Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lec 18
Symptoms of virus diseases
Virus:
(Bemisia Tabaci)
(Bemesia Tabaci)
(Bemesia Tabaci)
(Aceria Cajani)
(Aphis Gossypi)
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7 Leaf Curl In Black Gram And Green Gram Virus White Fly
(Bemesia Tabaci)
(Bemesia Tabaci)
(Bemesia Tabaci)
(Bemesia Tabaci)
(Aphis Craccivora)
(Scriptothrips Dorsalis)
(Aphis Gossypi)
(Myzus Persicae)
(Scriptothrips Dorsalis)
(Thrips Palmi)
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(Toxptera Citri)
(Nephotettix Virescens)
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Lec 19
VIROID DISEASE
Symptoms:
Reduction of growth, infected plants may be smaller, more upright and produce smaller leaves
than their healthy counterparts.
Their eyes may be more pronounced than normal and may be borne on knob-like
protuberances that may even develop into small tubers.
Symptoms:
It is develop slowly over 8-15 years. The first symptoms in the early stage develop within 2-4
years of infection.
The final stage, roughly 6 years after the first symptoms are recorded the yellow/bronze
fronds start to decrease in size & number.
PHYTOPLASMA
Phytoplasmas are mollicutes comes under the division Tenericutes of kingdom Protista
Phytoplasma are prokaryotic unicellular, gram +ve, pleomorphic and non motile
They lack cell wall but bounded by a membrane & have cytoplasm, ribosomes and strands of
nuclear materials
Phloem restricted
Symptoms:
The main symptom of the disease is the production of very short and small leaves.
GINGELLY PHYLLODY
Symptoms:
The plants become sterile in nature. Floral parts are converted into green leaf like structure
called phyllody.
Though the infection occurs in early stage, the symptoms occur in flowering stage only.
M.indosacchari,
Symptoms:
N.nigropictus (Leafhoppers )
Symptoms :
The characteristic symptoms of rice yellow dwarf phytoplasma are general chlorosis,
pronounced stunting and profuse tillering.
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The chlorotic leaves are uniformly pale-yellow. Discoloration first appears on the emerging
young leaves and then chlorosis on all the succeeding leaves. Plants infected early may die
prematurely.
SANDAL SPIKE
Symptoms:
Reduction of internodes
The whole shoot looks like spike bearing 4 rows of spiked bristles
ALGAE
Algology / Phycology
Cell contains nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria, vacuoles, oil droplets, starch grains etc.
Thallus is disc like with barrel shaped cells mostly between cuticle and epidermis
lec 20
Phanerogamic Parasites
Flowering plants
Phanerogamic parasite
Stem parasites:
Root parasites:
Scaly leaves
Arise in clusters
Broom rape
Flowers arise from the axils of leaves; lobed calyx, tubular corolla, etc
Symptoms of host plants are stunting, withering and drooping of leaves & wilting
Witch weed
Lec 21
Epidemiology:
The pathogen will not be able to cause disease unless environmental conditions and
suitability of host.
Temperature:
It plays a very important role in the development and spread of the disease.
Bean (green gram and black gram) powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) is severe
in summer.
1. Rice blast disease is low temperature disease when the night temperature falls
below 20ºC.
2. Verticillium wilt of cotton is severe in low temperature.
3. Loose smut of wheat is severe when temperature is around 19-20°C.
4. BLB(bacterial leaf blight of rice) the symptom do not develop at temperature
below 20ºC
5. Puccinia striformis causing yellow rust of wheat does not tolerate high
temperature, below 20ºC is highly favourable for disease development.
Rain:
1. Downy mildew of maize (Sclerophthora raysiae var. zae) average rainfall of 100-200
cm or above caused severe disease in India.
2. Brown spot of rice (Helminthosporium oryzae) heavy rainfall in September.
Light:
Light is known to influence the infection of fungal pathogens.
Increasing light duration increased sporangial production of Bajra downy mildew.
Soil types:
Alkaline soil:
1. Cotton wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum) is favoured by heavy alkaline soils.
2. Potato scab is caused by Streptomyces scabies is also found to be more in alkaline soils
with PH above 8.0
Acid soil:
Acid soil favours the following disease.
Plasmodiaphora brassicae causing club root of cabbage disease.
Soil moisture:
Low soil moisture favours the potato scab (Streptomyces scabies)
Root rots are favourable at moderate soil moisture conditions.
Head smut of sorghum (sphacelotheca reiliana) and pea root rot (F.solani f. sp.pisi) are
favoured by low moist soils.
Soil temperature:
Verticillium wilt of cotton is severe in low soil temperature (<20ºC)
Fusarial wilt is severe when temperature is above 32ºC.
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Lec 22
Plants:
Plant parts other than seed helps the dispersal. Infected plant debris may also be carried
along with farm implements.
Indirect dispersal:
Man:
Coffee rust(hemileia vastatrix) present in Africa and asia was introduced on coffee in brazil.
Insects:
Insects also act as diploidizing agent and bring about formation of perfect stage in fungi.
Aphids:
Aphis fabae – potato leaf roll
Aphis gossypii – chilli mosaic, potato virus
Leaf hoppers:
Nephotettix virescens – rice tungro virus
Hishimonus phycitis – brinjal lttle leaf
Orosius albicinctus – sesamum phyllody
Mealy bug:
Planococcus sp. – cocoa swollen shoot disease
Nematode:
In banana ,panama wilt( fusarium oxysporum f.sp.cubense) and fusarialwilt.
Mites:
Dispersal of sporodochia – fusarium by mite
Soil borne viruses:
Tobacco mosaic virus, tomato mosaic virus and wheat mosaic virus survive in soil and attack
plants.
Water:
Uredo and teliospores of coffee rust
Animals and birds:
Animals moving from diseased crop to healthy crop are potential agents for fungal spores.
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Lec 23
DISEASE SURVEILLANCE, ASSESSMENT AND FORECASTING
SURVEILLENCE
• The main role of disease surveillance is to predict, observe, and minimize the harm caused
by outbreak, epidemic, and pandemic situations, as well as increase knowledge about which
factors contribute to such circumstances.
DISEASE SURVEY
SURVEY:
A report that contains details of disease in particular block/ division/disease for a week.
These data collected from farmers field (or) Research centres in a particular district (or)
jointly by the plant protectant scientists.
After analyzing the weekly survey reports and record the weather data.
The message on the severity level of disease and control measures are desiminated to the
farmers through mass media.
TYPES OF SURVEY
1. Roving survey
ROVING SURVEY:
ASSESSMENT
Methods of Assessment
This method is applicable for those diseases which cause complete death of plants. Eg.
Damping off, root rot, wilt. This also followed in systematic diseases(viral diseases) and in the
diseases leading to total destruction of infected organs(smut, green ear).
------------------------------------------- x100
This method is used to assess the foliar diseases like downy mildew, powdery mildew, leaf spot, leaf
blight, canker, rust etc. A standard disease score chart is available for each type of disease with pictorial
diagrams. The diagrams include exclusively the percent leaf area affected or percent grains affected,
indicating the grades ranging from 0 to9
---------------------------------- x -----------------
The plants are observed individually and severity percentage and arrived and the numerical
rating is given as 0-9, 0-7.
0 – No visible symptoms
3 – 1-10%
5 – 11-55%
7 – 26-50%
9 - >50%
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Forecasting
Plant disease forecasting is a management system used to predict the occurrence or change in
severity of plant diseases.
At the field scale, these systems are used by growers to make economic decisions about disease
treatments for control
HOST FACTORES
2. Response of host at different stages of the growth to the activity of pathogen e.g. Some
diseases are found during seedling stages while others attack grown up plants.
3.Density and distribution of the host in a given locality. Dense populations of susceptible variety
invite quick spread of an epidemic.
PATHOGEN FACTORS
2.Dispersal of inoculum
3. Spore germination
4. Infection
5. Incubation period
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
a. Temperature
b. Humidity
c. Light intensity
d. Wind velocity
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Lec 24
General Principles of Plant Disease Management
Avoidance
Exclusion
Eradication
Protection
Resistance
The principle of exclusion and avoidance is to keep the pathogen away from the growing host
plant.
Seed Certification
Plant Quarantine
PLANT QUARANTINE
The term quarantine derived from quarantina and also from latin word quadragenita.
Plant quarantine is legal restriction on the movement of plant material between the countries
and the between the states.
Types of Quarantine
1. Domestic Quarantine
2. International Quarantine
3. Embargo
Domestic Quarantine
(Madras Agricultural Pests and Diseases Act, 1919)
Banana Mosaic
Potato Wart
Apple scab
Mango Malformation
All the imported consignments of seeds and planting material are subjected to plant quarantine
screening at the post of entry.
The cuttings, saplings, budwood etc. of flowers/fruits are subjected to PEQsurveillance/ inspection.
The consignment is found free from exotic pests and diseases, the same is recommended or
otherwise it should be destroyed/ deported
Seaports
Airports
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Amristar (Punjab), Calcutta (WB), Chennai, Trichy (TN), Hyderabad (AP), Mumbai (Maharashtra),
New Delhi, Patna (Bihar), Trivandrum (Kerala), Varanasi (UP)
Land Frontiers
Phytosanitary Certificate
It is a certificate which should accompany a plant or plant material or seed which is to be moved
from one place to another place
It certifies that the material is free from any pests & diseases
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LEC 25 & 26
Eradication
Eradication is concerned with elimination of the disease agent after it has become established in
the area of the growing host or has penetrated the host.
Such measures include crop rotation, destruction of the diseased plants, elimination of alternate
host plants, pruning, disinfection, and heat treatments.
• Mechanical Methods
Ergot
Physical methods
4. Steam
Chemical methods
i. Sanitation
Protection:
The foliar pathogen like powdery mildew, rust, leaf spot, blight can be controlled by the application
of fungicides by dusting and spraying. These fungicides can prevent the subsequent penetration.
Seed harbor plant pathogens externally and internally. The seed treatment fungicides can protect
seeds from the soil borne pathogens when sow in soil. The chemicals are called protectants.
Physical
a. Soil solarisation
b. Steaming
c. Direct flaming
d. Hot water
Soil solarisation:
Cover the polythene sheet over the soil
Leave it for 4 – 6 weeks without any disturbance
Remove the cover and use the area for sowing or planting.
Fusarium sp. and nemotodes can be killed.
Steaming:
Steam should be passed through upper layer
Direct flaming:
Burning of plant residues and woods
Eg: Pythium sp.
Hot water:
Submerging pots in boiling water at 98oc for 5 minutes or by drenching boiling water @5 gallons/cft
give good control against fungi and nematodes.
Chemical control:
Use of different chemical fungicides for mananging plant diseases.
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Eg: carbendazim @ 0.1% con. Effectively control root rot, seedling blight.
1% bordeaux mixture drenching against damping off disease coconut wilt, betelvine wilt, pepper wilt
Biological control:
Biological agents also protect the crops from the infection by pathogen.
Use of Trichoderma viridii and Pseudomonas fluroscens application effectively control soil borne and
some foliardisease
Always eradication and protection go hand in hand.
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Lec 27 28 29 & 30
Fungicides in Plant Disease Control
Fungicides:
It is a chemical which has the ability to kill the fungi. Cide – kill
Commercial fungicides are formulated in various ways and the most commonly available
formulations are
1. Emulsifiable concentrate(EC)
2. Wettable powder(WP)
3. Dust(D)
These are liquid formulations which can be diluted with water before application.
WP very common formulations for most of the fungicide, which is used as spray mixture. The
modern WP is water dispersible which have the quality to wet easily and disperse in water. Hence it is
called as water dispersible powders (WDP).
Dust (D):
Adjuvants:
Low phytotoxicity
Stability in storage
It should not be toxic to humans, animals, earth worms & beneficial microbes
Ease transport
Classification of fungicides
1. Mode of action
Protectant: Fungicide which protect a plant from a pathogen if it is applied prior to infection. They are
prophylactic in nature
Therapeaunt: Fungicide which eradicates a fungus after it has caused infection by curing the plant.
Mostly they are systemic in nature.
Eradicant: A chemical that destroys a pathogen after its establishments in the host. It also act as
protectant
Fungistat : Some chemicals do not kill the fungal pathogens, but has the ability to arrest the growth of
the fungus temporarily
Antisporulent : Some chemicals may inhibit the sporulation without affecting the vegetative growth of
the fungus
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2. Chemical composition
1.Copper fungicides
COPPER SULPHATE
Bordeaux 1Kg CuSo4+1 Kg lime in Phytophthora
mixture 100 lit of water infestans,
Venturia inaequalis,
Grapes D.M
COPPER CARBONATE
Chaubattia paste 800g CaCo3+800g red lead+1 lit Pink disease, collar rot, stem
linseed oil canker wound Dresser
2. Sulphur fungicides
Elemental sulphur
Organic Sulphur
Monoalkyl dithiocarbomates
Dialkyl dithiocarbomates
Quinone Fungicides
Pythium / Phytophthora
Miscellaneous Fungicides
Chlorothalonil Daconil, Kawach Leafspots/ early & late LS, DM, Rusts, Anthracnose
(Organo
phosphate)
SYSTEMIC FUNGICIDES
OXATHILIN COMPOUNDS
• Rhizoctonia spp.
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• ornementals/vegetables/coffee
BENZIMIDAZOLES
for PH diseases
Blast/ scab/PM
Verticillium / Rhizoctonia
Fusarium / Cercospora
Colletotrichum /
Fusarium / Septoria/
Rhizoctonia
THIOPHANATES
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Pyricularia
MORPHOLINES
Ganoderma
Hydroxy Pyrinidines
cucurbits
all crops
Sheath blight
Phenol derivative
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• / Puccinia spp
late blight
ANTIBIOTICS
I. ANTIBACTERIAL ANTIBIOTICS
Oxymycin Phytoplasmas
Phytophthora,
Podosphaera,
Venturia, Alternaria
Tikka, PM / DM grapes
Downy mildew of
cucumber
Botrytis cineria,
Alternaria solani
Rhizopus,
Botrytis cineria,
Alternaria solani
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Others
Pyricularia oryzae
Lec 31
METHODS OF APPLICATION OF FUNGICIDES
Seed Treatment
Any one of the following chemical may be used for treatment at the rate of 2g/kg:
• Mix 2g fungicide with 1 kg of seeds in a seed treating drum or polythene lined gunny bags, so as
to provide uniform coating of the fungicide over the seeds.
The seeds cannot be stored and the treatment has to be done before sowing.
Prepare the fungicidal solution by mixing any of the fungicides viz., Carbendazim or Tricyclazole
at the rate of 2g/litre of water and soak the seeds in the solution for 2 hrs. Drain the solution and keep
the seeds Sett dip / Sucker dip
Soil drenching
1 g / l Carbendazim (0.1%), Copper fungicides 2.5 g / l (0.25%) suspension is applied to a depth of at least
10-15 cm.
FOLIAR APPLICATION
A. Spraying
Spraying of fungicides is done on leaves, stems and fruits. Wettable powders are most commonly
used for preparing spray solutions
Dusting
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POST-HARVEST APPLICATION:
Fruits and vegetables are largely damaged after harvest by fungi and bacteria.
Post harvest fungicides are most frequently applied as aqueous suspensions or solutions.
In addition, Dithiocarbamates and Antibiotics are also applied to control the post
harvest diseases.
CORM INJECTION
It is an effective method used to control Panama wilt of banana caused by Fusarium oxysporum
f. sp. cubense Capsule applicator is used for this purpose.
The length of the rod is 45 cm and an iron plate is fixed at a distance of 7 cm from the tip. The
corm is exposed by removing the soil and a hole is made at 45°angle to a depth of 5 cm.
One or two gelatin capsules containing 50-60 mg of Carbendazim is pushed in slowly and
covered with soil. Instead of capsule, 3 ml of 2% Carbendazim solution can also be injected into the hole.
ROOT FEEDING
Root feeding is also adopted for the control of Thanjavur wilt of coconut instead of trunk
application.
The root region is exposed; actively growing young root is selected and given a slanting cut at
the tip.
The root is inserted into a polythene bag containing 2g of Aureofungin and 1 g of copper
sulphate in 100 ml of water. The mouth of the bag is tied tightly with the root
• The seeds are treated with concentrated Sulphuric acid @ 100 ml/kg of seed for 2-3 minutes.
The seeds are then washed 2 or 3 times thoroughly with cold water and shade dried.
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• After drying, they are again treated with Captan or Thiram @4g/kg before sowing
Wear suitable protection gloves and face protection when handling the product and contaminated
surfaces.
After using fungicides are wash your hands and equipments thoroughly with soap and water.
If you accidentally spill any fungicides and exposed to skin, wash immediately.
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Lec 32 & 34
HOST PLANT RESISTANCE (IMMUNIZATION)
Immunity refers to total resistance to the disease – plant is never affected by the pathogen.
Disease resistance:
It is the ability of a plant to overcome completely or in some degree the effect of a pathogen or
damaging factor.
Susceptibility:
The inability of a plant to resist the effect of a pathogen or other damaging factor.
Types of resistance
Vertical resistance: When a variety is more resistant to some races of the pathogen than others,
the resistance is called vertical resistance - Usually governed by single gene & unstable.
Horizontal resistance: When the resistance is uniformly spread against all the races of a
pathogen, then it is called horizontal resistance. - usually governed by several genes and is more
stable.
Mechanism of resistance
Morphological resistance:
1. Callose deposition:
2. Lignification:
Lignin are present in the host and there by further penetration are avoided.
Immediately after infection, several layers of corky cells are formed and the corky layers prevent
further invasion.
4. Hyper sensitivity:
It is a quick defense mechanism of plants in which the cells around the site of infection dies and
become necrotic and prevent further development of disease
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Physical resistance:
1. Cuticles:
2. Cell wall/epidermis:
3. Leaf structure:
Wheat – resistance to Puccinia graminis tritici – stomata opens very late in the morning
Chemical resistance:
E.g.: Grape vine varieties resistant to powdery mildew have less pH in cell sap.
Young bean leaves and pods are infected by anthracnose fungus because of acidic pH.
Cross protection
The phenomenon in which plant infected with mild strain of a virus are protected from infection
by other severe strains of the same virus.
This strategy is used in the management of severe strains of Citrus Tristeza virus causing quick
decline virus.
Acid lime is infected by both mild and severe strains of tristeza virus.
Inoculate the mild strain in the young acid lime seedlings grown in isolated nurseries.
2. New plants to which genes have been incorporated through genetic engineering.
3. Control of plant diseases by inserting resistance genes into plants by genetic engineering
techniques
Cells of plants can be cultured in special nutrient medium and whole plants can be
regenerated from cultured cells. This technique of growing plants in vitro is called “Tissue
culture”.
Tissue culture approach is one of the recent techniques in the field of molecular biology and it is
applied in several ways for the development of disease resistant cultivars in agriculture.
Genetic engineering:
It is the technology by which it is possible to isolate particular gene from one organism,
insert them into the genome of another organism and make them to express resistance.
Lec 33
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF CROP DISEASES
Definition
Bioagent: Any living organism used for controlling plant pathogens – Antagonist
Pollution hazards
No residual problem
Highly effective throughout the crop growth period with high rhizosphere competence
No phytotoxicity
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R. solani
Pseudomonas
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Gram - negative non-pathogenic bacteria in root surfaces – plant exudates and lysates
Bacillus
Trichoderma
Trichoderma - filamentous fungus that is widely distributed in the soil, plant material,
decaying vegetation, and wood.
Groundnut, Sesamum
Damping-Off disease
Quality control
Trichoderma
28 X 106 cfu/g
Pseudomonas
VAM fungi being the major component of rhizosphere microflora are very much likely to affect
the incidence and severity of root diseases. On the other hand, VAM fungi in combination with
symbiotic and asymbiotic bacterial and fungal associates in the plant rhizosphere confers
evidence of disease suppression.
Plant products:
Neem products:
Among the plant products, the neem derivatives are reported to be effective in
controlling several diseases. The important active principles are azadiractin, nimbin, nimbidin,
nimbinene, nimbric acid and azadirone which have antifungal and insecticidal properties.
In addition to the neem products, products from several other plant species are also found to be
effective in disease management. The leaf extract of tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) is found effective
against Helminthosporium oryzae (paddy brown spot).
Antiviral principle:
Plants are also known to contain some compounds which are inhibitory to virus. They
are called anti-viral principles. The leaf extracts of sorghum, coconut, bougainvillaea, Prosopis
juliflora and Cynodon dactylon are known to contain virus inhibiting principles.