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Lec 18
Symptoms of virus diseases

Virus:

 Submicroscopic, infectious intracellular obligate

parasite, do not have its own metabolism but

depend upon other living cells for thei rmultiplication

 Disease producing entities

 No sexual reproduction and resting spores

 It has nucleic acid and protein coat

 Either DNA or RNA and never both

 Nucleic acid carries its genome

 It may be single stranded or double stranded

 Protein coat present as an envelop around the NA

S.No Name Of The Disease Causal Organism Vector

1 Cassava Mosaic Virus White Fly

(Bemisia Tabaci)

2 Pumpkin Yellow Mosaic Virus White Fly

(Bemesia Tabaci)

3 Black Gram/Green Gram Yellow Mosaic Virus White Fly

(Bemesia Tabaci)

4 Red Gram Sterility Mosaic Virus Mite

(Aceria Cajani)

5 Banana Infectious Chlorosis Virus Aphids

(Aphis Gossypi)
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6 Bract Mosaic In Banana Virus Pentalonia Nigronervosa

7 Leaf Curl In Black Gram And Green Gram Virus White Fly

(Bemesia Tabaci)

8 Cotton Leaf Curl Virus White Fly

(Bemesia Tabaci)

9 Tomato Leaf Curl Virus White Fly

(Bemesia Tabaci)

10 Leaf Crinkle In Black Gram And Green Virus White Fly

Gram
(Bemesia Tabaci)

11 Vein Clearing In Bhendi Virus White Fly

(Bemesia Tabaci)

12 Bunchy Top Of Banana Virus Pentalonia Nigronervosa

13 Rosette Of Ground Nut Virus Aphids

(Aphis Craccivora)

14 Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus Thrips

(Scriptothrips Dorsalis)

15 Papaya Ring Spot Virus Aphids

(Aphis Gossypi)

(Myzus Persicae)

16 Bud Necrosis Of Ground Nut Virus Thrips

(Scriptothrips Dorsalis)

17 Sunflower Necrosis Virus Thrips

(Thrips Palmi)
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18 Citrus Tristeza Virus Aphids

(Toxptera Citri)

19 Rice Tungro Virus Leaf Hopper

(Nephotettix Virescens)
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Lec 19
VIROID DISEASE

SPINDLE TUBER IN POTATO

Symptoms:

 Reduction of growth, infected plants may be smaller, more upright and produce smaller leaves
than their healthy counterparts.

 Infected tubers may be small, elongated, misshapen and cracked.

 Their eyes may be more pronounced than normal and may be borne on knob-like
protuberances that may even develop into small tubers.

CADANG CADANG IN COCONUT

Symptoms:

 It is develop slowly over 8-15 years. The first symptoms in the early stage develop within 2-4
years of infection.

 It includes scarification of coconuts which also become rounded.

 The leaves display bright yellow spots.

 Yellow spots are larger & the appearance of chlorosis.

 The final stage, roughly 6 years after the first symptoms are recorded the yellow/bronze
fronds start to decrease in size & number.

PHYTOPLASMA

 Phytoplasmas are mollicutes comes under the division Tenericutes of kingdom Protista

 Phytoplasma are prokaryotic unicellular, gram +ve, pleomorphic and non motile

 They lack cell wall but bounded by a membrane & have cytoplasm, ribosomes and strands of
nuclear materials

 Spherical to oval or irregularly tubular to filamentous

 Filterable through bacteriological filters

 Resistant to penicillin and streptomycin but sensitive to tetracyclin

 It can not be cultured

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 Phloem restricted

LITTLE LEAF OF BRINJAL

Vector : Hishimonus phycitis

Symptoms:

 The main symptom of the disease is the production of very short and small leaves.

 The newly formed leaves are reduced in size.

GINGELLY PHYLLODY

Vector : Orosius albicinctus (leaf hopper)

Symptoms:

 The plants become sterile in nature. Floral parts are converted into green leaf like structure
called phyllody.

 Though the infection occurs in early stage, the symptoms occur in flowering stage only.

SUGARCANE GRASSY SHOOT

Vector : Melanaphis sacchari,

M.indosacchari,

Rhopalosiphum maidis (Aphids)

Symptoms:

 The symptoms are usually seen two months after planting.

 The disease is characterized by the production of numerous lanky

tillers(Unproductive)from the base of the affected shoots.

RICE YELLOW DWARF

Vector : Nephotettix virescens

N.nigropictus (Leafhoppers )

Symptoms :

 The characteristic symptoms of rice yellow dwarf phytoplasma are general chlorosis,
pronounced stunting and profuse tillering.
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 The chlorotic leaves are uniformly pale-yellow. Discoloration first appears on the emerging
young leaves and then chlorosis on all the succeeding leaves. Plants infected early may die
prematurely.

SANDAL SPIKE

Vector : Redarator bimaculatus

Symptoms:

 Reduction of internodes

 The whole shoot looks like spike bearing 4 rows of spiked bristles

 Plants don’t produce flowers or fruits

 Disconnection of roots from host plant & causes death of trees

ALGAE

 Algology / Phycology

 Eukaryotic and chlorophyllous

 Spherical / rod / barrel / club / spindle shaped

 Cell contains nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria, vacuoles, oil droplets, starch grains etc.

 Thallus is disc like with barrel shaped cells mostly between cuticle and epidermis

 Rhizoids like structures

 Asexual Reproduction – Zoosporangium and zoospores

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lec 20
Phanerogamic Parasites

 Flowering plants

 Produce flowers and seeds

 Some have green leaves

 Holoparasite / complete / total parasite

 Hemiparasite / incomplete / semi / partial parasite

Phanerogamic parasite

Stem parasites:

1. Total stem parasite - Cuscuta

2. Partial stem parasite – Loranthus

Root parasites:

1. Total root parasite – Orabanche

2. Partial root parasite - Striga

Total Stem Parasite – Cuscuta spp.

 Dodder / devils hair / love vine

 Alfalfa, clover,onion,potato, chillies, avenue / fruit tree

 Yellow vine strands twin the host

 Scaly leaves

 White / pink / yellow flowers

 Infected plant become weak & yield poor

 Seeds spread by animals, water and implements

Partial stem parasite – Dendrophthae spp.

 Loranthus / giant mistle toe

 Fruit tree crops

 With dark green leaves & brown stem

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 Arise in clusters

 Flowers are long tubular greenish white / red clusters

 Fruits fleshy with single seed

 Infected tree become stunted with chlorotic leaves

 At the point of attachment, the stem of hosts show swelling

Total root parasite – Orobanche spp.

 Broom rape

 Tobacco, tomato, brinjal, cabbage etc

 Clusters upto 100 plants

 Scaly brown leaves / cylindrical stem - 10 to 15” height

 Flowers arise from the axils of leaves; lobed calyx, tubular corolla, etc

 Fruits are capsules

 Seeds are black ovoid & dormant

 Symptoms of host plants are stunting, withering and drooping of leaves & wilting

Partial root parasite – Striga spp.

 Witch weed

 Monocots - Sorghum, maize, sugarcane

 Arise in clusters with dark green leaves / 15-30 cm height

 Pink / white flowers

 Fruits bear numerous minute dormant seeds

 Yellowing and wilting of host

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Lec 21
Epidemiology:

Is the study of factors influencing the outbreak of the disease.

The pathogen will not be able to cause disease unless environmental conditions and
suitability of host.

Weather factors in relation to disease incidence:

Temperature:

It plays a very important role in the development and spread of the disease.

Related to high temperature:

eg: 1. Powdery mildew is favoured by high temperature.

Bean (green gram and black gram) powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) is severe
in summer.

2. Root rot caused by Macrophomina phaseolina is serve in high temperature

(30-35º C)

Related to low temperature

1. Rice blast disease is low temperature disease when the night temperature falls
below 20ºC.
2. Verticillium wilt of cotton is severe in low temperature.
3. Loose smut of wheat is severe when temperature is around 19-20°C.
4. BLB(bacterial leaf blight of rice) the symptom do not develop at temperature
below 20ºC
5. Puccinia striformis causing yellow rust of wheat does not tolerate high
temperature, below 20ºC is highly favourable for disease development.

Relative humidity (RH):

It is also a very important factor for development of diseases.

1. Sugarcane downy mildew caused by Peronosclerospora sacchari produce more

conidia when RH increased from 86 to 90 per cent.
2. At 100% RH favours for the production of more spore of sorghum downy
mildew (Peronosclerospora sorghi)
3. In USA, the RH not less than 75% for at least 2 days induce late blight of potato.
4. In Europe, 90% RH favours to induce late blight of potato.
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5. In peru, the night RH about 95% is essential for outbreak of LBP.

Rain:

1. Downy mildew of maize (Sclerophthora raysiae var. zae) average rainfall of 100-200
cm or above caused severe disease in India.
2. Brown spot of rice (Helminthosporium oryzae) heavy rainfall in September.
Light:
Light is known to influence the infection of fungal pathogens.
Increasing light duration increased sporangial production of Bajra downy mildew.
Soil types:
Alkaline soil:
1. Cotton wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum) is favoured by heavy alkaline soils.
2. Potato scab is caused by Streptomyces scabies is also found to be more in alkaline soils
with PH above 8.0
Acid soil:
Acid soil favours the following disease.
Plasmodiaphora brassicae causing club root of cabbage disease.
Soil moisture:
Low soil moisture favours the potato scab (Streptomyces scabies)
Root rots are favourable at moderate soil moisture conditions.
Head smut of sorghum (sphacelotheca reiliana) and pea root rot (F.solani f. sp.pisi) are
favoured by low moist soils.
Soil temperature:
Verticillium wilt of cotton is severe in low soil temperature (<20ºC)
Fusarial wilt is severe when temperature is above 32ºC.
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Lec 22

Survival and spread of plant pathogens

Survival of plant pathogens:

Primary inoculum
Secondary inoculum
Primary inoculum:
The inoculum that initiate the infection.
Eg: resting structures, dormant mycelium, sexual spores.
Secondary inoculum:
Other structures of the Pathogen produced in the host plants serve as secondary inoculum.
Eg: alternative or collateral host.
Spread of plant pathogens:
Direct or active or autonomous dispersal
Indirect or passive dispersal
Direct dispersal:
Soil:
The dispersal of facultative saprophytes or facultative parasite in soil is achieved either by
the movement of pathogens or its specialized structure in soil.
Eg: rhizomorph of armillariella mellea and some soil borne viruses.
Seed:
Dormant structures of the pathogen get mixed with seed during the harvest and get
dispersed as seed contaminant.
Eg: fungal disease - brown leaf spot of paddy pathogen are present externally.
Bacterial disease – xanthomonas oryzae – bacterial leaf blight of paddy.
Viral disease – citrus tristeza and exocortis.
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Plants:
Plant parts other than seed helps the dispersal. Infected plant debris may also be carried
along with farm implements.
Indirect dispersal:
Man:
Coffee rust(hemileia vastatrix) present in Africa and asia was introduced on coffee in brazil.
Insects:
Insects also act as diploidizing agent and bring about formation of perfect stage in fungi.
Aphids:
Aphis fabae – potato leaf roll
Aphis gossypii – chilli mosaic, potato virus
Leaf hoppers:
Nephotettix virescens – rice tungro virus
Hishimonus phycitis – brinjal lttle leaf
Orosius albicinctus – sesamum phyllody
Mealy bug:
Planococcus sp. – cocoa swollen shoot disease
Nematode:
In banana ,panama wilt( fusarium oxysporum f.sp.cubense) and fusarialwilt.
Mites:
Dispersal of sporodochia – fusarium by mite
Soil borne viruses:
Tobacco mosaic virus, tomato mosaic virus and wheat mosaic virus survive in soil and attack
plants.
Water:
Uredo and teliospores of coffee rust
Animals and birds:
Animals moving from diseased crop to healthy crop are potential agents for fungal spores.
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Lec 23
DISEASE SURVEILLANCE, ASSESSMENT AND FORECASTING

SURVEILLENCE

• Disease surveillance is an epidemiological practice by which the spread of disease is monitored

in order to establish patterns of progression.

• The main role of disease surveillance is to predict, observe, and minimize the harm caused
by outbreak, epidemic, and pandemic situations, as well as increase knowledge about which
factors contribute to such circumstances.

DISEASE SURVEY

SURVEY:

-Planned activity to collect some data.

 A report that contains details of disease in particular block/ division/disease for a week.

 These data collected from farmers field (or) Research centres in a particular district (or)
jointly by the plant protectant scientists.

 After analyzing the weekly survey reports and record the weather data.

 The message on the severity level of disease and control measures are desiminated to the
farmers through mass media.

-To trace the disease and their movement & spreading.

TYPES OF SURVEY

TWO TYPES OF SURVEY:

1. Roving survey

2. Fixed plot survey

ROVING SURVEY:

Assessment of disease from randomly selected plots representing large area.

Large area surveyed in a short period.

FIXED PLOT SURVEY:

Assessment of disease from a plot in the selected field.

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ASSESSMENT

 Assessing the amount of disease on a plant.

 Assessment are essential to breeders, fungicide manufactures, economists, government

agencies and academics in their various evaluations of resistance.

 Methods of Assessment

 1. Assessment in terms of Percentage:

 This method is applicable for those diseases which cause complete death of plants. Eg.
Damping off, root rot, wilt. This also followed in systematic diseases(viral diseases) and in the
diseases leading to total destruction of infected organs(smut, green ear).

Percent disease incidence = Number of infected plants

------------------------------------------- x100

Total number of plants observed

2. Assessment using disease grades:

This method is used to assess the foliar diseases like downy mildew, powdery mildew, leaf spot, leaf
blight, canker, rust etc. A standard disease score chart is available for each type of disease with pictorial
diagrams. The diagrams include exclusively the percent leaf area affected or percent grains affected,
indicating the grades ranging from 0 to9

Plant disease incidence = Sum of individual ratings 100

---------------------------------- x -----------------

Total number of plants/ Maximum

leaves observed disease grade

 The plants are observed individually and severity percentage and arrived and the numerical
rating is given as 0-9, 0-7.

 0 – No visible symptoms

 1 - < 1% leaf area affected

 3 – 1-10%

 5 – 11-55%

 7 – 26-50%

 9 - >50%
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Forecasting

 Plant disease forecasting is a management system used to predict the occurrence or change in
severity of plant diseases.

 At the field scale, these systems are used by growers to make economic decisions about disease
treatments for control

Information’s needed for disease forecasting

Forecasting diseases is a part of applied epidemiology. Hence, knowledge of epidemiology

(development of disease under the influence of factors associated with the host, pathogen) is necessary
for accurate forecasting. The factors of epidemic and its components should be known in advance
before forecasting is done.

HOST FACTORES

1. Prevalence of susceptible varieties in the given locality

2. Response of host at different stages of the growth to the activity of pathogen e.g. Some
diseases are found during seedling stages while others attack grown up plants.

3.Density and distribution of the host in a given locality. Dense populations of susceptible variety
invite quick spread of an epidemic.

PATHOGEN FACTORS

1.Amount of primary (initial) inoculum in the air, soil or planting material

2.Dispersal of inoculum

3. Spore germination

4. Infection

5. Incubation period

6.Redispersel/ Dissimination of spores

7.Sporulation on the infected host

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

a. Temperature

b. Humidity

c. Light intensity

d. Wind velocity
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Lec 24
General Principles of Plant Disease Management

 Avoidance

 Exclusion

 Eradication

 Protection

 Resistance

Exclusion and Avoidance:

The principle of exclusion and avoidance is to keep the pathogen away from the growing host
plant.

 Seed Certification

 Plant Quarantine

PLANT QUARANTINE

The term quarantine derived from quarantina and also from latin word quadragenita.

Plant quarantine is legal restriction on the movement of plant material between the countries
and the between the states.

Delay the establishment of living and spread of disease.

Types of Quarantine

1. Domestic Quarantine

2. International Quarantine

3. Embargo

Domestic - It resist the spread of disease with in the country.

Foreign - It resist spread of disease in between the country.

Embargo - Total prohibition on import/ export of transport of plant material in a country.

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Domestic Quarantine
(Madras Agricultural Pests and Diseases Act, 1919)

 Bunchy top of banana

From Assam, Kerala, Orissa, West bengal, TN

 Banana Mosaic

From Maharashtra and gujarat

 Potato Wart

From West bengal

 Apple scab

From Himachal Pradesh and J&K

 Mango Malformation

From North India

Post- Entry Quarantine(PEQ):

Plants and seeds which require post entry quarantine

Plant protection adviser

All the imported consignments of seeds and planting material are subjected to plant quarantine
screening at the post of entry.

The screening may include visual inspection, laboratory investigations.

The cuttings, saplings, budwood etc. of flowers/fruits are subjected to PEQsurveillance/ inspection.

The consignment is found free from exotic pests and diseases, the same is recommended or
otherwise it should be destroyed/ deported

Locations of Post Entry Quarantine Centres

 Seaports

Bhavnagar (Gujarat), Calcutta (WB), Chennai, Nagapattinam, Rameshwaram, Tuticorin (TN),

Cochin (Kerala), Mumbai (Maharashtra), Vysak (AP)

 Airports
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Amristar (Punjab), Calcutta (WB), Chennai, Trichy (TN), Hyderabad (AP), Mumbai (Maharashtra),
New Delhi, Patna (Bihar), Trivandrum (Kerala), Varanasi (UP)

 Land Frontiers

Amristar RS, Attari RS, Attari-Wagha border (Punjab),

Bangoan-Benapol border, Gede Rd RS, Kalimpong, Sukhia Pokhri (WB)

Phytosanitary Certificate

 It is a certificate which should accompany a plant or plant material or seed which is to be moved
from one place to another place

 It certifies that the material is free from any pests & diseases
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LEC 25 & 26
Eradication

Eradication is concerned with elimination of the disease agent after it has become established in
the area of the growing host or has penetrated the host.

Extermination / killing / destruction of pathogen

Such measures include crop rotation, destruction of the diseased plants, elimination of alternate
host plants, pruning, disinfection, and heat treatments.

1. Eradication of Pathogen from Seed Materials

• Mechanical Methods

• Sieving of seed – Ergot

• Soak seeds in 20% brine solution

Ergot

Tundu disease of wheat

Physical methods

1. Sunlight / Solar heat

Luthras’ Solar treatment – Loose smut of wheat

2. Hot water treatment

Sugarcane grassy shoot (50ºC for 2.30h)

3. Hot air treatment

Grassy shoot – 54ºC for 8h

4. Steam

BLB & Brown spot of rice – 52-54ºC for 20min

Aerated steam therapy – Grassy shoot – 50ºC for 1h

Chemical methods

Seed treatment with fungicides

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2. Eradication of pathogen from infected plants / parts /soil

i. Sanitation

ii. Roguing of unwanted crops

iii. Eradication of alternate / collateral hosts/ self sown plants

iv. Crop Rotation

v. Mixed cropping / intercropping

vi. Modifying soil reaction

vii. Cultural practices

i. Heavy doses organic manures
ii. Green manuring
iii. Wider spacing
iv. Deep summer ploughing
v. Flooding
vi. Fallowing
vii. Raised bed nursery
viii. Adjustment of sowing time / harvesting time
ix. Selection of season
x. Provision of drainage
xi. Burning of stubbles / crop residues
xii. Depth of sowing
xiii. Avoiding injuries
xiv. Barrier cropping
xv. Decoy / trap crop
xvi. Trenching
xvii. Isolation distances
xviii. Yellow sticky trap
xix. Mulching
xx. Water / irrigation management
xxi. Plant nutrient management
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Protection:

It means protection of crops from plant pathogens.

1. Protection from air brone pathogens

2. Protection from seed borne pathogens
3. Protection from soil borne pathogen

Protection from air borne disease:

The foliar pathogen like powdery mildew, rust, leaf spot, blight can be controlled by the application
of fungicides by dusting and spraying. These fungicides can prevent the subsequent penetration.

Protection from seed borne disease:

Seed harbor plant pathogens externally and internally. The seed treatment fungicides can protect
seeds from the soil borne pathogens when sow in soil. The chemicals are called protectants.

Protection from soil borne disease

Soil solarisation can prevent many soil borne pathogens.

Physical

a. Soil solarisation
b. Steaming
c. Direct flaming
d. Hot water
Soil solarisation:
Cover the polythene sheet over the soil
Leave it for 4 – 6 weeks without any disturbance
Remove the cover and use the area for sowing or planting.
Fusarium sp. and nemotodes can be killed.
Steaming:
Steam should be passed through upper layer
Direct flaming:
Burning of plant residues and woods
Eg: Pythium sp.
Hot water:
Submerging pots in boiling water at 98oc for 5 minutes or by drenching boiling water @5 gallons/cft
give good control against fungi and nematodes.
Chemical control:
Use of different chemical fungicides for mananging plant diseases.
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Eg: carbendazim @ 0.1% con. Effectively control root rot, seedling blight.
1% bordeaux mixture drenching against damping off disease coconut wilt, betelvine wilt, pepper wilt
Biological control:
Biological agents also protect the crops from the infection by pathogen.
Use of Trichoderma viridii and Pseudomonas fluroscens application effectively control soil borne and
some foliardisease
Always eradication and protection go hand in hand.
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Lec 27 28 29 & 30
Fungicides in Plant Disease Control

Fungicides:

It is a chemical which has the ability to kill the fungi. Cide – kill

Fungicide formulations and adjuvants:

Commercial fungicides are formulated in various ways and the most commonly available
formulations are

1. Emulsifiable concentrate(EC)

2. Wettable powder(WP)

3. Dust(D)

Emulsifiable concentration (EC):

These are liquid formulations which can be diluted with water before application.

Wettable powder (WP):

WP very common formulations for most of the fungicide, which is used as spray mixture. The
modern WP is water dispersible which have the quality to wet easily and disperse in water. Hence it is
called as water dispersible powders (WDP).

Dust (D):

Dust formulations usually used for direct application in dry forms.

Adjuvants:

The fungicides can be very commonly applied either as spraying or dusting.

Characteristics of an ideal fungicide

 Low phytotoxicity

 Stability in storage

 Stability after dilution to spray strength

 It should not be toxic to humans, animals, earth worms & beneficial microbes

 Easily available in market with cheap price

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 Availability in different formulations

 Broad spectrum of activity

 Compatible with other agrochemicals

 Ease transport

Classification of fungicides

1. Mode of action

Protectant: Fungicide which protect a plant from a pathogen if it is applied prior to infection. They are
prophylactic in nature

Zineb & Sulphur

Therapeaunt: Fungicide which eradicates a fungus after it has caused infection by curing the plant.
Mostly they are systemic in nature.

Carboxin, Oxycorboxin & Aureofungin

Eradicant: A chemical that destroys a pathogen after its establishments in the host. It also act as
protectant

Organic mercurials, Lime Sulphur & Dodine

Fungistat : Some chemicals do not kill the fungal pathogens, but has the ability to arrest the growth of
the fungus temporarily

Fungistasis :The phenomenon of temporarily inhibition of the growth of the fungus

Antisporulent : Some chemicals may inhibit the sporulation without affecting the vegetative growth of
the fungus
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2. Chemical composition

1.Copper fungicides

Common Preparation / trade Disease controlled

name name

COPPER SULPHATE
Bordeaux 1Kg CuSo4+1 Kg lime in Phytophthora
mixture 100 lit of water infestans,
Venturia inaequalis,
Grapes D.M

Bordeaux 1Kg CuSo4+1 Kg lime in Tree wound Dresser

paste 10 lit of water
Burgundy 1.8Kg CuSo4+1.8 Kg Substitute for
mixture sodium carbonate in 225 Bordeaux mixture
lit of water when it’s sensitive
(Burcop, Taytax) to crops
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Cheshnut 2 parts of CuSo4+11 Pythium & Rhizoctonia

compound parts of ammonium
carbonate
(30g of mixture in 9 lit of
water)

COPPER CARBONATE

Chaubattia paste 800g CaCo3+800g red lead+1 lit Pink disease, collar rot, stem
linseed oil canker wound Dresser

CUPROUS OXIDE Copper Sandoz, Fungimar, D.M, blight, rust

perenox, perecot, Kirticopper

COPPER OXYCHLORIDE Fytolan, Blue copper, blitox, Phytophthora infestans,

cobox, mycop
seedling diseases

COPPER HYDROXIDE Kocide Blister blight of tea,

False smut of rice,

Tikka leaf spot of groundnut

Mode of action of copper fungicides : Copper kills the spores of fungi by

combining with the sulphydral group of certain amino acids & disrupt protein
& enzymes
Common name Trade name Disease controlled
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2. Sulphur fungicides

Common name Preparation / trade Disease controlled

name

In- organic Sulphur

Elemental sulphur

Sulphur dust Sulphur dust POWDERY MILDEW / RUST

Wettable sulphur Cosan, wetsulf, sulfux

Lime sulphur 9 kg rock lime + 6.75kg

Sulphur+225 lit water

Phytotoxicity : Cucurbits & apple during warm season

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Organic Sulphur

Monoalkyl dithiocarbomates

Zineb Hexathane 75%wp Early & late blight of potato &

tomatoes, D.M & rust- cereals

Maneb Indofil M – 22 Broad spectrum

Mancozeb Indofil M – 45 Broad spectrum /foliar pathogens

Nabam Indofil A – 40 Leaf spot diseases

Vapam VPM, Vapam Soil borne pathogens

Dialkyl dithiocarbomates

Ziram Ziram, cuman, milbam Anthracnose

Ferbam Coromat, febam, ferberk Anthracnose

Thiram Thiram, TMTD Seed treatment

Quinone Fungicides

Common Name Trade Name Diseases controlled

Common Name Trade Name Diseases controlled
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Captan Captan 50WP/75W Seed Treatment

Hexacap
Kittlesons’ Killer

Captafol Foltaf, Difolaton Foliar diseases Helminthosporium,

sheath rot, grain discolouration

Chloranil Spergon Seed treatment for smut/bunt

Dichlone Phygon Seed protectant / Apple scab, peach leaf curl

1. Binding to SH & NH2 groups of the fungus

2. Disturb the electron transport system

Heterocyclic Nitrogenous Compounds

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Folpet Folpet, Phaltan, Folpan Rose black spot / apple scab /

Pythium / Phytophthora

Inhibits a number of enzymes and interferes in decarboxylation and citrate

systhesis

Miscellaneous Fungicides

Common Name Trade Name Diseases controlled

Chlorothalonil Daconil, Kawach Leafspots/ early & late LS, DM, Rusts, Anthracnose

Dodine Cyprex Apple scab, Ascomycotina, Deuteromycotina fungi

Edifenphos Hinosan BLAST

(Organo
phosphate)

SYSTEMIC FUNGICIDES

OXATHILIN COMPOUNDS

COMMON NAME DOSE DISEASE CONTROLLED

Carboxin (Vitavax) 0.1 % • Seed treatment – Smuts/Bunts

• Seed & soil borne pathogens

• Rhizoctonia spp.
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Oxycarboxin (Plantvax) 0.1 % • Puccinia on cereals/pulses/

• ornementals/vegetables/coffee

BENZIMIDAZOLES

Common Name Trade Name Dose Diseases controlled

Benomyl Benlate Benomyl 0.1%  Pre/post harvest spray

for PH diseases

 Blast/ scab/PM

 Verticillium / Rhizoctonia

Carbendazim Bavistin Tagstin 0.05%  Leaf spot / rust

 Fusarium / Cercospora

Thiabendazole Thiabendazole 0.1%  Botytis / Cercospora /Cerato

Colletotrichum /

Fusarium / Septoria/

Rhizoctonia

THIOPHANATES
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COMMON NAME DOSAGE DISEASE CONTROLLED

Thiophanate 0.05 % Venturia spp, Botrytis, Sclerotinia,

Pyricularia

MORPHOLINES

COMMON NAME DOSE DISEASE CONTROLLED

Tridemorph 0.05 % PM / Rust

Ganoderma

Exobacidium vexans, Mycosphaerela musicola

Dodemorph 0.05 % Diplocarpon rosae

Pyrimidines & its related compounds

COMMON NAME DOSE DISEASE CONTROLLED

Triadimefon (Bayleton) 0.2 % Powdery mildews & Rusts

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Triadimenol (Bayton) 0.2 %

Hydroxy Pyrinidines

COMMON NAME DOSE DISEASE CONTROLLED

Ethirimol (Milliatem) 0.3% Powdery mildew of field crops /

cucurbits

Dimethirimol (Milcurb) 0.3% Chrysanthemum &

cucurbits powdery mildew

Organo phosphorous compounds

Common name Dose Disease controlled

Pyrazophos (afugan/Curamil/ Missile) 0.05 – 1 % Powdery mildew of

all crops

Iprobenphous –IBP (Kitazin) 0.05 – 1 % BLAST /

Sheath blight

Phenol derivative
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Common name Dose Disease controlled

Choloroneb (Demosan) 0.05 % • Seedling diseases

• Rhizoctonia / Pythium / Fusarium

• / Puccinia spp

Triazole compounds (Conazole group)

Common name Disease controlled

Triazbutyl (Indar) Puccinia recondita tritici

Strobilurine: Azoxystrobin (Amister), Trifloxistrobin (Compass)

Other systemic fungicides

Common Name Trade Name Dose Diseases controlled

Metalazyl Apron / 6g/kg Peronosporales

Ridomil
0.2%
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Metalaxyl + Mancozeb (8% + Ridomil MZ- 0.3% Damping off /

64%) 72
downy mildews /

late blight

Tricyclazole Beam 0.05% Blast

Fosetyl - Al Alliette 0.3% Oomycetes

Hexaconazole Contaf 0.1% PMs / Rusts

Propiconazole Tilt 0.1% Rust / PMs / Sigatoka

ANTIBIOTICS

I. ANTIBACTERIAL ANTIBIOTICS

1. Streptomycin sulphate – Streptomysis griseus

COMMON NAME TRADE NAME DISEASE CONTROLLED

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Streptomycin sulphate Agrimycin 100 • Fire blight

Plantomycin, Streptocyclin,
• Citrus canker
Phytostrip, Agristrep
• Cotton black arm
Streptomycin sulphate
• Bacterial spot of tomato

• Soft rot of vegetables

• Bacterial wilts / rots

TETRACYCLINES – Different species of Streptomyces

COMMON NAME TRADE NAME DISEASE CONTROLLED

TETRACYCLINES Terramycin Seed borne bacteria

Oxymycin Phytoplasmas

Oxytetracyclin Agrobacterium tumefaciens

II. ANTIFUNGAL ANTIBIOTICS

Aureofungin – Sreptoverticillium cinnamomeum

COMMON NAME TRADE NAME DISEASE CONTROLL

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AUREOFUNGIN Aureofungin – Sol Ganoderma

Phytophthora,

Podosphaera,

Venturia, Alternaria

Tikka, PM / DM grapes

Griseofulvin – Different species of Penicillium

COMMON NAME TRADE NAME DISEASE CONTROLLE

GRISEOFULVIN Greseofulvin, Fulvin, Grisovin PM of beans/ rose

Downy mildew of

cucumber

Botrytis cineria,

Alternaria solani

CYCLOHEXIMIDE – Streptomysis spp

COMMON NAME TRADE NAME DISEASE CONTR

CYCLOHEXIMIDE Actidione, Actidione PM / RZ Erysiphe, Tilletia,

Rhizopus,

Botrytis cineria,

Alternaria solani
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Others

COMMON NAME TRADE NAME DISEASE CONTROLLE

BLASTICIDIN Bla - s Pyricularia oryzae

ANTIMYCIN Antimycin A. solani,

Pyricularia oryzae

KASUKAMYCIN Kasumin Pyricularia oryzae

THIOLUTIN Thiolutin Phytophthora infestans

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Lec 31
METHODS OF APPLICATION OF FUNGICIDES

Seed Treatment

(i) Dry seed treatment

(ii) Wet seed treatment

(iii) Dry Seed Treatment

Any one of the following chemical may be used for treatment at the rate of 2g/kg:

Eg. Thiram or Captan or Carboxin or Tricyclazole

• Mix 2g fungicide with 1 kg of seeds in a seed treating drum or polythene lined gunny bags, so as
to provide uniform coating of the fungicide over the seeds.

Treat the seeds at least 24 hours prior to soaking for sprouting.

Wet seed treatment

The seeds cannot be stored and the treatment has to be done before sowing.

Eg. Seed dip treatment in paddy.

Prepare the fungicidal solution by mixing any of the fungicides viz., Carbendazim or Tricyclazole
at the rate of 2g/litre of water and soak the seeds in the solution for 2 hrs. Drain the solution and keep
the seeds Sett dip / Sucker dip

Soil drenching

For controlling damping off and root rot.

1 g / l Carbendazim (0.1%), Copper fungicides 2.5 g / l (0.25%) suspension is applied to a depth of at least
10-15 cm.

FOLIAR APPLICATION

A. Spraying

Spraying of fungicides is done on leaves, stems and fruits. Wettable powders are most commonly
used for preparing spray solutions

Eg. Foliar spary of Carbendazim 0.1 %

Dusting
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Dusts are applied to all aerial parts of a plant as an alternative to spraying.

Rotary duster, motorised knapsack duster are used for dusting.

POST-HARVEST APPLICATION:

Fruits and vegetables are largely damaged after harvest by fungi and bacteria.

Many chemicals have been used as spray or dip or fumigation.

Post harvest fungicides are most frequently applied as aqueous suspensions or solutions.

Systemic fungicides, particularly Thiabendazole, Benomyl, Carbendazim, Metalaxyl,

Fosetyl Aluminium have been found to be very effective against storage diseases.

In addition, Dithiocarbamates and Antibiotics are also applied to control the post
harvest diseases.

CORM INJECTION

It is an effective method used to control Panama wilt of banana caused by Fusarium oxysporum
f. sp. cubense Capsule applicator is used for this purpose.

It is an iron rod of 7 mm thickness to which a handle is attached at one end.

The length of the rod is 45 cm and an iron plate is fixed at a distance of 7 cm from the tip. The
corm is exposed by removing the soil and a hole is made at 45°angle to a depth of 5 cm.

One or two gelatin capsules containing 50-60 mg of Carbendazim is pushed in slowly and
covered with soil. Instead of capsule, 3 ml of 2% Carbendazim solution can also be injected into the hole.

ROOT FEEDING

Root feeding is also adopted for the control of Thanjavur wilt of coconut instead of trunk
application.

The root region is exposed; actively growing young root is selected and given a slanting cut at
the tip.

The root is inserted into a polythene bag containing 2g of Aureofungin and 1 g of copper
sulphate in 100 ml of water. The mouth of the bag is tied tightly with the root

ACID - DELINTING IN COTTON

• This is followed in cotton to kill the seed-borne fungi and bacteria.

• The seeds are treated with concentrated Sulphuric acid @ 100 ml/kg of seed for 2-3 minutes.
The seeds are then washed 2 or 3 times thoroughly with cold water and shade dried.
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• After drying, they are again treated with Captan or Thiram @4g/kg before sowing

Precautions to be taken while using fungicides:

Wear suitable protection gloves and face protection when handling the product and contaminated
surfaces.

Don’t inhale the dust when measuring or mixing.

Don’t smoke when mixing or applying fungicides

After using fungicides are wash your hands and equipments thoroughly with soap and water.

If you accidentally spill any fungicides and exposed to skin, wash immediately.
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Lec 32 & 34
HOST PLANT RESISTANCE (IMMUNIZATION)

Immunity refers to total resistance to the disease – plant is never affected by the pathogen.

Immunization in plants – is the process of developing resistance in plants against diseases.

Disease resistance:

It is the ability of a plant to overcome completely or in some degree the effect of a pathogen or
damaging factor.

Susceptibility:

The inability of a plant to resist the effect of a pathogen or other damaging factor.

Types of resistance

 Vertical resistance: When a variety is more resistant to some races of the pathogen than others,
the resistance is called vertical resistance - Usually governed by single gene & unstable.

 Horizontal resistance: When the resistance is uniformly spread against all the races of a
pathogen, then it is called horizontal resistance. - usually governed by several genes and is more
stable.

Mechanism of resistance

Morphological resistance:

1. Callose deposition:

Accumulation of callose in the cells at the point of infection.

E.g.: Barley varieties resistant to powdery mildew

2. Lignification:

Lignin are present in the host and there by further penetration are avoided.

3. Production of corky cells and corky layers:

Immediately after infection, several layers of corky cells are formed and the corky layers prevent
further invasion.

E.g.: Resistant Potato varieties -resistant to scab caused by Streptomyces scabies

4. Hyper sensitivity:

It is a quick defense mechanism of plants in which the cells around the site of infection dies and
become necrotic and prevent further development of disease
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Physical resistance:

1. Cuticles:

Cuticles acts as a physical barrier or chemical barrier to infection

E.g.: Linseed – resistance to Melampsora lini –thick cuticle

Strawberry- resistance to Sphaerotheca macularis –thick cuticle

Potato – resistance to late blight- leaves with hair

2. Cell wall/epidermis:

Resistant Rice- resistant to blast fungus – more silicic acid

3. Leaf structure:

Some leaf structures induce resistance to certain diseases

E.g.:Beetroot– resistance to Cercospora beticola – stomata closed most of the time

Wheat – resistance to Puccinia graminis tritici – stomata opens very late in the morning

Chemical resistance:

The pH of plant tissue play an important role for resistance.

E.g.: Grape vine varieties resistant to powdery mildew have less pH in cell sap.

Young bean leaves and pods are infected by anthracnose fungus because of acidic pH.

Cross protection

 The phenomenon in which plant infected with mild strain of a virus are protected from infection
by other severe strains of the same virus.

 This strategy is used in the management of severe strains of Citrus Tristeza virus causing quick
decline virus.

 Acid lime is infected by both mild and severe strains of tristeza virus.

 Inoculate the mild strain in the young acid lime seedlings grown in isolated nurseries.

 This will confer protection against the severe virulant strain.

 This phenomenon is called as cross protection.

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BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES IN PLANT DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Role of Biotechnology in Plant Disease Management:

Biotechnology is defined as the manipulation, genetic modification and multiplication of living

organisms through novel technologies, such as tissue culture and genetic engineering, resulting
in the production of improved or new organisms and products that can be used in a variety of
ways.

Plant biotechnology helps plant pathology in many ways:

1. To obtain pathogen-free mother plants through rapid clonal propagation.

2. New plants to which genes have been incorporated through genetic engineering.

3. Control of plant diseases by inserting resistance genes into plants by genetic engineering
techniques

4. To transferring genes from donor to recipient – vechicle is needed - the bacterium

Agrobacterium tumefaciens act as a vehicle.

Tissue Culture Techniques:

Cells of plants can be cultured in special nutrient medium and whole plants can be
regenerated from cultured cells. This technique of growing plants in vitro is called “Tissue
culture”.

Tissue and cell culture approaches:

Tissue culture approach is one of the recent techniques in the field of molecular biology and it is
applied in several ways for the development of disease resistant cultivars in agriculture.

Disease resistant plants from tissue culture

Plant Culture system Resistance to pathogen

Potato Protoplast Phytophthora infestans
Alternaria solani
Callus Fusarium oxysporum
Tomato Callus Fusarium oxysporum
Protoplast
Banana Meristem Fusarium oxysporum
Strawberry Callus Fusarium oxysporum
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Genetic engineering:

It is the technology by which it is possible to isolate particular gene from one organism,
insert them into the genome of another organism and make them to express resistance.

Plant species genetically engineered to enhance the resistance to fungal diseases:

Plant species engineered Effect on disease development

Carrot Reduced rate and final incidence of diseases
due to
Botrytis cinerea, Rhizoctonia solani and
Sclerotium rolfsii
Cucumber Reduced lesion development due to Botrytis
cinerea
Potato Enhanced tolerance to infection by
Phytophthora infestans
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Lec 33
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF CROP DISEASES

Definition

Biological control is defined as the reduction of inoculum density or disease producing

activities of a pathogen or parasite in its active or dormant stage by one or more organisms
accomplished naturally or through manipulation of the environment, host or by introduction of one or
more antagonists.

It is nothing but control of plant diseases using living organisms.

Bioagent: Any living organism used for controlling plant pathogens – Antagonist

Disadvantages of chemical fungicides

 Pollution hazards

 Chances for the development of resistance by pathogens

 Effective for only shorter period (2-3 weeks)

 Costly when compared to biocontrol agents

Merits / Advantages of biocontrol agents

 Harmless to human beings and animals (Environmentally safe)

 Cheaper than fungicides by 50%

 No residual problem

 Highly effective throughout the crop growth period with high rhizosphere competence

 Easy and safe manufacturing and delivery

 Biocontrol agents act as plant growth promoters

 Increase the yield and induces the ISR

 No chances for development of resistance by pathogens

 Highly effective against specific disease

 Compatible with biofertilizers

 No phytotoxicity
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Fungal Biocontrol agents

Antagonist Pathogen controlled

Trichoderma viride Macrophomina phaseolina, Pythium spp

Sclerotium rolfsii

T. harzianum Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Vasinfectum F.o. F.sp. – melonis,

R. solani

T. hamatum Pythium spp., R. solani

Verticillium laccani Uromyces dianthi

Gliocladium virens P. ultimum, R. solani

Laetisaria arvalis Sclerotinia sclerotiarum, R. solani Pythium spp.

Bacteria and Actinomycetes

Pseudomonas fluorescens P. ultimum, P. aphanidermatum, R. solani

F.o.sp. udum, F.o. f.sp. cubense, F.o f. sp ciceri

Bacillus subtilis F.o. f.sp. dianthi. M. phaseolina, R.solani, S.rolfsii

B. thuringiensis Hemileia vastatrix

Streptomyces griseoviridis Alternaria brassicola, R. solani.

F.o. f.sp. dianthi

Fluorescent pseudomonads, Bacillus subtilis

 Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR)

Pseudomonas
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Gram - negative non-pathogenic bacteria in root surfaces – plant exudates and lysates

Bacillus

Gram positive, rod shaped, endospore

Trichoderma

 Trichoderma - filamentous fungus that is widely distributed in the soil, plant material,
decaying vegetation, and wood.

Plant growth promoting fungi (PGPF)

Trichoderma viride Seed treatment

Seed treatment @ 4 g/kg

Management of root rot disease

Black gram, Green gram

Bengal gram, Red gram

Groundnut, Sesamum

Sunflower and Cotton

Damping-Off disease

Chillies and Tomato

Quality control

Trichoderma

 28 X 106 cfu/g

 Moisture content < 20%

 120 days shelf life

 Store in white polybags

Pseudomonas

 2.5 X 108 cfu/g

 Moisture content < 20%

 90 days shelf life

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 Store in white polybags

Mycorrhiza in plant disease management:

 VAM fungi being the major component of rhizosphere microflora are very much likely to affect
the incidence and severity of root diseases. On the other hand, VAM fungi in combination with
symbiotic and asymbiotic bacterial and fungal associates in the plant rhizosphere confers
evidence of disease suppression.

Plant products:

 Plant products play an important role in evolving an ecological sound and

environmentally acceptable disease management system. Plant products have been found to
have fungicidal, bactericidal and antiviral properties.

 Neem products:

 Among the plant products, the neem derivatives are reported to be effective in
controlling several diseases. The important active principles are azadiractin, nimbin, nimbidin,
nimbinene, nimbric acid and azadirone which have antifungal and insecticidal properties.

 Neem seed kernel extract

 Neem oil solution

 Neem cake extract

 In addition to the neem products, products from several other plant species are also found to be
effective in disease management. The leaf extract of tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) is found effective
against Helminthosporium oryzae (paddy brown spot).

Antiviral principle:

 Plants are also known to contain some compounds which are inhibitory to virus. They
are called anti-viral principles. The leaf extracts of sorghum, coconut, bougainvillaea, Prosopis
juliflora and Cynodon dactylon are known to contain virus inhibiting principles.