8 Safety factors, loads and pressures
To ensure acceptable compliance with these limit-states, their design by methods based on permissible working
various partial factors of safety are employed in limit-state
design. The particular values selected for these factors
depend on the accuracy known for the load or strength to
which the factor is being applied, the seriousness of the
consequences that might follow if excessive loading or stress
occurs, and so on. Some details of the various partial factors
of safety specified in BS8I 10 and CPI 10 and their applica-
tion are set out in Table I and discussed in Chapter 8. It
will be seen that at each limit-state considered, two partial
safety factors are involved. The characteristic loads are
multiplied by a partial safety factor for loads Yf to obtain
the design loads, thus enabling calculation of the bending
moments and shearing forces for which the member is to
be designed. Thus if the characteristic loads are multiplied
by the value of y1 corresponding to the ultimate limit-state,
the moments and forces subsequently determined will re-
present those occurring at failure, and the sections must be
designed accordingly. Similarly, if the value of y1 corres-
ponding to the limit-state of serviceability is used, the
moments and forces under service loads will be obtained.
In a similar manner, characteristic strengths of materials
used are divided by a partial safety factor for materials
Ym to obtain appropriate design strengths for each
material.
Although serviceability limit-state calculations to ensure
the avoidance of excessive cracking or deflection may be
undertaken, and suitable procedures are outlined to under-
take such a full analysis for every section would be too
time-consuming and arduous, as well as being
Therefore BS8 110 and CPI 10 specify certain limits relating
to bar spacing, slenderness etc. and, if these criteria are
not exceeded, more-detailed calculations are unnecessary.
Should a proposed design fall outside these tabulated
limiting values, however, the engineer may still be able to
show that his design meets the Code requirements regarding
serviceability by producing detailed calculations to validate
his claim.
Apart from the partial factor of safety for dead +
imposed + wind load, all the partial safety factors relating
to the serviceability limit-state are equal to unity. Thus the
calculation of bending moments and shearing forces by using
unfactored dead and imposed loads, as is undertaken with
modular-ratio and load-factor design, may conveniently be
thought of as an analysis under service loading, using
limiting permissible service stresses that have been determin-
ed by applying overall safety factors to the material strengths.
Although imprecise, this concept may be useful in appreciat-
ing the relationship between limit-state and other design
methods, especially as permissible-working-stress design is
likely to continue to be used for certain types of structures
and structural members (e.g. chimneys) for some time to
come, especially where the behaviour under service loading
is the determining factor. In view of the continuing usefulness
of permissible-working-stress design, which has been shown
by the experience of many years to result in the production
of safe and economical designs for widely diverse types of
structure, most of the design data given elsewhere in this
book, particularly in those chapters dealing with structures
other than building frames and similar components, are
related to the analysis of structures Lnder service loads and
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stresses.
Note When carrying out any calculation, it is most
important that the designer is absolutely clear as to the
condition he is investigating. This is of especial importance
when he is using values obtained from tables or graphs such
as those given in Part II of this book. For example, tabulated
values for the strength of a section at the ultimate limit-state
must never be used to satisfy the requirements obtained by
carrying out a serviceability analysis, i.e. by calculating
bending moments and shearing forces due to unfactored
characteristic loads.
2.2 CHARACTERISTIC LOADS
The loads acting on a structure are permanent (or dead)
loads and transient (or imposed or live) loads. As explained
above, a design load is calculated by multiplying the
characteristic load by the appropriate partial factor of safety
for loads According to the Code Handbook a character-
istic load is, by definition, 'that value of load which has an
accepted probability of its not being exceeded during the
life of the structure' and ideally should be evaluated from
the mean load with a standard deviation from this value.
BS8I 10 states that for design purposes the loads set out in
BS6399: Part 1and CP3: Chapter V: Part 2 may be
considered as characteristic dead, imposed and wind loads.
Thus the values given in Tables 2—8 may be considered
to be characteristic loads for the purposes of limit-state
calculations.
In the case of wind loading, in CP3: Chapter V: Part 2 a
multiplying factor S3 has been incorporated in the express-
ion used to determine the characteristic wind load to
take account of the probability of the basic wind speed being
exceeded during the life of the structure.
2.3 DEAD LOADS
Dead loads include the weights of the structure itself and
any permanent fixtures, partitions, finishes, superstructures
and so on. Data for calculating dead loads are given in
Tables 2,3 and 4: reference should also be made to the notes
relating to dead loads given in section 9.1.
2.4 IMPOSED LOADS
Imposed (or transient or live) loads include any external
loads imposed upon the structure when it is serving its
normal purpose, and include the weight of stored materials,
furniture and movable equipment, cranes, vehicles, snow,
wind and people. The accurate assessment of the actual and
probable loads is an important factor in the production of
economical and efficient structures. Some imposed loads,
such as the pressures and weights due to contained liquids,
can be determined exactly; less definite, but capable of being
calculated with reasonable accuracy, are the pressures of
retained granular materials. Other loads, such as those on
floors, roofs and bridges, are generally specified at character-
istic values. Wind forces are much less definite, and marine
forces are among the least determinable.