be understood in
terms of their own values and beliefs, not by standards of others.
a. Ethnocentrism c. indoctrination
b. Adaptation d. class
8. It is the way to make you remembers what are the belief or tradition
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you want to adapt.

a. Socializing c. indoctrination
b. Conditioning d. imitation
9. It is a socially constructed meanings assigned to the perceived
difference between people based on physical trait.
a. Class c. ethnic groups
b. Race d. indigenous people
10.This refers to the cultural meanings assigned to the biological
differences between the sexes.
a. Gender c. sex
b. Race d. age
References https://www.womenofthewhirlwind.com/the-7-elements-of-culture/
https://aquinoalexis.wordpress.com/2016/12/12/adaptations-of-culture-
and-the-modes-of-acquiring-culture/
Module 2 Filipino Value System

Competencie 1. Define value
s 2. Identify external forces that shape contemporary Filipino values
3. Enumerate and categorize Filipino values (desire and traditional
Filipino values)
4. Trace the stages of development of Filipino values
Discussion
In ethics, value denotes the degree of importance of some thing or action,
with the aim of determining what actions are best to do or what way is best
to live (normative ethics), or to describe the significance of different actions.
Value systems are proscriptive and prescriptive beliefs; they affect ethical
behavior of a person or are the basis of their intentional activities. Often
primary values are strong and secondary values are suitable for changes.
What makes an action valuable may in turn depend on the ethical values of
the objects it increases, decreases or alters. An object with "ethic value" may
be termed an "ethic or philosophic good" (noun sense).
Values can be defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses
of actions or outcomes. As such, values reflect a person's sense of right and
wrong or what "ought" to be. "Equal rights for all", "Excellence deserves
admiration", and "People should be treated with respect and dignity" are
representatives of values.
Values tend to influence attitudes and behavior and these types
include ethical/moral values, doctrinal/ideological (religious, political)
values, social values, and aesthetic values. It is debated whether some
values that are not clearly physiologically determined, such as altruism,
are intrinsic, and whether some, such as acquisitiveness, should be
classified as vices or virtues.
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Personal values
Personal values provide an internal reference for what is good, beneficial,
important, useful, beautiful, desirable and constructive. Values are one of
the factors that generate behaviour (besides needs, interests and habits) and
influence the choices made by an individual.
Values may help common human problems for survival by comparative
rankings of value, the results of which provide answers to questions of why
people do what they do and in what order they choose to do them. Moral,
religious, and personal values, when held rigidly, may also give rise
to conflicts that result from a clash between differing world views.
Over time the public expression of personal values that groups of people find
important in their day-to-day lives, lay the foundations of law, custom and
tradition. Recent research has thereby stressed the implicit nature of value
communication. Consumer behavior research proposes there are six internal
values and three external values. They are known as List of Values (LOV) in
management studies. They are self respect, warm relationships, sense of
accomplishment, self-fulfillment, fun and enjoyment, excitement, sense of
belonging, being well respected, and security. From a functional aspect these
values are categorized into three and they are interpersonal relationship
area, personal factors, and non-personal factors. From an ethnocentric
perspective, it could be assumed that a same set of values will not reflect
equally between two groups of people from two countries. Though the core
values are related, the processing of values can differ based on the cultural
identity of an individual.
Cultural values
Individual cultures emphasize values which their members broadly share.
Values of a society can often be identified by examining the level
of honor and respect received by various groups and ideas. In the United
States of America, for example, top-level professional athletes receive more
respect (measured in terms of monetary payment) than university professors.
Filipino values in a fourfold sense:

1. Although mankind shares universal human values, it is obvious that certain
values take on for us a distinctively Filipino flavor. The Greek ideal of moderation
or meden agan,the Romanin medio stat virtus, the Confucian and Buddhist
"doctrine of the Middle", find their Filipino equivalent in hindi labis, hindi kulang,
katamtaman lamang .
2. When we speak of Filipino values, we do not mean that elements of

these Filipino values are absent in the value systems of other peoples
and cultures.
3. Universal human values in a Filipino context (historical, cultural,
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socio-economic, political, moral and religious) take on a distinctive set

of Filipino meanings and motivations.
4. The Filipino concept of justice has evolved from inequality to equality,

and to human dignity; from the tribe, to the family, and to the nation.
Filipino consciousness of these different values varies at different
periods of our history. It is only in the last two decades that the
Filipino people have become more conscious of overpopulation and
family planning, environmental pollution (Kawasakisintering plant)
and wildlife conservation (Calauit Island), and the violation of human
rights (Martial Law), active non-violence and People Power (1986 non-
violent Revolution).
Generally, there are six types of Value System:

Theoretical - places high importance on discovery of truth through a
critical and rational approach.
Economic - emphasizes on the useful and practical form of values.
 Aesthetic - places highest value on form and harmony
Social - highest value is given to love of people
Political - emphasizes on acquisition of power and influence.
Religious - concerned with unity of experience and understanding of
cosmos as a whole.
FILIPINO CULTURAL VALUES:
The Filipinos have different kinds of values, such as):
1. Hospitable to their guests and kind to other people.
2. The Filipino children are very respectful to elders especially their

parent. They take their hand and hit it gently in their foreheads. They
do this every time they meet an elder or a sign of respecting them.
3. Many Filipino cultural values reflect the desire to be together as a

group.
Examples are:
a. Pakikisama - This is the ability to get along in a group, and to

enjoy camaraderie and togetherness. One who understands
pakikisama will yield to group opinion and sacrifice individual
welfare for group welfare.
b. Utang na loob - This is the Filipino obligation to repay a debt or

favor upon request, and repay it with interest. Every Filipino has
utang na loob to someone, while others have utang na loob to him.
Filipinos also believe strongly in suki, which is the building of personal
bonds between businesses and customers and loyal patronage.
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4. Filipinos believe strongly in saving face. This is why, in response to an

invitation, when a Filipino says yes, it might mean “yes”, but could
mean “maybe”, or even “I don’t know.”
It is often difficult for Filipinos to bring themselves to say no, and it is

a good idea to confirm a dinner invitation several times to ensure that
they did not say yes because they could not find a proper way to say
no.
Examples of saving face are:

a. amor propio which means self respect;
b.hiya-which means
shame. A Filipino would be thought of as lacking amor propio if, for
example, they accepted criticism weakly or did not offer honored
guests the proper hospitality. Hiya is felt by those whose actions are seen as
socially unacceptable, and one of the ultimate insults in Philippine
society is to be labeled walang hiya which roughly translates to being
shameless.
5. Another value that is common in Philippine culture is bahala na -
which means, literally, leaving things to God. It indicates the Filipino’s
fatalistic view of life, and is a way of coping with conflicts that can
result from tight kinship within groups. By adopting this attitude, one
lets the circumstance take care of itself.
Generally, Common Filipino Cultural Values are:
1. Irrationalism - This refers to a certain superstitious beliefs of Filipinos

that still practiced up to now. People still believed in gods of the nature
and spirits and offer them foods and placate the sprits to heal the illness
and provide them a good harvest.
2. Social Belongingness – Filipinos want to be accepted by the group or to the

community, so, sometimes Filipinos are doing things just to please
somebody. We are not true to ourselves. Sometimes we avoided to be franked to
others just not hurt other’s feelings, because we are so sensitive
3. Close family ties – The family is the most important in our life. We are
totally dependent with our family. We are doing things for the common good or
for the benefits of the family. Children should obey their parents because
if they will defy parental advises it will bring misfortune or their life
becomes tragic.
4. Sense of debt gratitude – In Filipino term, it is “utang na loob”. We are

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particular in stressing this owing a debt of gratitude, that’s why we are

always expecting for repayment. This value has been taken advantage by
others especially the politicians. This “utang na loob” may result to
faithfulness and a cause for graft and corruption.
5. Emphasis on authority.
Father is the head of the family; Mayor is the head of the town and
whatsoever. We give more emphasis to what the person is. The status of the
person depends on his wealth and acquisition of land.
6. Personal improvement – Most Filipinos are aiming to raise their family in

standard living. We believed that we will obtain success only when we
will finish our education. Education has played a major role in obtaining
success that’s why parents would sacrifice themselves just to send their
children to school. In return, older brother and sister would help their
younger ones to go to school and would not get married until they help
their parents.
7. Mano Po - "Mano po" (pronounced mah-noh poh) refers to a physical

gesture of taking the hand of an elder and bringing it towards
your forehead. This is a sign of respect for the elder and is usually done
at the point of greeting or farewell. Children are expected to perform this
gesture towards adult relatives & adult family friends. Failure to perform
"mano po" would be considered as disrespectful.
8. “Kuya" or "Ate” - The Filipino culture is very big on respect. The older an
individual is, the more they call for respect. The term 'kuya' (pronounced
koo-yah) refers to an older male person; it means 'big brother.' Its verbal
usage indicates that you respect the older male and recognize the
difference in age.
9. The power of the eyebrows - In American culture, the eyebrows usually

convey emotion via a variety of facial expressions. In Filipino culture,
raising your eyebrows can also communicate a positive affirmation of
"yes" when a yes/no question have been asked. So, should a Filipino fail
to verbally answer your question, look at their eyebrows before feeling
like you were being ignored. In reality, they may just be answering you
non-verbally through the raising of their eyebrows. Raising your
eyebrows accompanied with stronger contact can also serve as greeting
or farewell
10.Ningas-kugon/ningas kugon -"flaming cogon grass" quickly going up in

flames, refers to the Filipino cultural trait of very enthusiastically starting things, but
then quickly losing enthusiasm soon after.
Categories of Filipino Values:
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a. Core Value or kapwa: (kapwa, means “togetherness”) – is the core

construct of Filipino Psychology.
Two categories of Kapwa:
1. Ibang tao (“outsider”): there are five domains

* pakikitungo (civility)
* pakikisalamuha (act of mixing)
* Pakikilahok (act of joining)
*Pakikisama (being united with the group)
* Pakikibagay (conformity)
2. Hindi Ibang Tao (“one –of –us”): there are three domains

* pakikipagpalagayang-loob (act of mutual trust)
* Pakikisangkot (act of joining others)
*Pakikikaisa (being one with others)
b. Pivotal Interpersonal Value
* Pakiramdam ( Shared inner perception).
Filipinos use damdam, or the inner perception of others’ emotions, as a basic tool
to guide his dealings with other people.
c. Linking Socio-personal Value
* kagandahang-Loob ( Shared humanity).
This refers to being able to help other people in dire need due to a perception of being
together as a part of one Filipino humanity.
d. Accommodative Surface values

* Hiya (Loosely translated as “Shame”), by Western psychologists, hiya
is actually “Sense of Propriety” (sense of good conduct or behavior)
* Utang na Loob (norm of Reciprocity). Filipinos areexpected by their
neighbors to return favors – whether these were asked for or not –
when it is needed or wanted.
* Pakikisama and Pakikipagkapwa (SIR - SmoothInterpersonal
relationship). This attitude is primarily guided by conformity with the
majority.
e. Confrontative Surface values

* Bahala Na (This attitude, loosely translated into English as FATALISTIC
PASSIVENESS”)
This actually describes the Filipino way of life, in which, he is determined

to do his best, hence, the term bahala na, which actually came from the
phrase “Bathalan Na” – which means “I will do all my best, let God take
care of the rest”
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* Lakas ng Loob – This attitude is characterized by being courageous in

the midst of problems and uncertainties.
* Pakikibaka (in English, it means CONCURRENT CLASHES. It refers to

the ability of the Filipino to undertake revolutions and uprising.
Filipino Society & Culture

A. Filipino Family Values
The family is the centre of the social structure and includes the nuclear
family, aunts, uncles, grandparents, cousins and honorary relations such as
godparents, sponsors, and close family friends.
People get strength and stability from their family. As such, many children have several
godparents.
Concern for the extended family is seen in the patronage provided to family
members when they seek employment.
It is common for members of the same family to work for the same company.
In fact, many collective bargaining agreements state that preferential hiring
will be given to family members.
B. Filipino Concept of Shame

Hiya is shame and is a motivating factor behind behaviour.
It is a sense of social propriety and conforming to societal norms of behaviour.
Filipinos believe they must live up to the accepted standards of behaviour
and if they fail to do so they bring shame not only upon themselves, but also
upon their family.
One indication of this might be a willingness to spend more than they can
afford on a party rather than be shamed by their economic circumstances.
If someone is publicly embarrassed, criticized, or does not live up to
expectations, they feel shame and lose self-esteem.
Etiquette & Customs:

A. Meeting Etiquette
Initial greetings are formal and follow a set protocol of greeting the eldest
or most important person first.
A handshake, with a welcoming smile, is the standard greeting.
Close female friends may hug and kiss when they meet.
Use academic, professional, or honorific titles and the person's surname
until you are invited to use their first name, or even more frequently,
their nickname.
B. Gift Giving Etiquette

If you are invited to a Filipino home for dinner bring sweets or flowers to
the hosts.
If you give flowers, avoid chrysanthemums and white lilies.
You may send a fruit basket after the event as at hank you but not before or
at the event, as it could be interpreted as meaning you do not think that the
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host will provide sufficient hospitality.

Wrap gifts elegantly as presentation is important. There are no color
restrictions as to wrapping paper.
Gifts are not opened when received.
C. Dining Etiquette: (If you are invited to a Filipino's house):

It is best to arrive 15 to 30 minutes later than invited for a large party.
Never refer to your host's wife as the hostess. This has a different meaning
in the Philippines.
Dress well. Appearances matter and you will be judged on how you dress.
Compliment the hostess on the house.
Send a handwritten thank you note to the hosts in the week following the
dinner or party. It shows you have class.
D. Table manners
Wait to be asked several times before moving into the dining room or
helping yourself to food.
Wait to be told where to sit. There may be a seating plan.
Do not start eating until the host invites you to do so.
Meals are often served family- style or are buffets where you serve yourself.
A fork and spoon are the typical eating utensils.
Hold the fork in the left hand and use it to guide food to the spoon in your
right hand.
Whether you should leave some food on your plate or finish everything is a matter
of personal preference rather than culture-driven.
Filipino Belief System and Cultural Practices

Superstitious Beliefs (Pamahiin) | Folk Beliefs (Paniniwala)
- They form the people’s value system and culture!
- Cicero" Greek Philosopher" derived the term “Superstition” from
supertiosi & literally refers to left over or the survivors", the descendants!
- This makes our rich cultural values survive and making ourselves
peculiar among others!
- Proverbs (kasabihan ng matatanda) | Riddles (Bugtong-Bugtong)

Activities
Search for various Filipino kasabihan and bugtong-bugtong. Give atleast 10
kasabihan and provide brief explanation as to its meaning. Also give atleast
10 bugtong-butong. Use separate sheet for this activity.
Comprehens Chapter Quiz:

ion Check Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. This denotes the degree of importance of some thing or action with
aim of determining what actions are best to do or what way is best to
live.
a. Value c. behavior
b. Personal value d. cultural value
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2. It provides an internal reference for what is good, beneficial,

important, useful, beautiful, desirable and constructive.
a. Value c. behaviour
b. Personal value d. cultural value
3. It is a type of value system that places high importance on discovery

of truth a critical and rational approach.
a. Aesthetic c. economic
b. Religious d. theoretical
4. It is concerned with the unity of experience and understanding of

cosmos as a whole.
a. Aesthetic c. economic
b. Religious d. theoretical
5. This is the ability to get along in a group and to enjoy camaraderie

and togetherness.
a. Utang- na loob c. suki
b. Pakikisama d. hiya
6. This is a Filipino value wherein we leave things to God.

a. Utang na loob c. walang hiya
b. Bahala na d. walang modo
7. As part of Filipino value, we are obliged to do something in return for

what others do for us.
a. Close family ties c. irrationalism
b. Social belongingness d. sense of debt gratitude
8. _______ is considered head of the family.

a. Mayor c. mother
b. Father d. sister
9. This refers to physical gesture of taking the hand of an elder and

bringing it towards your forehead.
a. Mano po c. personal improvement
b. Kuya o ate d. close family ties
10.This refers to act of mutual trust.

a. Pakikipagkalagayang loob
b. Pakikisangkot
c. Pakikikaisa
d. pakikibagay
References https://www.scribd.com/document/317434779/Filipino-Belief-System-and-
Cultural-Practices
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Module 3 Socialization and Personality

Competencies 1. Define socialization and personality
2. Discuss the self and socialization
Discussion Social development is seemingly built upon a paradox (Damon, 1983). At
the same time
we are becoming social beings, we are also becoming individuals with
distinct personalities.
The reason why this dual process may appear paradoxical is because of
the specialization that
has taken place in the social sciences. Sociologists, over the years, have
focused their
attention on the socialization process through which a culture’s rules of
conduct are learned.
Psychologists have, instead, focused on personality development, which is
more concerned
with the emergence of individual differences in behavior that make each
person recognizably
unique. Only of late has there been any real movement to join the two
sciences in the
realization that one aspect of the process cannot take place without the
other, and that
individual differences which constitute our distinctive personalities, in
part, involve variations in
the extent to which we conform to social norms (Damon, 1983;
Hurrelmann, 1988; Zigler, Lamb
and Child, 1982).
A definition of socialization that reflects this new view of social
development is offered by
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Klaus Hurrelmann (1988): “Socialization….is the process of the

emergence, formation, and
development of the human personality in dependence on and in
interaction with the human
organism, on one hand, and the social and ecological living conditions
that exist at a given time
within the historical development of a society on the other” (P. 2). Those
who use this definition
of socialization accept the basic assumption that socially conveyed
influences on personality
development actually exist. This essay will explore how some personality
traits are acquired by
a person through the imparting of basic norms, values, and standards of
behavior in a given
society.
Social development is seemingly built upon a paradox (Damon, 1983). At
the same time
focused their
more concerned
person recognizably
sciences in the
other, and that
and Child, 1982).
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behavior in a given
society.
the same time
focused their
more concerned
person recognizably
sciences in the
other, and that
and Child, 1982).
behavior in a given
society.
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the same time

focused their
more concerned
person recognizably
sciences in the
other, and that
and Child, 1982).
behavior in a given
society.
The Impact of Socialization on Personality Development
(Graduate essay, Kent State University, 1990.)
BY
David B. McCoy
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Social development is seemingly built upon a paradox. At the same time
distinct personalities. The reason why this dual process may appear
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paradoxical is because of the specialization that has taken place in the

social sciences. Sociologists, over the years, have focused their attention
on the socialization process through which a culture's rules of conduct are
learned.

more concerned with the emergence of individual differences in behavior
that make each person recognizably unique. Only of late has there been
any real movement to join the two sciences in the realization that one
aspect of the process cannot take place without the other, and
that individual differences which constitute our distinctive personalities,
in part, involve variations in the extent to which we conform to social
norms.

development is offered by Klaus Hurrelmann (1988): "Socialization... is the
process of the emergence, formation, and development of the human
personality in dependence on and in interaction with the
human organism, on one hand, and the social and ecological living
conditions that exist at a given time within the historical development of a
society on the other". Those who use this definition of socialization accept
the basic assumption that socially conveyed influences on
personality development actually exist. This essay will explore how some
personality traits are acquired by a person through the imparting of basic
norms, values, and standards of behavior in a given
society
SOCIALIZATION
Newborn homo sapiens are biological organisms with the predisposition to
develop into social persons or what we call "human". Infants become
human as they acquire the abilities to appreciate and use the
symbols and embellishments brought into being by preceding generations.
Becoming human includes learning to interact with others in appropriate

ways: forming affectionate ties; participating as a member of various
organizations, sharing loyalty with many unknown others who are fellow
citizens, and internalizing the norms, values, roles, and patterns of
behavior of the society to which one is born. Becoming human also
includes development of the "self or a personality. Personality may be
defined as "the set of relatively stable and distinctive styles of thought,
behavior and emotional responses that characterizes a
person's adaptations to surrounding circumstances". The process by
which one acquires these qualities, thus becoming human, is known as
socialization.
Society intrudes itself into the socialization process in numerous ways

Society establishes the standards that socialized individuals are expected
to achieve in physical development, in skills and capacities in emotional
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expression, in intellective purposeful activities, and in the patterning of

their relations with significant others. In their effort to socialize children,
parents are guided by their awareness of such social expectations and by
their image of what children must become if they are to live successfully
in the world.
Parents are also guided by their image of what makes "good parents and
most invest a great deal of time and effort living up to this standard. In
modern societies where cultural traits have grown too numerous and
complex for the family alone to transmit institutions have been created.
The primary institutions in our society include the family, the church, the
educational system, the government, and the economic system, and each
has been charged with the responsibility of transmitting a set of
specific societal norms and values. Any violation of these intended norms
or values is generally met with powerful sanctions. The mere allocation of
sanctions constitutes a declaration of society's intent and sets a standard
that will attract individuals regardless of whether they themselves receive
the punishments or rewards of a given institution.
AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
Socialization is often divided into two broad stages, primary-childhood
socialization and secondary-adult socialization. Considered the most
important stage, primary socialization shapes the identities, outlooks, and
resources upon which secondary socialization is built. Primary
socialization is under the control of significant others. Significant others
are those (parents, grandparents, siblings) who positively or negatively
affect the life personality, and orientation of children by exposing them to
certain experiences, values, and roles, as well as restricting them from
undesirable influences. Additional agents, or forces, of primary
socialization include the public school system, peer group associations,
and television.

PERSONALITY
What is personality?
• it is a combination of the individual’s physical attribute, of every action
or mode of thinking and feeling which are expressions of his personality •
personality is a product of socialization and arises as a result of the
interplay of various factors which include: biological inheritance,
geographic, social and cultural environments. These are called
determinants of personality.
Determinants of personality:
1. Biological inheritance the characteristics are transferred from
parents to children through the mechanism of the genes found in
the chromosomes of the sex cells.
2. Geographic environment it refers to location, climate, topography
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and natural resources that are determinants of personality. The

question whether people in the tropical regions and the temperate
zones differ in personality because of climate.
3. Social environment refers to the various groups and social

interactions going on in the groups of which one is a member.
4. Cultural environment although intertwine with the social

environment, it is explained separately. It refers to the learned ways
of living; the norms of behaviors like folkways, mores, laws, values,
and patterned ways of the group. Cultural norms are present once
the child is born.
Other views on personality formation:

• Cultural determinism- that cultural environment is the main factor that
determines human behavior. Proponents of this theory are: Franz Boas,
Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict. Franz Boaz views personality
development as a result of learning what is found in culture and that
significant differences in personality are learned.
• Symbolic interactionism – the view is based primarily on George H. Mead

and C. Horton Cooley’s theory which expounds that personality is the
result of the interaction between individuals and mediated by symbols
particularly, language. Language is the crucial in the development of the
“social self”.
• Different concepts of the self - the looking glass self. The ability of
children to visualize themselves through the eyes of others (johari window)
family, friends, classmates and peer groups exert a great influence
• The generalized others - children are able to respond to a number of

individuals in the group and integrate the various rules or set of norms of
the group around the age of 8 or 9 children engage in games where they
are able to take the attitudes and responses of others in social activity
Freud’s theory of socialization

Seigmund Freud- the father of modern sociology, came up with his own
concept on how the self is developed based on his psychological theory on
socialization. This theory holds that personality consisted of three major
systems that operate separately or in combination with one another:
1. the id (pleasure principle) it is the biological component and the
source of a number of drives centering around the child satisfaction
of the basic needs like food and sex and operates on the pleasure
principle.
2. the ego (rational mind) it is the mediator between the needs of the
individual and the world of reality and strives to delay tension until
adult the suitable environment exists. The cognitive and intellectual
processes are controlled by the ego. It mediates between the id and
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the super ego (the rational realm).

3. super ego (moral arm/the conscience) it is the moral arm of
personality representing traditional rules (cultural norms), values
and parent ideals of society. It is continually in conflict with the
ego. The first five (5) years of the child’s development plays a
decisive role in personal development as it is where the basic
personality structure is formed.
= the id – is the child’s personality – already mature but most often
behaves like a child
= the ego – the adult personality – more reality grounded
= the super-ego – parent personality – always judging and criticizing
The five (5) different stages in personality development according to Freud

1. Oral stage (o-1 y.o.) Eating is the major source of satisfaction.
Frustration or overindulgence can lead to overeating or alcoholism
in adulthood.
2. Anal stage (1-3 y.0.) The influencing factor is toilet training. The
result of fixation at this stage are personalities that are grasping
and stingy.
3. Phallic stage (3-6 y.0.) The greatest source of pleasure comes from
the sex organ. This is the time that the child desires parents of the
opposite sex. Fixation at this stage can result into the following:
• oedipus complex – when the son sexually fixated on the mother

• elektra complex – when the daughter desires the father
4. Latency period (6-adolescence) children turn their attention to

people outside of their families like to teachers, friends, and the
erotic impulses are dormant.
5. Genital stage (adolescence and beyond) the sexual impulses become

active again and the individual focuses on the opposite sex to look
around for possible long term relationship or marriage.

Activities Answer the following questions briefly and concisely. Use separate sheet
for your answer.
1. What is socialization?
2. What is personality?
3. Discuss the basic personality structure by Sigmund Freud.
4. Discuss the different stages in personality development according
to Freud.
Comprehension Quiz:
Check True or False. Write true if the statement is correct. Otherwise, write false
in your answer sheet.
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1. Socialization is divided into primary-childhood socialization and

secondary-adult association.
2. Symbolic interactionism states that cultural environment is the
main factor that determines human behaviour.
3. According to Sigmund Freud, the ego is the biological component
and the source of a number centering around the child satisfaction
of the basic needs.
4. Super ego is the moral arm of personality representing traditional
rules, values, and parents ideals of society.
5. It is a stage of personality development where eating is the major
source of satisfaction.
6. Anal stage focused on the influencing factor which is toile training.
7. Elektra complex happens when the son sexually fixated on the
mother.
8. Genital stage refers to adolescence and beyond.
9. This is the stage where the greatest source of pleasure comes from
sex organ.
10.Sigmund Freud is the father of modern sociology.
References https://www.slideshare.net/markallanestabillopia/personality-
soccomplete
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234645134_The_Impact_of_So
cialization_on_Personality_Formation_and_Gender_Role_Development
Module 4 Gender and Development

Competencies 1. Discuss gender and development concepts
Discussion Sex and gender: What is the difference?
Historically, the terms “sex” and “gender” have been used interchangeably,
but their uses are becoming increasingly distinct, and it is important to
understand the differences between the two.
In general terms, “sex” refers to the biological differences between males

and females, such as the genitalia and genetic differences. “Gender” is
more difficult to define, but it can refer to the role of a male or female in
society, known as a gender role, or an individual’s concept of themselves,
or gender identity.
Sometimes, a person’s genetically assigned sex does not line up with their
gender identity. These individuals might refer to themselves as
transgender, non-binary, or gender-nonconforming.
The differences between male and female sexes are anatomical and
physiological. “Sex” tends to relate to biological differences. For instance,
male and female genitalia, both internal and external are different.
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Similarly, the levels and types of hormones present in male and female
bodies are different.
Genetic factors define the sex of an individual. Women have 46

chromosomes including two Xs and men have 46 including an X and a Y.
The Y chromosome is dominant and carries the signal for the embryo to
begin growing testes.
Both men and women have testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone.

However, women have higher levels of estrogen and progesterone, and
men have higher levels of testosterone.
The male/female split is often seen as binary, but this is not entirely true.
For instance, some men are born with two or three X chromosomes, just
as some women are born with a Y chromosome.
In some cases, a child is born with a mix between female and male
genitalia. They are sometimes termed intersex, and the parents may
decide which gender to assign to the child. Intersex individuals account
for around 1 in 1,500 births.
Some people believe that sex should be considered a continuum rather

than two mutually exclusive categories.
Gender tends to denote the social and cultural role of each sex within a
given society. Rather than being purely assigned by genetics, as sex
differences generally are, people often develop their gender roles in
response to their environment, including family interactions, the media,
peers, and education.
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines gender as:

“Gender refers to the socially constructed characteristics of women and
men, such as norms, roles, and relationships of and between groups of
women and men. It varies from society to society and can be changed.”
Gender roles in some societies are more rigid than those in others.
The degree of decision-making and financial responsibility expected of

each gender and the time that women or men are expected to spend on
homemaking and rearing children varies between cultures. Within the
wider culture, families too have their norms.
Gender roles are not set in stone. In many societies, men are increasingly
taking on roles traditionally seen as belonging to women, and women are
playing the parts previously assigned mostly to men. Gender roles and
gender stereotypes are highly fluid and can shift substantially over time.
Who wears the high heels?

For instance, high-heeled shoes, now considered feminine throughout
much of the world, were initially designed for upper-class men to use
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when hunting on horseback.
As women began wearing high heels, male heels slowly became shorter
and fatter as female heels grew taller and thinner. Over time, the
perception of the high heel gradually became seen as feminine. There is
nothing intrinsically feminine about the high heel. Social norms have
made it so.
Pink for a girl and blue for a boy?

In many countries, pink is seen as a suitable color for a girl to wear, while
boys are dressed in blue. However, infants were dressed in white until
colored garments for babies were introduced in the middle of the 19th
century.
The following quote comes from a trade publication called Earnshaw’s

Infants’ Department, published in 1918:
“The generally accepted rule is pink for the boys and blue for the girls. The
reason is that pink, being a more decided and stronger color, is more
suitable for the boy, while blue, which is more delicate and dainty, is
prettier for the girl.”
Move forward 100 years and it is rare to find a baby boy dressed in pink
in many countries.
Gender equality is considered a critical element in achieving Decent Work

for All Women and Men, in order to effect social and institutional change
that leads to sustainable development with equity and growth. Gender
equality refers to equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities that all
persons should enjoy, regardless of whether one is born male or female.
In the context of the world of work, equality between women and men
includes the following elements:
Equality of opportunity and treatment in employment

1. Equal remuneration for work of equal value
2. Equal access to safe and healthy working environments and to
social security
3. Equality in association and collective bargaining
4. Equality in obtaining meaningful career development
5. A balance between work and home life that is fair to both women
and men
6. Equal participation in decision-making at all levels
Given that women are usually in a disadvantaged position in the

workplace compared to men, promotion of gender equality implies explicit
attention to women’s needs and perspectives. At the same time, there are
also significant negative effects of unequal power relations and
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expectations on men and boys due to stereotyping about what it means to

be a male. Instead, both women and men, and boys and girls, should be
free to develop their abilities and make choices – without limitations set by
rigid gender roles and prejudices – based on personal interests and
capacities.
The ILO has adopted an integrated approach to gender equality and

decent work. This means working to enhance equal employment
opportunities through measures that also aim to improve women’s access
to education, skills training and healthcare – while taking women’s role in
the care economy adequately into account. Examples of these include
implementing measures to help workers balance work and family
responsibilities, and providing workplace incentives for the provision of
childcare and parental leave.
What are gender roles?
Gender roles in society means how we’re expected to act, speak, dress,
groom, and conduct ourselves based upon our assigned sex. For example,
girls and women are generally expected to dress in typically feminine ways
and be polite, accommodating, and nurturing. Men are generally expected
to be strong, aggressive, and bold.
Every society, ethnic group, and culture has gender role expectations, but
they can be very different from group to group. They can also change in
the same society over time. For example, pink used to be considered a
masculine color in the U.S. while blue was considered feminine.
How do gender stereotypes affect people?
A stereotype is a widely accepted judgment or bias about a person or

group — even though it’s overly simplified and not always accurate.
Stereotypes about gender can cause unequal and unfair treatment
because of a person’s gender. This is called sexism.
There are four basic kinds of gender stereotypes:
 Personality traits — For example, women are often expected to be

accommodating and emotional, while men are usually expected to
be self-confident and aggressive.
 Domestic behaviors — For example, some people expect that

women will take care of the children, cook, and clean the home,
while men take care of finances, work on the car, and do the home
repairs.
 Occupations — Some people are quick to assume that teachers and

nurses are women, and that pilots, doctors, and engineers are men.
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 Physical appearance — For example, women are expected to be thin

and graceful, while men are expected to be tall and muscular. Men
and women are also expected to dress and groom in ways that are
stereotypical to their gender (men wearing pants and short
hairstyles, women wearing dresses and make-up.
Hyperfemininity is the exaggeration of stereotyped behavior that’s believed

to be feminine. Hyperfeminine folks exaggerate the qualities they believe to
be feminine. This may include being passive, naive, sexually
inexperienced, soft, flirtatious, graceful, nurturing, and accepting.
Hypermasculinity is the exaggeration of stereotyped behavior that’s

believed to be masculine. Hypermasculine folks exaggerate the qualities
they believe to be masculine. They believe they’re supposed to compete
with other men and dominate feminine folks by being aggressive, worldly,
sexually experienced, insensitive, physically imposing, ambitious, and
demanding.
These exaggerated gender stereotypes can make relationships between

people difficult. Hyperfeminine folks are more likely to endure physical
and emotional abuse from their partners. Hypermasculine folks are more
likely to be physically and emotionally abusive to their partners.
Extreme gender stereotypes are harmful because they don’t allow people
to fully express themselves and their emotions. For example, it’s harmful
to masculine folks to feel that they’re not allowed to cry or express
sensitive emotions. And it’s harmful to feminine folks to feel that they’re
not allowed to be independent, smart or assertive. Breaking down gender
stereotypes allows everyone to be their best selves.
How can I fight gender stereotypes?
You probably see gender stereotypes all around you. You might also have
seen or experienced sexism, or discrimination based on gender. There are
ways to challenge these stereotypes to help everyone — no matter their
gender or gender identity — feel equal and valued as people.
 Point it out — Magazines, TV, film, and the Internet are full of
negative gender stereotypes. Sometimes these stereotypes are hard
for people to see unless they’re pointed out. Be that person! Talk
with friends and family members about the stereotypes you see and
help others understand how sexism and gender stereotypes can be
hurtful.
 Be a living example — Be a role model for your friends and family.

Respect people regardless of their gender identity. Create a safe
space for people to express themselves and their true qualities
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regardless of what society’s gender stereotypes and expectations

are.
 Speak up — If someone is making sexist jokes and comments,

whether online or in person, challenge them.
 Give it a try — If you want to do something that’s not normally

associated with your gender, think about whether you’ll be safe
doing it. If you think you will, give it a try. People will learn from
your example.
If you’ve been struggling with gender or gender identity and expectations,

you’re not alone. It may help you to talk to a trusted parent, friend, family
member, teacher, or counselor.
Gender Gap
When economists speak of the “gender gap” these days, they usually are
referring to systematic differences in the outcomes that men and women
achieve in the labor market. These differences are seen in the percentages
of men and women in the labor force, the types of occupations they
choose, and their relative incomes or hourly wages. These economic
gender gaps, which were salient issues during the women’s movement in
the 1960s and 1970s, have been of interest to economists at least since
the 1890s.
Figure 1 Labor Force Participation Rates of Men and Women, 25-44 Years
Old, 1890-2000
Sources: 1890-1970, U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United

States, Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing
Office, 1975); and 1960 to 2000, Current Population Survey (CPS). Overlap period
shows differenes in the measurement of the labor force in the U.S. decennial
population census and the CPS.
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The gender gap in U.S. labor force participation has been eroding steadily
for at least 110 years (see Figure 1). In 1890, 15 percent of women in the
United States aged twenty-five to forty-four (all marital statuses and races)
reported an occupation outside the home. This figure increased to 30
percent by 1940, 47 percent by 1970, and 76 percent by 2000, when it
was 93 percent for men in the same demographic groups. Whereas the
trend for women was decidedly up, that for men was slightly down. As a
result, the gender gap in labor force participation has greatly shrunk. By
2000, of all twenty- to sixty-four-year-olds, women made up 47 percent of
the total labor force.
Advances in participation among women occurred at different times for

different demographic groups. In the 1940s, for example, although the
increase for the group shown in Figure 1 was not great, it was substantial
for women in older age groups. Participation rates for younger (married)
women grew significantly in the 1970s and 1980s. And the 1980s
witnessed an increase in labor force participation of the sole group that
had resisted change in previous decades—women with infants.
Figure 1 Ratio of Female to Male Earnings (Medians) for Full-Time, Year-Round Workers
Sources: 1890 to 1987 C. Goldin, Understanding the Gender Gap: An Economic History of

American Women (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990, fig. 3.1, p.62); and 1988 to
2000, Current Population Survey (CPS), median for year-round, full-time workers.
The gender gap that gets the most attention, however, is in earnings. The
ratio of female earnings to male earnings in full-time, year-round positions
has increased greatly since the 1980s, when the ratio stood at 0.6, to a
ratio in excess of 0.75 (see Figure 2) today. That is, women’s earnings rose
from, on average, about 60 percent of what men made to about 75
percent. Although no comprehensive data exist for the period before about
1950, evidence for major sectors of the economy, when properly
combined, suggests that the gender gap in earnings narrowed
substantially during two earlier periods in U.S. history. Between about
1820 and 1850, an era known as the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION in America,
the ratio of female-to-male full-time earnings rose from about 0.3, its level
in the agricultural economy, to about 0.5 in manufacturing. From about
1890 to 1930, when the clerical and sales sectors began their ascendancy,
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the ratio of female earnings to male earnings again rose, from 0.46 to
0.56. But in neither of these periods did married and adult women’s
employment expand greatly. Yet, between 1950 and 1980, when so many
married women were entering the labor force, the ratio of female earnings
to male earnings for full-time, year-round employees was virtually
constant, at 60 percent.
What accounts for the difference in earnings between men and women?
According to the literature, observable factors that affect pay—such
as EDUCATION, job experience, hours of work, and so on—explain no more
than 50 percent of the wage gap. The most recent studies, as reported in a
review by economists Francine Blau and Lawrence Kahn (2000), found
that the fraction explained is now even lower, about 33 percent. The
reason is that the decrease in the gender gap in earnings was largely due
to an increase in the productive attributes of women relative to men. The
remainder of the gap—termed the residual—is the part that cannot be
explained by observable factors. This residual could result from workers’
choices or, alternatively, from economic DISCRIMINATION. Surprisingly, the
differing occupations of men and women explain only 10–33 percent of the
difference in male and female earnings. The rest is due to differences
within occupations, and part of that is due to the observable factors. In
just about any year chosen, the ratio of women’s to men’s earnings
decreases with age and rises with education. Most telling is that the ratio
is higher for single than for married individuals, particularly for those
without children. Family responsibilities have been an important factor in
slowing women’s occupational advancement over the life cycle.
Many observers have noted the paradox that as married women entered
the labor force in steadily increasing numbers between 1950 and 1980,
their earnings and occupational status relative to men did not improve.
However, that is not as paradoxical as it might seem. Indeed, with so
many new female entrants to the labor force, an economist would expect
women’s wages to fall (relative to men’s) because of the huge increase
in SUPPLY. In other words, the pay of women relative to men probably
stayed constant not in spite of, but because of, the increase in the female
labor force.
There is another, complementary reason why the gender gap in earnings

was stagnating at the same moment that the gender gap in employment
was narrowing. As more and more women entered the labor market, many
of the new entrants had very little job market experience and few skills. If
women tend to stay in the labor force once they enter it, the large
numbers of new entrants will continually dilute the average labor market
experience of all employed women. Various data demonstrate that the
average job experience of employed women did not advance much from
1950 to 1980 as participation rates increased substantially. Economists
James P. Smith and Michael Ward (1989) found that, among working
women aged forty, for example, the average work experience in 1989 was
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14.4 years, hardly any increase at all over the average experience of 14.0
years in 1950. Because earnings reflect the skills and experience of the
employed, it is not surprising that the ratio of female to male earnings did
not increase from 1950 to 1980.
The gender gap in earnings has decreased substantially since 1980. From
1980 to 1994, the ratio increased from 0.6 to 0.74, although the ratio has
stagnated since 1994. Thus, in the fourteen years from 1980 to 1994, 35
percent of the preexisting gender gap in pay was eliminated. Moreover,
these annual earnings data overstate the size of the gender gap because
women who work full time actually work about 10 percent fewer hours
than do men.
According to economists June O’Neill and Solomon Polachek (1993), the

ratio of women’s to men’s pay increased for virtually all ages, all levels of
education, and all levels of experience in the labor market during the
1980s. What is more, the gains occurred across all age groups. Although
women in their thirties had the greatest gains relative to men their own
age, the pay of older women relative to older men rose almost as much.
In this sense, the move to greater gender equality in the 1980s was
remarkable. It was not merely a reflection of increased opportunities for
younger or more-educated women in relation to comparable groups of
men. Moreover, the increase did not occur only at the point of initial hire.
It is not surprising, therefore, that conventional methods of explaining the
decrease in the gender gap in earnings—those that rely on changing
composition of the female workforce by education, potential job
experience, occupational skill, and industry—can account for, at most, 20
percent of the increase.
Just as the stability of the earnings gap between 1950 and 1980 was
probably due to the large influx of inexperienced women into the labor
force, the narrowing of the gap from the 1980s to the mid-1990s may owe
to the fact that female participation rates became very high. Because a
larger proportion of women employed in the 1980s and 1990s were
previously in the labor force, their skills and experience had expanded
with time and were not greatly diluted by the addition of new entrants.
The skills many of these women acquired when young enabled them to
advance in ladder positions, allowing more women to have “careers,” not
just jobs.
Other changes also account for the decrease in the earnings gap.
Educational advances, particularly among the college educated, have
placed more women on a par with men. Whereas in 1960 male college
graduates outnumbered females by five to three, by 1980 the numbers of
female and male college graduates were equal, and today women earn 57
percent of all bachelor’s degrees. College-educated women, moreover, now
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major in subjects very similar to those chosen by men, and they pursue
advanced degrees in almost equal numbers. In the 1960s, for every
hundred male recipients of professional degrees (in medicine, dentistry,
law) there were fewer than five female recipients. But by 2001, women
earned 46 percent of all professional degrees. That is, more than eighty
females earned professional degrees for every hundred males. Young
women are now forming more realistic expectations of their own futures
than was the case thirty-five years ago. In 1968, only 30 percent of fifteen-
to nineteen-year-old females said that they would be in the labor force at
age thirty-five; by the mid-1980s, more than 80 percent thought they
would be. Because the 1968 group vastly underestimated their future
participation rate, they may have “underinvested” in their skills by taking
academic courses that left them less prepared to compete in the job
market.
To what extent has legislation narrowed the gender gap? One piece of
legislation is Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which forbids
discrimination on the basis of sex in hiring, promotion, and other
conditions of employment. The other is affirmative action. There is only
scant evidence that either law has had any effect on the gender gap in
earnings or occupations, although not enough research has been done to
justify strong conclusions one way or the other.
The gender gap in employment, earnings, and occupations narrowed in

various ways during the twentieth century, most especially, it seems, in
the 1980s. The lessening of these gender gaps appears to have stalled in
the late 1990s and has remained stalled since then. Whether or not the
gap will continue to narrow and eventually disappear is uncertain and
probably depends on the gender gap in time spent in child care and in the
homes.

Activities
Look for a friend, classmate or a relative who belongs to the LGBTQA
community and conduct an interview using the following questions?
a. What influences you to become what you are today?

b. Do you feel accepted in your family?
c. Do you feel accepted in the community? What about your work?
Are accepted by your co-workers?
d. How does other people treat you?
Comprehension Quiz: Identification
Check Identify the word/phrase discussed in each item.
1. This refers to biological differences between males and females.
2. It means how were expected to act, speak, dress, groom and
conduct ourselves based upon our assigned sex.
3. It is the exaggeration of stereotypes behaviour that believed to be
feminine.
4. It is the exaggeration of stereotypes behaviour that believed to be
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masculine.
5. It is a kind of stereo type where women are often expected to be
accommodating and emotional, while men are usually expected to
be self-confident and aggressive.
6. It is a kind of gender stereo type where man expect that women will
take care of the children, cook, and clean the home, while men take
care of finances, work on the car, and do the home repairs.
7. It is a kind of gender stereo type where people are quick to assume

that teachers and nurses are women, and that pilots, doctors, and
engineers are men.
8. It is a kind of gender stereo type where women are expected to be

thin and graceful, while men are expected to be tall and muscular.
Men and women are also expected to dress and groom in ways that
are stereotypical to their gender (men wearing pants and short
hairstyles, women wearing dresses and make-up.
9. What should you do when you are discriminated based form your
gender
References Goldin, C. (2020). https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GenderGap.html
https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/gender-identity/sex-gender-
identity/what-are-gender-roles-and-stereotypes
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/232363#gender-identity-
and-expression
Module 5 Marriage, Family and Responsible Parenthood

Competencies 1. Trace the nature and forms of marriage
2. explain the functions of the family
3. identify current issues about family
4. Define responsible parenthood
5. Identify current issues about family
Discussion Marriage is the basis of human society. Marriage forms society as our
social forms are reinforced by marriage. It is a basic institution found in
all human societies because no other union of men and women meets all
the requirements of mating, home-making, love and personality
development at the level of biological, psychological, social, ethical and
spiritual evolution.
Like family, marriage is another important social institution. Marriage

and family are two aspects of the same social reality i.e. the bio-psychic
and social instincts of man. Marriage is one of the most ancient,
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important, universal and indispensable social institution which has been

in existence since the inception of human civilization.
In almost all societies, marriage is understood as a legally and socially

recognized sexual relationship, always between a man and woman (or
more than one woman or one man) and usually with other restrictions of
race, ethnicity, religion, caste, etc., implicitly specified. Depending on the
society, marriage may require religious or civil sanction (or both),
although some couples may be considered married simply by living
together for a prescribed period.
Westermarck (1891) defines marriage ‘as a relation of one or more men to

one or more women, which is recognized by custom or law, and involves
rights and duties both in the case of the parties entering the union and in
the case of children born of it’.
The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Sociology (1994) defines it as, ‘Marriage

is traditionally conceived to be legally recognized relationship, between an
adult male and female, that carries certain rights and obligations.’
Giddens (1997) states, ‘Marriage can be defined as a socially recognized
relationship and approved sexual union between an adult male and
female, that carries certain rights and obligations.’
In the above definitions it is stipulated that marriage is a relationship
between adult members but there are societies like India where child
marriages are also allowed by the custom of the society, though it is
banned by law. Not only this, even in so-called modern societies likes
Britain where age at marriage is falling dramatically, adolescent
marriages are on the rise.
Marriage bond not only connects two adult individuals but also a wider
range of kin people. Parents, brothers, sisters and other relatives of one
partner become relatives of other partner through marriage. Many new
statuses and roles, such as mother-in-law, daughter-in-law, father-in-
law, sister-in-law, etc., come into existence after marriage.
Although in most societies marriage is defined in heterosexual terms

(between male and female), marriage involving partners of the same sex is
not unknown and is becoming increasingly acceptable in some so-called
modern societies. According to Adrienne Rich heterosexuality is not so
much the natural form of sexual preference but is imposed upon
individuals by social constraints. In many Western countries and
America, movements by homosexuals have started to get legalize their
marriages.
Marriage is the process by which two people make their relationship

public, official, and permanent. It is the joining of two people in a bond
that putatively lasts until death, but in practice is often cut short by
separation or divorce.
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Forms of Marriage:
Every society has certain forms of pairing arrangements to which we call
marriage but remaining single or pairing without marriage (living
together) is fast emerging as an acceptable form of lifestyle in the modem
world. The trend towards maintaining an unmarried lifestyle is related to
the growing economic independence of young people.
Singleness is an attractive option for those who do not want to limit their
sexual intimacy to one lifetime partner or have the burden of children
over the past 50 years, living alone has become one of the most rapidly
increasing social trends. The single life—for both men and women—is not
viewed as a social taboo anymore.
Ric Klinenberg, professor of sociology at New York University, in his

recently published book Going Solo (2012) revealed that there is a
fascinating rise in the numbers of ‘singletons’ (people who live alone).
Such people regard solitary living as a sign of accomplishment.
The main forms of marriage are:

1. Monogamy:
It is a form of marriage in which one man is married to one woman at a
time. It allows one wife to have one husband till death and only divorce
separates them apart. This form of marriage is the only universally
recognized form and is the predominant even in societies where other
forms exist.
In Western countries and the United States, an increasing number of
married people end their relationship with one spouse (leading to
subsequent divorce) and remarry another. This pattern of marrying is
called serial monogamy. It means a person is allowed to have several
spouses in his or her life at a time.
2. Polygamy:
Some cultures allow an individual to have more than one spouse at the
same time. Having more than one marriage partner at a time is known as
polygamy. It was practised in most of the societies of the world but now
the trend is towards monogamy. However, as anthropologist George
Murdock (1959) found, 80 per cent of societies had some type of
polygamy.
There are three basic forms of polygamy:

(a) Polygyny:
It refers to plurality of wives or having more than one wife at the same
time. In many societies, having several wives is a mark of prestige,
distinction and status. It is very common among Muslims in Africa and in
Middle East and Asia.
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(b) Polyandry:
It is a type of marriage in which a woman can have several husbands
(plurality of husbands) or two or more husbands simultaneously. It is
very rare form of marriage. Wherever it is practised, the co-husbands are
usually brothers, either blood brothers or clan brothers and are of the
same generation.
It is known as adelphic or fractural polyandry. The Todas (South India)
and Khasa (North India) are the famous examples of polyandry. One
motive in this case would be the maintenance of land and property within
one family.
(c) Group Marriage:

It is one more type of polygamy, in which several or many men marry to
several or many women. It is practiced in some indigenous societies.
Residency and Lines of Descent

When considering one’s lineage, most people in the United States look to
both their father’s and mother’s sides. Both paternal and maternal
ancestors are considered part of one’s family. This pattern of tracing
kinship is called bilateral descent. Note that kinship, or one’s traceable
ancestry, can be based on blood or marriage or adoption. Sixty percent of
societies, mostly modernized nations, follow a bilateral descent
pattern. Unilateral descent (the tracing of kinship through one parent
only) is practiced in the other 40 percent of the world’s societies, with
high concentration in pastoral cultures (O’Neal 2006).
There are three types of unilateral descent: patrilineal, which follows the
father’s line only; matrilineal, which follows the mother’s side only;
and ambilineal, which follows either the father’s only or the mother’s side
only, depending on the situation. In partrilineal societies, such as those
in rural China and India, only males carry on the family surname. This
gives males the prestige of permanent family membership while females
are seen as only temporary members. U.S. society assumes some aspects
of partrilineal decent. For instance, most children assume their father’s
last name even if the mother retains her birth name.
In matrilineal societies, inheritance and family ties are traced to women.

Matrilineal descent is common in Native American societies, notably the
Crow and Cherokee tribes. In these societies, children are seen as
belonging to the women and, therefore, one’s kinship is traced to one’s
mother, grandmother, great grandmother, and so on. In ambilineal
societies, which are most common in Southeast Asian countries, parents
may choose to associate their children with the kinship of either the
mother or the father. This choice maybe based on the desire to follow
stronger or more prestigious kinship lines or on cultural customs such as
men following their father’s side and women following their mother’s side.
Tracing one’s line of descent to one parent rather than the other can be
relevant to the issue of residence. In many cultures, newly married
couples move in with, or near to, family members. In a patrilocal
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residence system it is customary for the wife to live with (or near) her
husband’s blood relatives (or family or orientation). Patrilocal systems can
be traced back thousands of years. In a DNA analysis of 4,600-year-old
bones found in Germany, scientists found indicators of patrilocal living
arrangements. Patrilocal residence is thought to be disadvantageous to
women because it makes them outsiders in the home and community; it
also keeps them disconnected from their own blood relatives. In China,
where patrilocal and patrilineal customs are common, the written
symbols for maternal grandmother (wáipá) are separately translated to
mean “outsider” and “women”.
Similarly, in matrilocal residence systems, where it is customary for the
husband to live with his wife’s blood relatives (or her family of
orientation), the husband can feel disconnected and can be labeled as an
outsider. The Minangkabau people, a matrilocal society that is indigenous
to the highlands of West Sumatra in Indonesia, believe that home is the
place of women and they give men little power in issues relating to the
home or family. Most societies that use patrilocal and patrilineal systems
are patriarchal, but very few societies that use matrilocal and matrilineal
systems are matriarchal, as family life is often considered an important
part of the culture for women, regardless of their power relative to men.
Stages of Family Life
As we’ve established, the concept of family has changed greatly in recent

decades. Historically, it was often thought that many families evolved
through a series of predictable stages. Developmental or “stage” theories
used to play a prominent role in family sociology. Today, however, these
models have been criticized for their linear and conventional assumptions
as well as for their failure to capture the diversity of family forms. While
reviewing some of these once-popular theories, it is important to identify
their strengths and weaknesses.
The set of predictable steps and patterns families experience over time is
referred to as the family life cycle. One of the first designs of the family
life cycle was developed by Paul Glick in 1955. In Glick’s original design,
he asserted that most people will grow up, establish families, rear and
launch their children, experience an “empty nest” period, and come to the
end of their lives. This cycle will then continue with each subsequent
generation Glick’s colleague, Evelyn Duvall, elaborated on the family life
cycle by developing these classic stages of family:
Stage Theory
Stag
Family Type Children
e
1 Marriage Family Childless
2 Procreation Family Children ages 0 to 2.5
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3 Preschooler Family Children ages 2.5 to 6
4 School-age Family Children ages 6–13
5 Teenage Family Children ages 13–20
6 Launching Family Children begin to leave home
“Empty nest”; adult children

7 Empty Nest Family
have left home
This table shows one example of how a “stage” theory might

categorize the phases a family goes through.
The family life cycle was used to explain the different processes that
occur in families over time. Sociologists view each stage as having its own
structure with different challenges, achievements, and accomplishments
that transition the family from one stage to the next. For example, the
problems and challenges that a family experiences in Stage 1 as a
married couple with no children are likely much different than those
experienced in Stage 5 as a married couple with teenagers. The success
of a family can be measured by how well they adapt to these challenges
and transition into each stage. While sociologists use the family life cycle
to study the dynamics of family overtime, consumer and marketing
researchers have used it to determine what goods and services families
need as they progress through each stage.
As early “stage” theories have been criticized for generalizing family life
and not accounting for differences in gender, ethnicity, culture, and
lifestyle, less rigid models of the family life cycle have been developed.
One example is the family life course, which recognizes the events that
occur in the lives of families but views them as parting terms of a fluid
course rather than in consecutive stages. This type of model accounts for
changes in family development, such as the fact that in today’s society,
childbearing does not always occur with marriage. It also sheds light on
other shifts in the way family life is practiced. Society’s modern
understanding of family rejects rigid “stage” theories and is more
accepting of new, fluid models.
Family Structures
Nuclear Family
The nuclear family is the traditional type of family structure. This family
type consists of two parents and children. The nuclear family was long
held in esteem by society as being the ideal in which to raise children.
Children in nuclear families receive strength and stability from the two-
parent structure and generally have more opportunities due to the
financial ease of two adults.
Single Parent Family
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The single parent family consists of one parent raising one or more

children on his own. This family may include a single mother with her
children, a single dad with his kids, or a single person with their kids.
The single parent family is the biggest change society has seen in terms
of the changes in family structures. One in four children is born to a
single mother. Single parent families are generally close and find ways to
work together to solve problems, such as dividing up household chores.
When only one parent is at home, it may be a struggle to find childcare,
as there is only one parent working. This limits income and opportunities
in many cases, although many single parent families have support from
relatives and friends.
Extended Family
The extended family structure consists of two or more adults who are
related, either by blood or marriage, living in the same home. This family
includes many relatives living together and working toward common
goals, such as raising the children and keeping up with the household
duties. Many extended families include cousins, aunts or uncles and
grandparents living together. This type of family structure may form due
to financial difficulties or because older relatives are unable to care for
themselves alone. Extended families are becoming increasingly common
all over the world.
Childless Family
While most people think of family as including children, there are couples
who either cannot or choose not to have children. The childless family is
sometimes the "forgotten family," as it does not meet the traditional
standards set by society. Childless families consist of two partners living
and working together. Many childless families take on the responsibility
of pet ownership or have extensive contact with their nieces and
nephews.
Step Family
Over half of all marriages end in divorce, and many of these individuals
choose to get remarried. This creates the step or blended family which
involves two separate families merging into one new unit. It consists of a
new husband, wife, or spouse and their children from previous marriages
or relationships. Step families are about as common as the nuclear
family, although they tend to have more problems, such as adjustment
periods and discipline issues. Step families need to learn to work together
and also work with their exes to ensure these family units run smoothly.
Grandparent Family
Many grandparents today are raising their grandchildren for a variety of
reasons. One in fourteen children is raised by his grandparents, and the
parents are not present in the child's life. This could be due to parents'
death, addiction, abandonment or being unfit parents. Many
grandparents need to go back to work or find additional sources of
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income to help raise their grandchildren.
Variety of Structures
There is no right or wrong answer when it comes to what is the best type
of family structure. As long as a family is filled with love and support for
one another, it tends to be successful and thrive. Families need to do
what is best for each other and themselves, and that can be achieved in
almost any unit.
Theoretical
Major assumptions
perspective
The family performs several essential functions for
society. It socializes children, it provides emotional
and practical support for its members, it helps
regulate sexual activity and sexual reproduction, and
Functionalism
it provides its members with a social identity. Family
problems stem from sudden or far-reaching changes
in the family’s structure or processes; these problems
threaten the family’s stability and weaken society.
The family contributes to social inequality by
reinforcing economic inequality and by reinforcing
patriarchy. Family problems stem from economic
Conflict theory
inequality and from patriarchal ideology. The family
can also be a source of conflict, including physical
violence and emotional cruelty, for its own members.
The interaction of family members and intimate
couples involves shared understandings of their
situations. Wives and husbands have different styles
Symbolic of communication, and social class affects the
interactionism expectations that spouses have of their marriages and
of each other. Family problems stem from different
understandings and expectations that spouses have of
their marriage.
Social Functions of the Family
Recall that the functional perspective emphasizes that social institutions

perform several important functions to help preserve social stability and
otherwise keep a society working. A functional understanding of the
family thus stresses the ways in which the family as a social institution
helps make society possible. As such, the family performs several
important functions.
First, the family is the primary unit for socializing children. No society is

possible without adequate socialization of its young. In most societies,
the family is the major unit in which socialization happens. Parents,
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siblings, and, if the family is extended rather than nuclear, other relatives
all help socialize children from the time they are born.
Second, the family is ideally a major source of practical and emotional

support for its members. It provides them food, clothing, shelter, and
other essentials, and it also provides them love, comfort, and help in
times of emotional distress, and other types of support.
Third, the family helps regulate sexual activity and sexual reproduction.

All societies have norms governing with whom and how often a person
should have sex. The family is the major unit for teaching these norms
and the major unit through which sexual reproduction occurs. One
reason for this is to ensure that infants have adequate emotional and
practical care when they are born.
Fourth, the family provides its members with a social identity. Children
are born into their parents’ social class, race and ethnicity, religion, and
so forth. Some children have advantages throughout life because of the
social identity they acquire from their parents, while others face many
obstacles because the social class or race/ethnicity into which they are
born is at the bottom of the social hierarchy.
Beyond discussing the family’s functions, the functional perspective on

the family maintains that sudden or far-reaching changes in conventional
family structure and processes threaten the family’s stability and thus
that of society. For example, most sociology and marriage-and-family
textbooks during the 1950s maintained that the male breadwinner–
female homemaker nuclear family was the best arrangement for children,
as it provided for a family’s economic and child-rearing needs. Any shift
in this arrangement, they warned, would harm children and, by
extension, the family as a social institution and even society itself.
Textbooks no longer contain this warning, but many conservative
observers continue to worry about the impact on children of working
mothers and one-parent families.
The Family and Conflict
Conflict theorists agree that the family serves the important functions
just listed, but they also point to problems within the family that the
functional perspective minimizes or overlooks altogether.
First, the family as a social institution contributes to social inequality.

Because families pass along their wealth to their children, and because
families differ greatly in the amount of wealth they have, the family helps
reinforce existing inequality. As it developed through the centuries, and
especially during industrialization, the family also became more and
more of a patriarchal unit (since men made money working in factories
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while women stayed home), helping to reinforce men’s status at the top of
the social hierarchy.
Second, the family can also be a source of conflict for its own members.
Although the functional perspective assumes the family provides its
members emotional comfort and support, many families do just the
opposite and are far from the harmonious, happy groups depicted in the
1950s television shows. Instead, they argue, shout, and use emotional
cruelty and physical violence. We return to family violence later in this
chapter.
The conflict perspective emphasizes that many of the problems we see in

today’s families stem from economic inequality and from patriarchy. The
problems that many families experience reflect the fact that they live in
poverty or near poverty. Money does not always bring happiness, but a
dire lack of money produces stress and other difficulties that impair a
family’s functioning and relationships.
Conflict within a family also stems from patriarchy. Husbands usually

earn more money than wives, and many men continue to feel that they
are the head of their families. When women resist this old-fashioned
notion, spousal conflict occurs.
Applying Social Research
Social Class and the Family
A growing amount of social science research documents social class differences

in how well a family functions: the quality of its relationships and the cognitive,
psychological, and social development of its children. This focus reflects the fact
that what happens during the first months and years of life may have profound
effects on how well a newborn prospers during childhood, adolescence, and
beyond. To the extent this is true, the social class differences that have been
found have troublesome implications.
According to sociologist Frank E. Furstenberg Jr., “steep differences exist across

social classes” in mothers’ prenatal experiences, such as the quality of their diet
and health care, as well as in the health care that their infants receive. As a
result, he says, “children enter the world endowed unequally.” This inequality
worsens after they are born for several reasons.
First, low-income families are much more likely to experience negative events,

such as death, poor health, unemployment, divorce, and criminal victimization.
When these negative events do occur, says Furstenberg, “social class affects a
family’s ability to cushion their blow…Life is simply harder and more brutish at
the bottom.” These negative events produce great amounts of stress; as Chapter
2 "Poverty" discussed, this stress in turn causes children to experience various
developmental problems.
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Second, low-income parents are much less likely to read and speak regularly to
their infants and young children, who thus are slower to develop cognitive and
reading skills; this problem in turn impairs their school performance when they
enter elementary school.
Third, low-income parents are also less able to expose their children to cultural
experiences (e.g., museum visits) outside the home, to develop their talents in
the arts and other areas, and to otherwise be involved in the many nonschool
activities that are important for a child’s development. In contrast, wealthier
parents keep their children very busy in these activities in a pattern that
sociologist Annette Lareau calls concerted cultivation. These children’s
involvement in these activities provides them various life skills that help enhance
their performance in school and later in the workplace.
Fourth, low-income children grow up in low-income neighborhoods, which often

have inadequate schools and many other problems, including toxins such as
lead paint, that impair a child’s development. In contrast, says Furstenberg,
children from wealthier families “are very likely to attend better schools and live
in better neighborhoods. It is as if the playing field for families is tilted in ways
that are barely visible to the naked eye.”
Fifth, low-income families are less able to afford to send a child to college, and
they are more likely to lack the social contacts that wealthier parents can use to
help their child get a good job after college.
For all these reasons, social class profoundly shapes how children fare from
conception through early adulthood and beyond. Because this body of research
documents many negative consequences of living in a low-income family, it
reinforces the need for wide-ranging efforts to help such families.
Sources: Bandy, Andrews, & Moore, 2012; Furstenberg, 2010; Lareau, 2010 Bandy, T., Andrews, K.M., & Moore,
K.A. (2012). Disadvantaged families and child outcomes: The importance of emotional support for mothers.
Washington, DC: Child Trends; Furstenberg, F. E., Jr. (2010). Diverging development: The not-so-invisible hand of
social class in the United States. In B. J. Risman (Ed.), Families as they really are (pp. 276–294). New York, NY: W.
W. Norton; Lareau, A. (2010). Unequal childhoods: Inequalities in the rhythms of daily life. In B. J. Risman
(Ed.), Families as they really are (pp. 295–298). New York: W. W. Norton.
Families and Social Interaction
Social interactionist perspectives on the family examine how family

members and intimate couples interact on a daily basis and arrive at
shared understandings of their situations. Studies grounded in social
interactionism give us a keen understanding of how and why families
operate the way they do.
Some studies, for example, focus on how husbands and wives

communicate and the degree to which they communicate successfully.
Tannen, D. (2001) found that wives in blue-collar marriages liked to talk
with their husbands about problems they were having, while husbands
tended to be quiet when problems occurred. Such gender differences are
less common in middle-class families, where men are better educated
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and more emotionally expressive than their working-class counterparts,

but gender differences in communication still exist in these families.
Another classic study by Lillian Rubin (1976) found that wives in middle-
class families say that ideal husbands are ones who communicate well
and share their feelings, while wives in working-class families are more
apt to say that ideal husbands are ones who do not drink too much and
who go to work every day.
According to the symbolic interactionist perspective, family problems

often stem from the different understandings, perceptions, and
expectations that spouses have of their marriage and of their family.
When these differences become too extreme and the spouses cannot
reconcile their disagreements, spousal conflict and possibly divorce may
occur.
Challenges Families Face
Divorce and Remarriage
Divorce, while fairly common and accepted in modern U.S. society, was
once a word that would only be whispered and was accompanied by
gestures of disapproval. In 1960, divorce was generally uncommon,
affecting only 9.1 out of every 1,000 married persons. That number more
than doubled (to 20.3) by 1975 and peaked in 1980 at 22.6. Over the last
quarter century, divorce rates have dropped steadily and are now similar
to those in 1970. The dramatic increase in divorce rates after the 1960s
has been associated with the liberalization of divorce laws and the shift in
societal make up due to women increasingly entering the workforce. The
decrease in divorce rates can be attributed to two probable factors: an
increase in the age at which people get married, and an increased level of
education among those who marry—both of which have been found to
promote greater marital stability.
Divorce does not occur equally among all people in the United States;
some segments of the U.S. population are more likely to divorce than
others. According the American Community Survey (ACS), men and
women in the Northeast have the lowest rates of divorce at 7.2 and 7.5
per 1,000 people. The South has the highest rate of divorce at 10.2 for
men and 11.1 for women. Divorce rates are likely higher in the South
because marriage rates are higher and marriage occurs at younger-than-
average ages in this region.
The rate of divorce also varies by race. In a 2009 ACS study, American
Indian and Alaskan Natives reported the highest percentages of currently
divorced individuals (12.6 percent) followed by blacks (11.5 percent),
whites (10.8 percent), Pacific Islanders (8 percent), Latinos (7.8 percent)
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and Asians (4.9 percent) (ACS 2011). In general those who marry at a
later age, have a college education have lower rates of divorce.
So what causes divorce? While more young people are choosing to

postpone or opt out of marriage, those who enter into the union do so
with the expectation that it will last. A great deal of marital problems can
be related to stress, especially financial stress. According to researchers
participating in the University of Virginia’s National Marriage Project,
couples who enter marriage without a strong asset base (like a home,
savings, and a retirement plan) are 70 percent more likely to be divorced
after three years than are couples with at least $10,000 in assets. This is
connected to factors such as age and education level that correlate with
low incomes.
The addition of children to a marriage creates added financial and

emotional stress. Research has established that marriages enter their
most stressful phase upon the birth of the first child. This is particularly
true for couples who have multiples (twins, triplets, and so on). Married
couples with twins or triplets are 17 percent more likely to divorce than
those with children from single births. Another contributor to the
likelihood of divorce is a general decline in marital satisfaction over time.
As people get older, they may find that their values and life goals no
longer match up with those of their spouse.
Divorce is thought to have a cyclical pattern. Children of divorced parents

are 40 percent more likely to divorce than children of married parents.
And when we consider children whose parents divorced and then
remarried, the likelihood of their own divorce rises to 91 percent. This
might result from being socialized to a mindset that a broken marriage
can be replaced rather than repaired. That sentiment is also reflected in
the finding that when both partners of a married couple have been
previously divorced, their marriage is 90 percent more likely to end in
divorce.
Children of Divorce and Remarriage
Divorce and remarriage can been stressful on partners and children

alike. Divorce is often justified by the notion that children are better off in
a divorced family than in a family with parents who do not get along.
However, long-term studies determine that to be generally untrue.
Research suggests that while marital conflict does not provide an ideal
childrearing environment, going through a divorce can be damaging.
Children are often confused and frightened by the threat to their family
security. They may feel responsible for the divorce and attempt to bring
their parents back together, often by sacrificing their own well-being.
Only in high-conflict homes do children benefit from divorce and the
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subsequent decrease in conflict. The majority of divorces come out of

lower-conflict homes, and children from those homes are more negatively
impacted by the stress of the divorce than the stress of unhappiness in
the marriage. Studies also suggest that stress levels for children are not
improved when a child acquires a stepfamily through marriage. Although
there may be increased economic stability, stepfamilies typically have a
high level of interpersonal conflict.
Children’s ability to deal with a divorce may depend on their age.

Research has found that divorce may be most difficult for school-aged
children, as they are old enough to understand the separation but not old
enough to understand the reasoning behind it. Older teenagers are more
likely to recognize the conflict that led to the divorce but may still feel
fear, loneliness, guilt, and pressure to choose sides. Infants and
preschool-age children may suffer the heaviest impact from the loss of
routine that the marriage offered.
Proximity to parents also makes a difference in a child’s well-being after

divorce. Boys who live or have joint arrangements with their fathers show
less aggression than those who are raised by their mothers only.
Similarly, girls who live or have joint arrangements with their mothers
tend to be more responsible and mature than those who are raised by
their fathers only. Nearly three-fourths of the children of parents who are
divorced live in a household headed by their mother, leaving many boys
without a father figure residing in the home (U.S. Census Bureau 2011b).
Still, researchers suggest that a strong parent-child relationship can
greatly improve a child’s adjustment to divorce.
There is empirical evidence that divorce has not discouraged children in

terms of how they view marriage and family. A blended family has
additional stress resulting from yours/mine/ours children. The blended
family also has a ex-parent that has different discipline techniques. In a
survey conducted by researchers from the University of Michigan, about
three-quarters of high school seniors said it was “extremely important” to
have a strong marriage and family life.
Violence and Abuse
Violence and abuse are among the most disconcerting of the challenges
that today’s families face. Abuse can occur between spouses, between
parent and child, as well as between other family members. The
frequency of violence among families is a difficult to determine because
many cases of spousal abuse and child abuse go unreported. In any case,
studies have shown that abuse (reported or not) has a major impact on
families and society as a whole.
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Domestic Violence
Domestic violence is a significant social problem in the United States. It
is often characterized as violence between household or family members,
specifically spouses. To include unmarried, cohabitating, and same-sex
couples, family sociologists have created the term intimate partner
violence (IPV). Women are the primary victims of intimate partner
violence. It is estimated that one in four women has experienced some
form of IPV in her lifetime (compared to one in seven men) (Catalano
2007). IPV may include physical violence, such as punching, kicking, or
other methods of inflicting physical pain; sexual violence, such as rape or
other forced sexual acts; threats and intimidation that imply either
physical or sexual abuse; and emotional abuse, such as harming
another’s sense of self-worth through words or controlling another’s
behavior. IPV often starts as emotional abuse and then escalates to other
forms or combinations of abuse (Centers for Disease Control 2012).
In 2010, of IPV acts that involved physical actions against women, 57

percent involved physical violence only; 9 percent involved rape and
physical violence; 14 percent involved physical violence and stalking; 12
percent involved rape, physical violence, and stalking; and 4 percent
involved rape only. This is vastly different than IPV abuse patterns for
men, which show that nearly all (92 percent) physical acts of IVP take the
form of physical violence and fewer than 1 percent involve rape alone or
in combination. IPV affects women at greater rates than men because
women often take the passive role in relationships and may become
emotionally dependent on their partners. Perpetrators of IPV work to
establish and maintain such dependence in order to hold power and
control over their victims, making them feel stupid, crazy, or ugly—in
some way worthless.
Those who are separated report higher rates of abuse than those with
other marital statuses, as conflict is typically higher in those
relationships. Similarly, those who are cohabitating are more likely than
those who are married to experience IPV. Other researchers have found
that the rate of IPV doubles for women in low-income disadvantaged
areas when compared to IPV experienced by women who reside in more
affluent areas. Overall, women ages twenty to twenty-four are at the
greatest risk of nonfatal abuse.
Accurate statistics on IPV are difficult to determine, as it is estimated

that more than half of nonfatal IPV goes unreported. It is not until
victims choose to report crimes that patterns of abuse are exposed. Most
victims studied stated that abuse had occurred for at least two years
prior to their first report.
Sometimes abuse is reported to police by a third party, but it still may
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not be confirmed by victims. A study of domestic violence incident reports

found that even when confronted by police about abuse, 29 percent of
victims denied that abuse occurred. Surprisingly, 19 percent of their
assailants were likely to admit to abuse. According to the National
Criminal Victims Survey, victims cite varied reason why they are
reluctant to report abuse, as shown in the table below.
Reason Abuse Is Unreported % Females % Males
Considered a Private Matter 22 39
Fear of Retaliation 12 5
To Protect the Abuser 14 16
Belief That Police Won’t Do Anything 8 8
This chart shows reasons that victims give for why they fail to report abuse to police
authorities (Catalano 2007).
Two-thirds of nonfatal IPV occurs inside of the home and approximately

10 percent occurs at the home of the victim’s friend or neighbor. The
majority of abuse takes place between the hours of 6 p.m. and 6 a.m.,
and nearly half (42 percent) involves alcohol or drug use. Many
perpetrators of IVP blame alcohol or drugs for their abuse, though
studies have shown that alcohol and drugs do not cause IPV, they may
only lower inhibitions). IPV has significant long-term effects on individual
victims and on society. Studies have shown that IPV damage extends
beyond the direct physical or emotional wounds. Extended IPV has been
linked to unemployment among victims, as many have difficulty finding
or holding employment. Additionally, nearly all women who report
serious domestic problems exhibit symptoms of major depression.
Female victims of IPV are also more likely to abuse alcohol or drugs,
suffer from eating disorders, and attempt suicide. IPV is indeed
something that impacts more than just intimate partners. In a survey, 34
percent of respondents said they have witnessed IPV, and 59 percent said
that they know a victim personally. Many people want to help IPV victims
but are hesitant to intervene because they feel that it is a personal matter
or they fear retaliation from the abuser—reasons similar to those of
victims who do not report IPV.
Child Abuse
Children are among the most helpless victims of abuse. In 2010, there
were more than 3.3 million reports of child abuse involving an estimated
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5.9 million children. Three-fifths of child abuse reports are made by

professionals, including teachers, law enforcement personal, and social
services staff. The rest are made by anonymous sources, other relatives,
parents, friends, and neighbors.
Child abuse may come in several forms, the most common being neglect,
followed by physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological maltreatment
and medical neglect. Some children suffer from a combination of these
forms of abuse. The majority of perpetrators are parents and relatives.
Infants (children less than one year old) were the most victimized
population with an incident rate of 20.6 per 1,000 infants. This age group
is particularly vulnerable to neglect because they are entirely dependent
on parents for care. Some parents do not purposely neglect their
children; factors such as cultural values, standard of care in a
community, and poverty can lead to hazardous level of neglect. If
information or assistance from public or private services are available
and a parent fails to use those services, child welfare services may
intervene.
Infants are also often victims of physical abuse, particularly in the form
of violent shaking. This type of physical abuse is referred to as shaken-
baby syndrome, which describes a group of medical symptoms such as
brain swelling and retinal hemorrhage resulting from forcefully shaking
or causing impact to an infant’s head. A baby’s cry is the number one
trigger for shaking. Parents may find themselves unable to soothe a
baby’s concerns and may take their frustration out on the child by
shaking him or her violently. Other stress factors such as a poor
economy, unemployment, and general dissatisfaction with parental life
may contribute this type of abuse. While there is no official central
registry of shaken-baby syndrome statistics, it is estimated that each
year 1,400 babies die or suffer serious injury from being shaken.
Corporal Punishment
Physical abuse in children may come in the form of beating, kicking,
throwing, choking, hitting with objects, burning, or other methods. Injury
inflicted by such behavior is considered abuse even if the parent or
caregiver did not intend to harm the child. Other types of physical
contact that are characterized as discipline (spanking, for example) are
not considered abuse as long as no injury results.
This issue is rather controversial among modern-day people in the United

States. While some parents feel that physical discipline, or corporal
punishment, is an effective way to respond to bad behavior, others feel
that it is a form of abuse.
Child abuse occurs at all socioeconomic and education levels and crosses
ethnic and cultural lines. Just as child abuse is often associated with
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stresses felt by parents, including financial stress, parents who

demonstrate resilience to these stresses are less likely to abuse. Young
parents are typically less capable of coping with stresses, particularly the
stress of becoming a new parent. Teenage mothers are more likely to
abuse their children than their older counterparts. As a parent’s age
increases, the risk of abuse decreases. Children born to mothers who are
fifteen years old or younger are twice as likely to be abused or neglected
by age five than are children born to mothers ages twenty to twenty-one.
Drug and alcohol use is also a known contributor to child abuse.

Children raised by substance abusers have a risk of physical abuse three
times greater than other kids, and neglect is four times as prevalent in
these families. Other risk factors include social isolation, depression, low
parental education, and a history of being mistreated as a child.
Approximately 30 percent of abused children will later abuse their own
children.
The long-term effects of child abuse impact the physical, mental, and
emotional wellbeing of a child. Injury, poor health, and mental instability
occur at a high rate in this group, with 80 percent meeting the criteria of
one or more psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, or
suicidal behavior, by age twenty-one. Abused children may also suffer
from cognitive and social difficulties. Behavioral consequences will affect
most, but not all, of child abuse victims. Children of abuse are 25
percent more likely, as adolescents, to suffer from difficulties like poor
academic performance and teen pregnancy, or to engage in behaviors like
drug abuse and general delinquency. They are also more likely to
participate in risky sexual acts that increase their chances of contracting
a sexually transmitted disease (Child Welfare Information Gateway 2006).
Other risky behaviors include drug and alcohol abuse. As these
consequences can affect the health care, education, and criminal
systems, the problems resulting from child abuse do not just belong to
the child and family, but to society as a whole.
What is responsible parenthood?

 Responsibility parenthood is an ability of parents to detect the
need of happiness and desire of children and helping them to
become responsible and responsible children.
 It is the shared responsibility of husband and wife to determine
and achieve the desired number, spacing, and timing of their
children according to their own family life aspirations, and
concerns.
 Responsible parenthood doesn’t limit only on fulfilling the demand
of children and rearing them up properly but goes beyond that
Qualities of responsible parenthood:

1. Marriage should be done at the right age as right age at marriage
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helps to start a new life and new family in a right time.

2. The size of a family should be decided by both parents together.
3. Being responsible parents also refers to becoming parents at the
right age where both of them are physically and mentally mature to
start a family.
4. Proper spacing between the births of children is also necessary for
health of a mother and child. This also assures that every child
receives the attention and care they deserve.
10 principles of the responsible parenting:

1. What you do matters
 This is one of the most important principles
 Children learn from the parents
 They see, observe, imitate and adapt the behavior of the parents
 One needs to act the same way that they want their children to be
2. You cannot be too loving
 Everybody loves their child
 But the love of parents should never spoil them
 In fact it’s the things like leniency, material possession that spoils
them
 Parents need to be careful on that matters
3. Be involved in your child’s life
 It is necessary for parents to be involved in child’s life in both
physical way and mental way
 Parents needs to talk to them and also listen them carefully
 Patents should manage to provide at least 15 minutes of undivided
attention towards children every day.
4. Adapt your parenting to fit your child
 Parents needs to keep the track and pace with the child’s
development
 Parents need to understand the children milestone as per the age
5. Establish and set rules
 Parent need to maintain and regulate the child’s behavior.
 Strict actions and punishment may also be required.
 Parents can set up the rules and make children follow them.
 Rules can simply vary from table rules to curfew rules.
6. Foster your child’s independence
 A responsible parent needs to teach their children self-control and
encourage independence.
 Parents should teach them to make responsible decisions and
shouldn’t frequently intervene in their choices.
7. Be consistent
 Consistency is the key to disciplines.
 Rules for children shouldn’t change from day to day. This makes
the children confuse.
 Before that, the parents need to make sure that the rules made are
logical and based on valid reason and are not just imposition of
power.
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8. Avoid harsh discipline

 Parents should never adopt the harsh way.
 They should never hit a child, under any circumstances.
 This has negative impacts on child.
 Punishment should be mild and used carefully.
9. Explain your rules and decisions
 Good parents have clear expectations
 They communicate this to their children in clear way and explain
them as per their age.
10. Treat your child with respect
 Children should be treated with equal respect.
 Their views, opinions should be listened and valued.
 Speak politely.
 Treat him kindly.
 This is the best way to teach them how to treat and respect others.
Necessities of Responsible parenthood:

a) Maintain healthy family size
 Responsible parenting is concerned with the maintaining the
desired size of family, maintaining the spacing and having desired
family size
 The decision is made based on the health status, social and
economic concerns
 This will further help parents in responsibly handling the situation
in the future and also prepares them to face challenge
b) Support
 Children require the support of the parents
 Responsible parenting will help in building the supportive relation
between children and parents
 Parents would be able to support their children in every steps of
their life
c) Morality
 Children learns from the parents
 They become what their parents are
 Responsible parenting is necessary to teach children the right
behavior, culture the healthy habits and morals and also to guide in
right direction throughout.
d) Others
 Encouraging independent thought. It is duty of parents for better
controlling over the children.
 Responsible parenting is also necessary to avoid the financial
burden and stay prepared.
Enrichment Critical Essay:

Activities
Family is said to be e most important unit in the society. It is where
children are nourished, honed, and develop as individual. Your task is to
search on a case of juvenile delinquency or child in conflict with law. You
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may interview a friend or a relatives or someone who knew who is a

delinquent. Have a background check as to the kind of family he had
while growing up. The kind of treatment his parents gave him/her in
their home. His/her relationship towards his/her parents and sibling as
well as his/her relatives.
After conducting an interview, make an assessment on the impact of
family structure and family life to the children. Use separate sheet for
your answer.
Comprehension Quiz: Give what is being asked in each statement.

Check
1. It is a form of marriage in which one man is married to one
woman.
2. It is a type if marriage in which a woman can have several
husband.
3. In this society, inheritance and family ties are traced to women.
4. This family type consist of two parents and children.
5. This involves blended family in which two separate families
merging into one new unit.
6. According to this perspective, family problems often stem from
different understanding, perception and expectation that spouses
have of their marriage and of their family.
7. Majority of the perpetrators of child abuse are _______.
8. It is a physical abuse in children which may come in the form of
beating, kicking, throwing, choking, hitting with objects, burning
and other methods.
9. -10 give atleast 2 qualities of a good parent.
References https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/paragraphs/marriage-meaning-
definition-and-forms-of-marriage/31312
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/what-is-
marriage-what-is-a-family/
https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_social-problems-continuity-and-
change/s13-02-sociological-perspectives-on-t.html
https://www.publichealthnotes.com/responsible-parenthood-and-10-
principles-of-responsible-parenting/
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QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY

SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE

ESP 3 (GENDER AND SOCIETY)

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

Module 1 Introduction to Sociology

Sociology is the “systematic, scientific study of human society.” Human

To tell you the truth, some sociologists wouldn’t actually be that

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

findings in words. Whatever sort of research they do, however, sociologists

Webster Dictionary defines sociology as the systematic study of society

The sociologist Dorothy Smith (1926) defines the social as the “ongoing

The main characteristics of sociology are as follows:

Sociology is one of the several social sciences. Each of the sciences

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

1. Sociology: a Generalising Science:

History is the study of human behaviour from particularising perspective.

2. Sociology: a Generalised Science:

In contrast to these specialised sciences, the generalised sciences of

Sociology studies social factors that all social phenomena have in

3. Sociology: a Social Science:

4. Sociology: a Special Kind of Abstraction:

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

Psychology, anthropology and sociology have in common in their interest

These differences may be understood by noting that human behaviour is a

The Psychologist tends to explain variability in behaviour in terms of the

For the anthropologist, variations in human behaviour tend to be

Sociology tends to explain variability in human behaviour in terms of

These differences among psychology, “anthropology and sociology are

5. Sociology: an Objective Science:

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

remembering always that a ” podium is not a pulpit”.

6. Sociology: a Pure or Theoretical Science:

Sociology is a pure science. It is not an applied science. This means that

7. Sociology: a Rational and Empirical Science:

The theoretical sociology emerged historically as a kind of speculation as

Development of the Science of Sociology —A Historical Sketch:

To be more exact it was in 1839 that Auguste Comte, the French

In his chief work Course de philosophic (positive Philosophy) he had

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

The earliest attempts at systematic thought regarding social life in the

Plato’s Republic is an analysis of i he city community in all its aspects,

Furthermore, though Aristotle showed more realistic approach to social

In his plan, everything was to go on according to plan, but in social life

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

book De Officus (On Justice) transmitted to the western world the

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

Climate is the principal determinant of social life. Montesquieu

According to him, mangoes progressively through three stages of social

It was left to Herbert Spencer, one of the most brilliant Englishmen of

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

Spencer, because of such contributions, occupies the foremost place in

Attempts were made to show how the evolution of society is dependent

He studied division of labour as a social institution – a collectivity wherein

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

He classified social action into four types according to its mode of

According to Max Weber, state is the most prominent form of Authority

In his study of Bureaucracy, Max Weber though conscious of its

The function of ideal “type is the comparison with empirical reality in

(i) Historical Materialism:

In order to understand, a society, we must understand its mode of

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

in the economics of the period concerned.” Through his theory of