Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Engine type, definition and role, main

parts of an engine, working principle

The heat engine represents a thermal machine that converts the heat
released by fuel combustion into mechanical work using a fluid, named
working fluid.
In a thermal engine the combustion process may be produced:
– outside the engine, which is the case of an engine with external
combustion;
– inside the engine, which is the case of an engine with internal
combustion.
The role of the heat engine is to provide to the users the necessary
energy for propulsion by driving of transmission, while releasing the energy
contained in a fuel, as chemical energy. The fuel and air react together by
combustion process, a high temperature chemical oxidation process which
converts the initial fresh fuel-air cold mixture into a mixture of hot burned
gases.
The heat released by combustion is transformed in mechanical work.
The mixture formed by air, with the sprayed fuel and the burned gases
represents the engine working fluid. When the conversion of heat into
mechanical work is performed inside a cylinder by means of a moving
piston, this is the case of a reciprocating engine.
The elements that compose a reciprocating internal combustion engine
can be divided into three main categories:
– the engine group;
– the auxiliary systems;
– the surveillance and control equipment.
On its turn, the engine group is formed of two parts:
– the fixed parts which is usually represented from top to bottom, in
the following succession: the cylinder head, with the intake and the exhaust
10 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

manifolds attached, the cylinder block, the upper carter (crankcase) and
lower carter or the oil pan;
– the moving parts are generally formed by: the piston, the piston
rings, the piston pin, the connecting rod and the crankshaft.
The cutaway of a cylinder of an internal combustion engine,
represented in figure 1.1, emphasizes the set of its elements.
In the general case of an engine with several cylinders – the
multicylinder engine – where the cylinders are arranged in different basic
design formula (as in line, in V, in H, in star) every piston works inside its
cylinder, moving by the corresponding connecting rod, the crankshaft. Each
ensemble piston-connecting rod acts on a single crank throw and, con-
sequently the accumulated movement assembles on the flywheel (fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.1. The parts of the engine mechanism.

Fig. 1.2. The ensembles of piston-connecting rod working on the crankshaft.

1. Introduction 11

For a reciprocating internal combustion engine, the engine working

fluid operates in a limited space at the upper part by the cylinder head and at
the lower part by the piston. The movement of the piston is alternative, and
the rotary movement of the connecting-rod big-end is collected on the
crankshaft.
The piston goes back and forward between two extreme positions, an
inferior one, the Bottom Dead Center (BDC) and a superior one, the Top
Dead Center (TDC). The volume of the cylinder that corresponds to the
upper extreme position is VC, (the minimum volume of the cylinder –
clearance volume) for TDC and to the lower is VA (the maximum volume of
the cylinder – total volume) for BDC (fig. 1.3).

Fig. 1.3. Piston extreme positions BDC

and TDC and the corresponding volumes.

Using these two volumes one can introduces an important design

parameter, the compression ratio  as being the ratio between the maximal
and minimal volume of the cylinder.
  VA / VC (1.1)
The heat released by the fuel-air combustion produces a significant
increase of pressure and temperature of the engine working fluid. This
pressure increasing by combustion results in a straight thrust of the piston.
The rod-crank mechanism permits the conversion of this straight movement
in a rotary movement. There are two fundamental geometrical parameters of
a reciprocating engine: the cylinder diameter, D (the bore) and the displace-
ment of the piston between the two dead points, S (the stroke).
Using the dimensions of bore and stroke one can define the displaced
or the swept volume VS of the cylinder by:
  D2
VS (l)  S 106 , with D and S (mm) (1.2)
4
12 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

and a geometric relation among them:

VA  VC  VS . (1.3)
If one considers the case of an engine with several cylinders, where i
signify theirs number, the total engine displacement (or total engine
capacity) is:
Vt (l)  i  VS . (1.4)
The auxiliary systems assure the normal engine operating conditions.
These are the corresponding systems for fueling, cooling, lubricating, timing,
igniting and sometimes of supercharging the engine.
The equipment of surveillance and control should allow every moment
a global overview of the working regime of the engine. From that point of
view, it is necessary to monitor the engine operating and performance
parameters as they are the engine power and speed, and also the engine
general temperatures régime. In this sense, a lot of the sensors, gauges and
instruments of visualization as: torquemeters, tachometers, pressure trans-
ducers, and thermocouples are used.
The cross-section of an internal combustion engine cylinder contain-
ing some part of the timing system elements is presented in figure 1.4. The
complex constructive structure with the corresponding components of the
mobile mechanism of the engine is represented in the figure 1.5.

Fig. 1.4. Cross-section of a spark ignition engine cylinder.

 1. Introduction

Fig. 1.5. The engine’s moving parts [1].

13
14 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

1.2. Engines classification and their

operating cycles

Actually, after more of one century of development, the most frequent

criterion used for internal combustion engines classification is the fuel igni-
tion process. From this point of view there are two large categories, the spark-
ignition engines (Otto) and the compression-ignition engines (Diesel). They
are indeed different, not only by ignition process, but also by a lot of other
characteristics such as: the operating cycle, the process of the fuel-air mixture
preparation, the combustion process characteristics, the method of load
control, the general constructive solution (dimensions and weights), the
exploitation parameters (easiness of working, maintenance and reliability) and
the performances parameters (efficiency, specific power, specific mass, etc.).
The spark-ignition engines are equipped with an electric system that
permits normal combustion initiation by a spark discharge which is gener-
ated between the spark-plug electrodes, practically inside the gap existing
between them. The combustion takes place theoretically at constant volume.
This type of engines uses gasoline or petrol like fuel, which is a mixture of
light hydrocarbons.
The compression-ignition engines do not have an electric ignition
system. Air which is induced in cylinders is stronger compressed compared
to the case of the spark-ignition engines, and consequently the spraying fuel
ignition – introduced directly by injection system components in cylinders –
occurs due to heat transfer from the hot air to the fuel jet, as an self-ignition
process. The combustion takes place theoretically at constant pressure. This
type of engines uses diesel oil or gas oil like fuel, which is a mixture of
heavy hydrocarbons.
A particular case of the compression-ignition engines is that of the
Diesel-Gas engines. This type of engines uses two fuels, the diesel oil and
the compressed natural gas which is introduced in cylinders in the same
time with air. By compression, firstly occurs the auto-ignition of the diesel
fuel and afterwards, the gas combustion takes place similar to those of the
diesel engine.
The classification of the internal combustion engines can be made
using a lot of the different criteria. The table 1.1 summarizes such a clas-
sification.
1. Introduction 15

Table 1.1
Classification of the internal combustion engines

No. Classification criteria Engines type, characteristic

1 2 3
1. Method of fuel ignition – spark ignition;
– compression ignition;
– diesel-gas.
2. Working cycle, or number of – two-stroke engines, or with working cycle
crankshaft revolutions correspond- at every revolution;
ing to working cycle – four-stroke engines, or with working cycle
in two revolutions.
3. Fuel state – engines on gaseous fuels;
– engines on liquid fuels;
– engines on liquid and gaseous fuels.
4. Number of fuels used – single fuel;
– dual-fuel, or flex-fuel .
5. The place of the fuel-air mixture – outside of the engine cylinder;
preparation – inside of the engine cylinders.
6. Method of mixture preparation – carburetion;
– fuel injection into the intake ports;
– fuel injection into the engine cylinder.
7. Number of combustion chamber – one compact chamber;
compartments – two compartments, divided chambers.
8. Induction process – naturally aspirated;
– supercharged.
9. Method of cooling – water cooled;
– air cooled;
– other, uncooled.
10. Mean piston speed – slow speed engine;
– semi-rapid engine;
– rapid engine.
11. Cylinders number – single cylinder;
– multi cylinder.
12. Arrangement of cylinders – in line;
– in V;
– in X;
– in H;
– in star;
– opposed, other geometries.
13. Position of cylinders axis relative to – vertical;
the vertical – tilted;
– horizontal.
16 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Table 1.1 (continuation)

1 2 3
14. Position of cylinder axis relative to – centered mechanism;
crankshaft axis – eccentric mechanism.
15. Engine application – automobile;
– agricultural tractor;
– truck;
– locomotive;
– naval, marine;
– light aircraft;
– industrial, power generation.

Maybe the most important criteria which is used for the engines
classification is that of the engine working or operating cycle. The major
part of the actually internal combustion engines is four-stroke. The
succession of the processes that repeats periodically inside the engine
cylinders is called the engine operating cycle.
For the four-stroke engine, the engine cycle takes place by four
cyclical movements of the piston, evidently in two revolutions of the
crankshaft, represented in figure 1.6 and for the two-stroke engine, the cycle
makes itself in two piston movements, in only one rotation of the
crankshaft. The number of strokes  is four or two.

Fig. 1.6. The working cycle of a four-stroke engine.

The engine speed is specified by the crankshaft rotation condition or

by its rotational speed, n which is normally expressed in revolutions per
minute (rpm). The frequency of the engine cycles  C becomes in this case
1. Introduction 17

 c (cycle/s)  n / 30   (1.5)
and its reverse Tc (s/cycle) being the period of engine cycles.
The angle between the crankshaft radius and the corresponding axis of
the cylinder is called the crank angle α and is expressed in degrees crank
angle (CAD or °CA). The origin of this angle may correspond to the neutral
position of the piston as the TDC at the beginning of the intake stroke, or at
the end of the compression stroke (fig. 1.7).

Fig. 1.7. Crankshaft position

and its rotational movement.

The four-stroke engine has the duration of its theoretical operating

cycle marked from 0 to 720°CA, or from –360 to + 360°CA.
The theoretical study of the internal combustion engines cycle is based
usually on the hypothesis that the rotational movement of the crankshaft is
circular and uniform. Considering that, one can express the crankshaft angular
speed  according to the engine speed n using the relation 1.6. The corres-
pondence between the crank angle relative time, specified by α (°CA) associ-
ated to the crankshaft movement and the absolute time t (s) becomes 1.7:
 (rad/s)    n / 30 (1.6)
t (s)   / 6n . (1.7)
Thus can be defined the mean piston speed WP of the piston move-
ment, as being the virtual constant speed of the piston displacement which
would correspond to a complete revolution of the crankshaft movement.
WP (m/s)  103 S  n / 30 . (1.8)
According to this parameter one can classify the internal combustion
engines in some categories as: low-speed, for WP = 4 … 6.5 m/s, medium-
speed, for WP = 6.5 … 10 m/s and high-speed for WP = 10 … 17 m/s.
18 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

The working cycle is often represented by the pressure diagram in p–α

coordinates, named the indicated diagram, as figure 1.8. On this diagram
usually are superposed the valves opening and closing moments by the
corresponding abbreviations (EVC – the exhaust valve closing, IVC – the
intake valve closing, EVO – the exhaust valve opening and IVO – the
intake valve opening) also the characteristic moments for the combustion
process (s – starting point corresponding to the electric spark discharge, or
the beginning of the fuel injection, y – the maximum of pressure trace and
t – the end of the heat released reaction).
The pressure diagram is recorded on an oscilloscope, or directly on a
computer, by means of a complex data acquisition system, where a pressure
transducer and a crank angle encoder for the crankshaft angular position are
set in circuit.
The pressure diagram is currently associated to the diagrams of cylinder
volume variation (fig. 1.9) and to the heat released by combustion variation
(fig. 1.10).
The diagram of heat released is often represented as the shape of the
ratio between the amount of heat produced by combustion of the fuel mass
existing inside cylinder and the amount of available heat on cycle and
cylinder, named as the characteristic of heat released, ξ.
Concerning the engine working cycle some remarks may be set forth:
– the engine real cycle consists of five processes hanged in the four
strokes;
– the duration of the engine real cycle is always greater than the
duration of the engine theoretical cycle;
– there is always a part, a period of time at the end of every cycle and
at the beginning of the new cycle, when the intake and exhaust valves are
simultaneously opened;
– the combustion process is placed at the end of the compression
stroke and at the beginning of the expansion stroke;
– a well phased combustion process, relative to the piston position is
usually placed in the neighborhood of the TDC-end of compression, when
the variation of the volume generated by the piston displacement is reduced
(approximately about 1/3 of the combustion duration must be before TDC
and 2/3 after). In such condition, the surface area of high pressure diagram
registers its maximum value as well as the corresponding mechanical
indicated work.
1. Introduction 19

Fig. 1.8. The working cycle in p–α coordinates.

Fig. 1.9. Variation of the cylinder volume cylinder generated by the piston displacement.

Fig. 1.10. Characteristic of the heat released by combustion process.

20 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

1.3. Mixture preparation and quality

of the air-fuel mixture

A combustible mixture air-fuel is obtained by mixing air with the fuel

vapors (gasoline or diesel fuels which are blends of liquid hydrocarbons
derived from oil). To get a homogeneous mixture, the continuous jet of the
liquid fuel must be braked up in small liquid drops. This way the mixture with
air is performed easier, and for that, three main physical processes are needed:
– the atomization of the fuel jet for its breaking into small droplets;
– the uniform distribution of the droplets inside the combustion
chamber;
– the vaporization of droplets.
Two methods are used for the preparation of the combustible mixture
in the case of the internal combustion engines: the carburetion and the injec-
tion. Both of them use the relative air to fuel speed, as the difference between
the air speed of and that of the fuel speed, for carburetion (fig. 1.11) and
respectively, the speed of the liquid jet fuel and the air speed for injection
(fig. 1.12).

Fig. 1.11. The carburetion method. Fig. 1.12. The injection method.

From this point of view, the preparation of combustible mixture by

carburetion is dedicated to the classical petrol spark ignition engines (Otto)
while, the injection is dedicated to the modern spark ignition engines as
1. Introduction 21

SPFI – Single Point Fuel Injection, MPFI – Multi Point Fuel Injection, GDI –
Gasoline Direct Injection, FSI – Fuel Stratified Injection, TSI – Turbocharged
Stratified Injection, et al., and to the compression ignition engines (Diesel) as
DI – Direct Injection, TDI – Turbocharged Direct Injection, IDI – Indirect
Injection, HSDI – High Speed Direct Injection, et al.
Inside a cylinder of an internal combustion engine a certain mass of
induced air ma mixes itself with a certain mass of a delivered fuel mc and
results a total mass of fresh fluid mixture mff as:
m ff  ma  mc . (1.9)
The quality of this mixture can be expressed by the air/fuel metering
ratio as being the ratio between the air mass and the fuel mass existing in
each cylinder.
d  ma / mc . (1.10)
Fuel and oxygen from air which form the reactants react together in a
combustion process (a branching chain mechanism of successive and/or
simultaneous elementary reactions) and are converted into the products of
reaction. In the case of the combustion process of a pure hydrocarbon fuel,
with the general chemical formula CnHm, in reaction with dry air, (having
the volumetric/molar composition of 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 1%
other gases, or in kilomols number with 3.773 meaning kilomols of nitrogen
for each kilomol of oxygen) the products of reaction depend on the mass of
fuel and air. However, there is a particular case, when the whole carbon and
whole hydrogen from fuel are completely burnt and they are transformed in
carbon dioxide, and respectively in water. In this case of complete combus-
tion, the theoretical chemical equation of the global combustion reaction
represents the stoichiometric equation and it presents the following general
form:
 m m  m
Cn H m   n    O 2  3.773N 2   nCO 2  H 2 O  3.773  n   N 2
 4 2  4
(1.11)
Similar to the air/fuel metering ratio, one may have the stoichiometric
air/fuel ratio (A/C)st as the ratio between the mass of air consumed and the
mass of fuel entered in reaction for a complete combustion.
 m
 n    32  3.773  28 
4
 A / C st  (kg air/kg comb) (1.12)
n 12  m 1
22 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

where, the molecular weights of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen are
32, 28, 12 and 2 (kg/kmol). The ratio (A/C)st can be considered as a
theoretical air/fuel metering ratio dt, expressed by the ratio between the
minimal mass of air necessary for the complete combustion of a certain
mass of fuel and that fuel mass. The theoretical air to fuel ratio is also
represented by the ratio between the minimum air mass to the available fuel
mass or by the available air mass and the maximal mass of fuel that can be
completely burned with the available air mass.
ma ,min ma
dt  ; dt  . (1.13)
mc mc ,max
By dividing these ratios one can gets a product of ratios that reveals
two characteristic parameters of the mixture quality. These parameters are
the relative air/fuel ratio λ and its inverse the fuel/air equivalence ratio Ф.
ma mc
1    . (1.14)
ma ,min mc ,max
In the same manner, while using the combustion equation, when the
quantities of air and fuel are different from stoichiometric, the ratios air/fuel
and its inverse become (A/C)act, (C/A)act where the symbol act means
actually. With these ratios the relative metering coefficients will become:
 A C 
   
 C act  A act
 ;  (1.15)
 A C 
   
 C  st  A  st
 A
where   can be considered as theoretical air/fuel metering ratio
 C  st
 ma ,min 
  having values of 14.7 and respectively 14.5 (kg air/kg fuel) for
 mc 
gasoline, respectively for diesel fuel. This ratio often noted Lmin (kg air/kg
fuel) or L0 (kmole air/kg fuel) represents the air quantity necessary for the
complete combustion of one kilogram of fuel.
In this manner, the air-fuel mixture quality is usually specified by the
values of the λ or Ф coefficients:
– λ >1; Ф <1 – the quantity of available air is greater than the minimal
one, which means that air is in excess, the actual air/fuel ratio is greater than
1. Introduction 23

the stoichiometric one, the mixture is poor (in fuel) and the combustion is
complete;
– λ <1; Ф >1 – the quantity of available air is smaller than the minimal
one, which means that fuel is in excess, the actual air/fuel ratio is smaller
than the stoichiometric one, the mixture is rich (in fuel) and the combustion
is incomplete (the whole carbon is not transformed into carbon dioxide and
all the hydrogen into water, other products of combustion exist, as the
carbon oxide);
– λ =1; Ф =1 – the quantity of available air and the minimal one are
equals, the actual air/fuel ratio is equal to the stoichiometric one, the mixture
is theoretical and the combustion is complete.
The characteristic λ values are different for the two important
categories of internal combustion engines. Thus for the spark ignition
engines provided with load quantitative control system (conventional
throttling system) these values are in the range from the 0.8 to 1.2. In the
case of the compression ignition engines because the load control is
qualitative, the λ values are in the range from 1.2 to 1.8 for maximum power
regime and until 5 or more than this for idle. Because of diesel fuel
properties used in compression ignition engines (e.g. its elevated boiling
temperature 180 … 360°C in comparison with 25 … 215°C, for gasoline),
the relative air/fuel ratio for the Diesel engines is at least two times higher
than for the Otto engines at the maximum power output.

1.4. Engine design and technical

parameters, operating rate

The engine design constructive parameters are determined by the

engine components dimensions and the technical parameters by the features
of the engine performance characteristics being the torque, the power, the
indicated mean pressure and the effective mean pressure. The performance
and efficiency indicators are the specific powers, the efficiencies, and the
specific fuel consumptions.
The pressure indicated diagram registered in (p–α) coordinates,
pressure – time, is converted into (p–V) coordinates, pressure – volume.
This transformation is performed analytically considering the equations that
describe the piston current displacement s, inside the cylinder. The descrip-
24 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

tion kinematics of the engine mechanism is represented in figure 1.13. The

current volume of the cylinder depends on the compression ratio and on the
volume generated by the piston movement.

b
r

TDC β α BDC
s

Fig. 1.13. The description of the kinematics engine mechanism.

The equations applied for the actual cylinder volume calculation are:
s  r  b   r  cos   b  cos   (1.16)

 1
1 

s  S / 2 1  cos    1  (1   sin ) 2  
2 2
(1.17)
   


  D2 VS   D2  1 1 
V ()  VC  s    s  VS        (1.18)
4  1 4   1 2 
where, σ (α) = [(1 – cosα) +1/Λ(1 – (1 – Λ2 sin2α)1/2)], Λ = r/b is a design
parameter with r = S/2 the crankshaft radius and b of the connecting rod
length. The Λ values are in the domain of 1/3 … 1/4.2; the lower values are
for the compression ignition engines 1/3.8 … 1/4.2 while the higher values
are for the spark ignition engines of 1/3 … 1/3.8. Another important design
parameter with different values for these two large classes of engines is the
stroke to bore ratio, ψ = S/D. This is a characteristic parameter for the
engines size and its values are close to unit (except the low-speed super-
charged Diesel engines for marine and/or stationary application).
Considering the real engine cycle in p–V coordinates (fig. 1.14) the
indicated mechanical work developed in the inside of the cylinder, can be
obtained as the integral of pdV during the compression, the combustion and
the exhaust (SA SB and SC representing the corresponding surfaces of parts A,
B and C of the pressure diagram).
1. Introduction 25

Fig. 1.14. The engine real cycle in p–V coordinates.

It is therefore positive (in the clock wise sense of the cycle path) and
one has:
b d
Li   pdV   pdV  0  S A  S B . (1.19)
a b

The mechanical work achieved during the exhaust and the intake (the
processes of gases exchange) is always negative, for the naturally aspirated
engines, when the cylinder pressure during the intake stroke is smaller the
cylinder pressure during the exhaust stroke.
g a
L p   pdV   pdV  0  S B  SC . (1.20)
d g

For supercharged engines the pumping work will be positive, from the
cylinder gases to the piston, when the pressure in intake is higher than the
pressure in exhaust. This is the case of highly turbocharged engines.
Lp thus defined is called the mechanical pumping work. From that
point of view, for the real engine cycle (different from the theoretical cycle,
considered for a spark ignition engine – figure 1.15 – and represented by
two isochoric right lines and two adiabatic curves) one can distinguish:
– the gross indicated mechanical work per cycle Li = SA + SB ,
delivered to the piston over compression, combustion and expansion, when
valves are closed;
26 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

– the net indicated mechanical work per cycle Lin =Li + Lp = SA – SC,
delivered to the piston over the whole cycle.

Fig. 1.15. The theoretical engine cycle in p-V coordinates

for a spark ignition engine.

The term “indicated” will be kept only for those parameters associated
to the gross indicated mechanical work.
The mechanical work developed within the engine cylinder depends
on the volume generated by the piston movement and obviously, more
displaced volume leads to additional mechanical work and extra power. In
this way, it can be introduced a new specific parameter used for compa-
risons between engines with different capacities. This is the specific
indicated mechanical work, and frequently used under the name of mean
indicated pressure define by:
Lit (J) i  Li (N  m) (N)
li     pi (1.21)
Vt (m3 ) i  VS (m3 ) (m 2 )
where, Lit is the total indicated mechanical work developed in the whole
engine cycle period for all the engine cylinders.
The indicated power is expressed according to Li:
Li (J/cycle  cylinder)  i(cylinder) pi (N/m2 ) VS (m3 )  i(cylinder)
Pi (W)   (1.22)
Tc (s/cycle) 30 
(s/cycle)
n
1. Introduction 27

and, when one expresses the power and all others parameters in dedicated
measurement units:
p  i VS  n
Pi  i (1.23)
30  
with Pi (kW), pi (MPa), VS (l) and n (rpm).
The engine in its operation regime does not transfer entirely to the
user the whole power developed inside cylinders. Obviously there are some
internal losses characterizing engine operation, determined by friction
rubbing between different engine parts, by driving the auxiliary systems and
by pumping effect. All these Ppr losses diminish the engine indicated power
Pi. The effective power Pe that is available to the user flange remains always
smaller than the indicated power (fig. 1.16).
Engine
Pe Pr
Pi Mi
Ppr
1 2 i User

Me Mr

Coupling

Fig. 1.16. Diagram of the general system engine – user.

Pe  Pi  Ppr . (1.24)
Similarly one can obtain the fundamental engine formula of the
engines power
p  i VS  n
Pe  e (1.25)
30  
where pe is the mean effective pressure, one of the most important para-
meters of the engines efficiency. Both pi and pe are not real pressures, but
representing the specific mechanical work (indicated, effective) for unit of
the capacity volume. The usual values of the mean effective pressure are
specified in the table 1.2.
The indicated and effective powers can be expressed according to the
mean piston speed as:
  D2   D2
pi  i   WP 103 pe  i   WP 103
Pi  4 ; Pe  4 . (1.26)
 
28 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Table 1.2

pe at pe at
No. Generic name maximum maximum
torque (MPa) power (MPa)

1. Naturally aspirated spark ignition engines 0.85 … 1.05 0.75 … 0.9

2. Supercharged spark ignition engines 1.25 … 1.7 0.9 … 1.4
3. Naturally aspirated four strokes diesel engines 0.7 … 0.9 0.7
4. Supercharged four stokes diesel engines 1.0 … 1.2 0.75 … 0.85
5. Supercharged intercooler four strokes diesel engines 1.25 … 1.4 0.85 … 0.95
6. Heavy duty supercharged four strokes diesel engines 1.5 … 2.2 –
7. Heavy duty supercharged two strokes diesel engines 1.6 … 1.8 –

In practice there are other three more technical parameters associated

to the effective power. These are: the specific power (or the power to the
capacity unit) Pl (kW/l), the power to the mass unit Pm (kW/kg) and the
power to the surface of the pistons, PA (kW/dm2).
Pe P Pe
Pl  ; Pm  e ; PA  (1.27)
Vt mM   D2
i 102
4
where mM represents the mass of the engine.
The first two, Pl and Pm are used as criteria for the assessment of the
engines excellence and the third, PA is used for the assessment of the pistons
thermal loading.
For the rotational movement of the crankshaft power and torque are in
direct relation by the angular speed. Thus the effective torque has the
expressions:
  n 3 M n
Pe (kW)  M e (Nm)  (rad/s) 103  M e  10  Pe  e (1.28)
30 955
where, Me (daNm). By substitution of the effective power in the fundamental
formula one may obtain for a four-stroke engine:
M e  7.96  pe  i VS . (1.29)
The engine operating rate is steady state, if the effective torque Me
applied on one side of the coupling system equals the resisting torque Mr
existing on the other side of the coupling (fig. 1.16). If these two torques are
different, the engine operating rate becomes transitory (the angular speed
and the rotation engine speed are variable).
1. Introduction 29

Usually the theoretical studies upon the engines behavior are per-
formed for the stabilized régimes. In such a case (régime of constant
rotational speed) one can introduce some parameters characterizing effi-
ciency, performance and specific engines consumptions.
The mechanical efficiency represents, as for any mechanical system,
the ratio between the useful mechanical work and the consumed mechanical
work, or the effective power at the engine shaft to the indicated power
developed in the inside of the cylinders, also as the ratio between the
effective and indicated torques.
L L P Pe M
m  et  e  e   e (1.30)
Lit Li Pi Pe  Ppr M i

where Let = i L e is the total effective mechanical work.

The engines mechanical efficiency is not constant (fig. 1.17); it is
variable with the engine speed and load (expressed usually by the effective
power of the engine, where by the load coefficient χ).
ηm

0.9
0.8 χ =100 %
0.7 χ =75 %
0.6 χ =50 %
0.5
0.4 χ =25 %

1200 2400 3600 4800 6000 n(rpm)

3 6 9 12 15 WP (m / s )

Fig. 1.17. Mechanical efficiency variation for a spark ignition engine [2].

From the working cycle it can be developed the thermal efficiency,

like for any others thermal machines, defined as the ratio between the
indicated mechanical work and the heat released by combustion Qdep that is
the energy delivered during the operating cycle.

Li Qr  Q p
t   (1.31)
Qdep Qr
30 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

where Qr and Qp represent the heat received by the system due to the fuel
combustion and respectively, the heat lost to the combustion chamber
surroundings.
Because not the whole heat contained like chemical energy in fuel
dose is released by its combustion, one can introduce the combustion effi-
ciency as being the ratio between the released quantity of heat and the
available quantity of heat.
Qdep Qr
c   (1.32)
Qdis mc  Qi
where mc (kg/cycle·cylinder) represents the fuel dose introduced per cycle
and cylinder and Qi (kJ/kg) the lower heating value of the fuel.
With these two outputs the engine indicated efficiency becomes:
Li L Qdep
i   i   t  c (1.33)
Qdis Qdep Qdis

and the fuel brake conversion efficiency as:

Le L L
e   e  i  m  i  m  t  c . (1.34)
Qdis Li Qdis
This relation shows that to improving an internal combustion engine
efficiency, one has to act in the sense of increasing its mechanical and
thermal efficiency meaning that it is necessary to have more elevated
outputs, that the real cycle pressure diagram has to be closer to the ideal
cycle (or even fig. 1.14) and the combustion process has to be complete.
If one considers the real fuel consumption Cc (kg/h) that is a measur-
able parameter, of particularly interest for the engine operating costs, its
basis is often used to introduce the indicated specific fuel consumption or
the brake specific fuel consumption to specify the engine efficiency. These
specific consumptions are defined like ratios between the fuel consumption
and the indicated power respectively fuel consumption and effective power
and they are expressed in (g/kWh).
Cc C c
ci  103 ; ce  c 103 ; ce  i (1.35)
Pi Pe m
There are also some other relations between the engine outputs and its
corresponding specific consumptions:
1. Introduction 31

i  Li P  3600 i  Le Pe  3600 1 1
i   i ; e   ; ηi ~ ; ηe ~ (1.36)
Qdis ,t Cc  Qi Qdis ,t Cc  Qi ci ce
where Qdis,t is the available total heat for the whole engine. Thus it is obvious
that achieving the maximum efficiency value is similar to achieving the
minimum specific fuel consumption. In table 1.3 are presented the main
technical and practical data of the internal combustion engines. The sets of
output characteristic performance curves for two different engines, a spark
ignition respectively a compression ignition engine are presented in the
figures 1.18 and 1.19.
15 60

Pe (kW)
12 50
Me (daNm)

9 40

6 30

 e (%)
3 20

0 10
1400 1900 2400 2900 3400 3900 4400 4900 5400
Engine speed n (rpm)

Effective Torque Effective Power Brake Efficiency

Fig. 1.18. Characteristic curves for a spark ignition engine DACIA 106-00.

80 150
Pe (kW)

70 120
Me (daNm)

60 90

50 60
 e (%)

40 30

30 0
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
Engine speed n (rpm)

Effective Torque Effective Power Brake Efficiency

Fig. 1.19. Characteristic curves for a compression ignition engine

NOVEL D 2156 HM 81U.
32 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
1. Introduction 33

The engine operating rate of a reciprocating piston engine is usually

specified by three parameters: the engine speed, the engine load, and the
thermal condition. The engine speed n is directly measurable in revolutions
per minute. On a complex speed characteristic diagram, the engine load is
defined in relation to a certain power curve, which is named the continuous
power curve Pec (fig. 1.20).

Pe,max
Pe
Full Load (WOT)
Pec

Intermittent Loads

Partial Loads

Null Load

n
nmin n* nmax

Fig. 1.20. Complex diagram of the engine operating rate characteristics.

The values of this curve are the maximum power that can be main-
tained theoretically for indefinite time, without any shortcoming or damage
of any engine components and with normal performance losses and engine
wears according to the specifications.
The power domain in this case can be split in two parts: the domain of
the partial loads (light loads) limited at the lower part by the speed axis and
at the higher part by the continuous power curve and the region of intermit-
tent loads (heavy loads) limited at the bottom part by the same continuous
power curve and to the top part by the curve of the maximal reachable
powers. This splitting is possible for every engine speed n*. Using the
instantaneous effective power developed for each engine speed it can be
introduced a parameter characterizing the engine load, named the load
coefficient and defined as the ratio between the effective power and the
corresponding continuous power for that arbitrary engine speed:
 P 
 e  . (1.37)
 Pec n* ct
34 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Based on this load coefficient one can make engines classification in

the following manner:
Pe = 0 ; χ = 0 – null load ;
0 ≤ Pe ≤ Pec ; 0 ≤ χ ≤1 – part loads (light and high) ;
Pe = Pec ; χ = 1 – continuous load (χc) ;
Pec ≤ Pe ≤ Pe max ; 1 ≤ χ ≤ 1.1 … 1.15 – extra loads ;
Pe = Pe max ; χ ≈ 1 … 1.15 – full load (χt); (WOT – Wide Open Throttle).

Finally, one can express the engine load by one of the following
parameters: effective power Pe, effective torque Me, mean effective pressure
pe, or load coefficient χ. In order to performing the load adjustment and
control, two known methods can be used: one is the classical carburetion
method, or the fuel injection outside the cylinder applied for the spark
ignition engines and the other one is the injection method, fuel injection
inside the cylinder which is used mainly for the compression ignition
engines or for the novel spark engines with gasoline direct injection.
Characteristic to the first method is that it modifies simultaneously by
varying the throttle (butterfly) position both the air and fuel flow rates. In
the case of the second method, the injection, when it is applied for spark
ignition engines it adjusts only the fuel quantity according to the air flow
rate which is controlled by the throttle position and measured by a flow-
meter, having the goal to maintain nearly constant the air/fuel ratio. For the
compression ignition engines according to this second method it modifies
the fuel amount solely, while the air flow rate is maintained constant.
From this point of view one can say that the load control is theoretically
quantitative only for the spark ignition engines and qualitative only for the
compression ignition engines. However, for the real engines operation despite
the theoretically load control method used, some noticeable deviations from
the theoretical case are present. Globally both methods are mixed but with
quantitative strength for the spark ignition engines and with qualitative
strength for the compression ignition engines.
These principles of the loads control are illustrated in figure 1.21a for
the spark ignition engines and in figure 1.21b for the compression ignition
engines respectively, where the available air mass variation is compared
with the variation of the product between the minimal air mass required for
the complete combustion and the corresponding fuel mass.
1. Introduction 35

ma ma

  5  1,2
  1,0

χt χ χt χ

mcLmin mcLmin
a b

Fig. 1.21. Principles of the internal combustion engines load adjustment.

The engine thermal condition is normally specified by the tempera-

tures of the engine components and of the working fluids that operate inside
the engine block and cylinders. Obviously it is easier to measure the fluids
temperatures. In this sense, usually some average temperatures of different
engine fluids are measured as for example: the water cooling temperature
measured in the cylinder head; the oil temperature measured in the oil bath;
the air or the fresh mixture temperature measured in the intake manifold; the
exhaust gas temperature measured in the exhaust manifold. Sometimes these
temperatures are measured in different locations in order to have a better
overview on the heat transfer and on the heat lost to engine surroundings.
This information offers the required data to perform the engine energy
balance and the power distribution evaluation.