MATHEMATICS I

1
 CHAPTER I

FUNCTIONS

Definition 1: The independent variable x is defined by a set X of its values. If to each value
of the independent x  X there corresponds one definite value of another variable y, then y is
called the function of x with a domain X or, in functional notation, y  yx  or y  f x  ,
and so forth. The set of value of the function y x  is called the range of the given function.
Remark: In further problems we shall use denotation D f for domain of function and
denotation R f for range of function

-A function of a variable x is a rule that describes how a value of the variable x is

manipulated to generate a value of the variable y.
-Different outputs are associated with different inputs-the function is said to be single valued
because for a given input there is only one output.

Example 1: Consider the function y  x 3 . This function can be represented by following

diagram

f 1.1

The box labelled f represents the function. The notation ^3 inside the box means raising to
the power 3 and describes the rule-what the set of instructions will do when activated. the
diagram tells you that the input number x is processed by the function f to produce the output
number y  f x  . So that y  f x  is the result of function f acting on x.

2
- Not all rules are functions (see the next example)

Example 2: The equation y   x expresses the rule “take the positive and negative square
roots of the value of x”
This rule is not a function because to each value of the input x  0 there are two different
values of output y (see the next figure)

2
y-axis

Series1
0
Series2
0 10 20 30 40
-2

-4

-6

-8
x-axis

f 1.2
We can see that the vertical line through x=10 intersects the graph of the equation at 2 points,
so for x=10 there are 2 corresponding values of y ( 3,16 and -3,16)
It is the same situation with every vertical line through x-axis for x>0.

So, we can conclude that a graph of equation does not represent a graph of function if there
exists vertical line through x-axis that intersects the graph of equation at more than one point.

Definition: A given function f : X  Y is “one-to-one” (alt. “1-1”, or “injective”) if, and

only if, distinct x-values are matched up with distinct y-values, i.e.

f : X  Y is 1-1   x1 , x2 , x1  x2  f  x1   f  x2 

that is (in contrapositive form)

f : X  Y is 1-1   x1 , x2 , f  x1   f  x2   x1  x2

In the language of arrow diagrams:

f : X  Y is 1-1 if, and only if, every output value y is the destination point of at most one
arrow.

3
Definition: A given function f : X  Y is “onto” (or “surjective”) if, and only if: f  X   Y ,
i.e.
y  Y x  X s.t. y  f  x 

In the language of arrow diagrams, f : X  Y is “onto” if, and only if, every output value is
the destination point of at least one arrow.

Definition: A given function f : X  Y is a bijection if, and only if, f is both 1-1 and
onto.
Thus, f is not a bijection if, and only if, f is not 1-1, or f is not onto.

1. Which of the following equations expresses a rule that is a function:

a) y  100x  200
b) y  x 2  7 x  3
c) y  3 x 2  1
d) y  5 x  x 3
x3  1
e) y  
2x

Solution:
a) y  100x  200 expresses a rule that is a function because to each value of x there is only
one value of y (f 1.3).

b) y  x 2  7 x  3 expresses a rule that is a function because to each value of x there

is only one value of y ( f 1.4 ).

c) y  3 x 2  1 expresses a rule that is a function because to each value of x there is only one
value of y ( f 1.5 ).

d) y  5 x  x 3 expresses a rule that is not a function (f 1.6).

x3  1
e) y   expresses a rule that is not a function (f 1.7).
2x

4
 400

200

0
-10 -5 0 5 10
y-axis

-200 Series1

-400

-600

-800
x-axis

f 1.3

15

10

5
y-axis

0 Series1
-5 0 5 10
-5

-10

-15
x-axis

f 1.4

3,5

2,5

2
y-axis

Series1
1,5

0,5

0
-10 -5 0 5 10
x-axis

f 1.5

5
 100

80

60

40
y-axis

Series1

20 Series2

0
0 5 10 15
-20

-40
x-axis

f 1.6

15

10

5
y-axis

Series1
0
Series2
-10 -5 0 5 10
-5

-10

-15
x-axis

f 1.7

2. Do either of these arrow diagrams define 1-1 functions? Explain.

(a) (b)

(a) F is 1-1 function.

(b) G is not 1-1 function. Counterexample: By direct inspection of G’s arrows, we see:
a, c  X : a  c  G  a   G  c  .

6
3. Show that f :  , f  x   x 2 is not 1-1.
Solution.
Counterexample: Since 1  1 and f  1  f 1  1 , it follows that f is not 1-1.

4. Show that g :  , g  x   7 x  3 is 1-1.

Solution.
g  x1   g  x2   7 x1  3  7 x2  3  7 x1  7 x2  x1  x2 . So, by definition, it follows that g
is 1-1 function.

5. Do either of these two arrow diagrams define onto functions? Explain.

Solution. F is not onto. Counterexample: By direct inspection of F’s arrow diagram, we see:
b  Y  b  F  x  , x  X

G is onto by definition.

6. Show that f :  , f  x   x 2 is not onto.

Solution. Counterexample: Let y0  1 . Then, x 2  1 has no real solution. Thus, f is not
onto.

7. Show that g :  , g  x   7 x  3 is onto.

y3
Solution. Let y  . Suppose 7 x  3  y ; Then, 7 x  y  3 ; Thus, x  ;
7
y3
And, y   x  . Thus, g is onto.
7

8. Show that g :  , g  x   7 x  3 is a bijection.

Solution. From the problems 4 and 7, we know that g  x  is 1-1 and onto. Thus, f is a
bijection.

7
9. Show that f :  , f  x   x 2 is not a bijection.
Solution. We know (Problem 6) f  x  is not onto. Thus, f  x  is not a bijection.

10. Find the domain of the following functions:

1
a) y  2
x 4
x5
b) y 
2x  7
c) y  x 2  5 x  1
d) y   x 2  4 x  4
1
e) y  0  x  10
x 1
1
f) y  0 x5
x  1x  3x  2
Solution:

a) Because for every x, x 2  4  4  0 , it follows that y has real value for all x  R (dividing
by x 2  4 is defined). So, D f   ,   .

b) y has real values if and only if 2x  7  0 which is equivalent to x  3,5 . So, the domain
of the given function is D f  R \ 3,5 or D f   , 3.5  3.5,  .

c) x 2  5x  1 is defined if and only if x 2  5 x  1  0 . One of the ways of solving this

inequality is the following:
2 2
 5 29  5 29
x  5x  1  0   x   
2
 0  x   
 2 4  2 4
 5 29  29  5
 x    x   x  0,195
 2 2  2 
 (to 3 dp)
5
x    29 x   29  5  x   5,195
 2 2  2
So the domain of the function is D f   ,  5.195  0.195,  ( to 3 dp)

We can also solve the inequality above using the graph of the function y  x 2  5 x  1
Namely
y  0  x 2  5x  1  0 
 5  5 2  4  1   1  5  29
 x1, 2   x1, 2   x1  5.195; x 2  0.195
2 1 2
So, the graph of the function intersects the x-axis at the points (-5.195, 0), (0, 195).

8
 160
140
120
100
y-axis

80
Series1
60
40
20
0
-20 -10 -20 0 10 20

x-axis

f 1.8
From the graph we can conclude that y  0 (the graph is above or on the x-axis) from   to
first intersection (x=-5,195) and from second intersection (x=0,195) to  , written in
mathematical language x   ,  5.195  0.195,  (The solution we have already found).

d) y has real values if and only if  x 2  4 x  4  0 .This is equivalent to   x  2   0

2

The last inequality holds if and only if x=2. So, D f  {2}.

e) The domain of the function is the set of all numbers in 0,10 for which x  1  0 (operation
is defined for nonnegative numbers and dividing by 0 is not possible). It follows that
D f  1,10 .

f) Domain of the function is the set of all numbers in 0, 5 for which y has real values.
Because dividing by 0 is not defined, it follows that: D f  0, 5\ 2,3  0, 2  2, 3  3, 5
(  1 0, 5 ).

11. Find the domain of the following functions:

1
a) y   2 x
x 1
b) y  x  1  6  x
1
c) y 
x x

Solution:
a) y has real values if x  1  0 and 2  x  0 .This is equivalent to x  2 and x  1 .It
follows that D f   , 2 \ 
1   ,1  1, 2.

b) Given function is defined for x  1  0 and 6  x  0 which implies x  1 and x  6 . So,

D f   , 6  1,   1, 6

9
c) for x  0 , x  x and x  x  0 . So, the function for x  0 is not defined because
dividing by 0 is not defined.
for x  0 , x   x and x  x   x  x  2 x  0 . The function for x  0 is defined
because  2 x is defined and  2 x  0 . So D f   ,0 .

12. Find the domain and the range of the following functions:
a) y  7 x  3 0  x  9
b) y  x 4  2
2
c) y   3 2  x  10
x7
1
d) y  1 x  7
x  3x  5
Solution:
a) The domain is given as 0  x  9 and the range as  60  x  3 ( R f   60, 3 ) because
-60 and 3 are the minimum and maximum values of y over the domain (y-values range
from y=3 when x=0 and decrease to y=-60 when x=9). (f 1.9)

10

0
0 5 10
-10

-20
y-axis

-30 Series1

-40

-50

-60

-70
x-axis

f 1.9
b) The domain is not given and is assumed to consist of all finite values of x, that is
D f   ,   . The y-values range from y=2 when x=0 and increase towards  as x   ,
that is R f  2,   . (f 1.10)

12000

10000

8000
y-axis

6000 Series1

4000

2000

0
-20 -10 0 10 20
x-axis

f 1.10

10
c) D f  2, 7   7,10  (Given function has vertical asymptote in x=7)
To the left of the asymptote ( 2  x  7 ) the y-values range from y=2,6 when x=2 and
decrease towards   as x  7 . To the right of the asymptote ( 7  x  10 ) the y-values
range from infinitely large and positive to 3,667 when x=10. So, R f   , 2.6  3.667,  .
(f 1.11)

30
25
20
15
10
y-axis

5 Series1
0
-5 0 5 10 15

-10
-15
-20
x-axis

f 1.11

d) D f  1, 3  3, 5  5, 7 .

Given function has two vertical asymptotes, in x=3 and x=5. To the left of the asymptote
x  3 ( 1  x  3 ) the y-values range from y=0,125 when x=1 and increase towards  as
x  3 . To the right of the asymptote x=5 5  x  7 the y-values range from infinitely large
and positive to 0,125 when x=7. To the right of the asymptote x  3 the y-values range from
infinitely large and negative to -1 when x=4 and as x approaches the value 5 from the left, y-
values decrease towards   . So we conclude that R f   ,  1  0.125,  . (f 1.12)

2
y-axis

0 Series1
0 2 4 6 8
-2

-4

-6
x-axis

f 1.12

11
Inverses of functions; Graphs of inverses

-The process of generating the output of a function is assumed to be reversible so that what
has been constructed can be de-constructed. The effect can be described by reversing the flow
of information through the diagram so that, for example, if:

y  f x   x  4

f 1.13

the flow is reversed by making the output the input and retrieving the original input as the
new output:

f 1.14

f 1.15

-The rule that describes the reversed process is called the inverse of the function which is
labelled as either f 1 or arcf .

Inverse of the function f is function if and only if f is a bijection.

-The notation f 1 is very commonly used but care must be taken to remember that -1 does
not mean that it is in any way related to the reciprocal of f.

-addition and subtruction are inverses of each other

- multiplication and division are inverses of each other
- raising to the power k and raising to a power 1 k are inverses of each other if k is odd
number, otherwise inverse of y  x k is the function y   x1 k

12
13. Find f 1
x  in each of the following cases:
a) f  x   b) f  x   x 5
3x
2
Draw the diagram, reverse the flow and find the inverse of the function.

Solution:
a)

f 1.16
f 1  x   x
2
3

b)

f 1.17
f 1
x   x 15

-The diagram of the inverse of a function can be drawn by reversing the flow of information
and this is the same as interchanging the contents of each ordered pair generated by the
function. As a result, when the ordered pairs generated by the inverse of a function are
plotted, the graph takes up the shape of the original function but reflected in the line y  x .

13
14. Draw each of the following functions and their inverses.Is the inverse a function?
a) y  x 4
b) y  5 x

c) y  x5

Solution:

a) y  x 4 has an inverse y   x1 4 . The inverse of the function is not single valued so it

cannot be a function (y is not a bijection). (f 1.18)

20

15

10

5
y-axis

Series1
0
-20 -10 0 10 20
-5

-10

-15
x-axis

f 1.18

1
b) y  5 x has an inverse y   x . This rule express a function because to each value of x,
5
there is only one value of y ( y  5 x is a bijection). ( f 1.19)

15

10

5
y-axis

0 Series1
-20 -10 0 10 20
-5

-10

-15
x-axis

f 1.19

14
c) y  x 5 has an inverse y  x 2 5 and it does express a function since y  x 5 is a
bijection. (1.20)

60

50

40
y-axis

30 Series1

20

10

0
0 20 40 60
x-axis

f 1.20

Composition-‘function of a functions’

Chains of functions can be built up where the output from one function forms the input to the
next function in the chain.

Let a and b are functions with domains D a and Db respectivelly such that Ra  Db ( Ra -
range of the function a ) .
Composition of the functions a and b (notation: b  a ) is a function defined on D a with
b  ax   bax  ( b of a of x ) (f 1.21)

f 1.21
Notice that the functions a and b are written algebraically in the reverse order from the
order in which they are given in the diagram. This is because in the diagram the input to the
composition enters on the left, whereas algebraically the input is placed to the right. The
composition is described as being a function of a function.

-The discussion above implies definition of composition of more than two functions.
Namely

15
If f1 , f 2 ,..., f n are functions with domains D1 , D2 ,..., Dn and ranges R1 , R2 ,..., Rn
respectivelly such that Ri 1  Di , i  2, 3,..., n  1 , then composition of the functions
f1 , f 2 ,..., f n ( f n  f n1  ....  f1 ) is a function defined on D1 with
f n  f n 1  ....  f1 x   f n  f n 1  f n2 ... f 2  f1 x  .

15. Given that a x   x  3, b x  

x
, find the functions f and g where:
4
a) f x  bax 
b) g x   abx 

Solution:
a)

f 1.22
x3
f x  
4
b)

f 1.23
g x  
x
3
4

From this problem we can see that the order of composition matters( abx   bax  )

16. Given that ax   3x, bx   x 3 , cx   x  7 and d  x   x find:

a) f x  bcad x 
b) g x  aaccx
c) hx   abax 
Solution:
a)

f 1.24

f x   3 x  7 
3

16
b)

f 1.25
g x   9 x  126

c)

f 1.26
hx   87x 3

How about working the other way? Given the expression f x  for the output from a
composition of functions, how do you decompose it into its component functions?

17. Given the functions

a) f x   5x  1
b) g x  2x  7  4
2

c) h x    x  4 
6

Decompose f , g and h into its component functions.

Solution:
a) f x  bax  , where ax  5x; bx  x  1 (f 1.27)

f 1.27

b) g x   d cbax  where ax   2 x; bx   x  7; cx   x 2 ; d x   x  4 (f 1.28)

f 1.28

17
c) In most of the cases, decomposition of functions is not unique. Some of the
decompositions for the function hx  are following:
- hx   bax  where ax   x  4; bx   x 6 (f 1.29)
- hx   cbax  where ax   x  4; bx   x 3 ; cx   x 2 (f 1.30)
- hx   cbax  where ax   x  4; bx   x 2 ; cx   x 3 (f 1.31)

f 1.29

f 1.30

f 1.31

Inverses of compositions

As has been stated before, the diagram of the inverse of a function can be drawn as the
function with the information flowing through it in the reverse direction. The diagram permits
the inverse of a composition of a function to be found.

18. Decompose the function into its component functions and find its inverse. Is the the
inverse a function?
a) f x   x  5
3

b) g x   3x  5
2

5
x 
c) hx     1  9
2 
d) k  x   x 3  5  1

18
Solution:

a) f x   b  ax  where ax   x  5; bx   x 3 (f 1.32)

f 1.32

Notice that a 1 x   x  5; b 1  x1 3

By reversing the flow of information, we get

f 1.33

From the diagram 1.33 we can conclude f 1 x   a 1 b 1 x   x1 3  5 . The inverse is a

function because it is single valued.
Notice the reversal of the order of the components.

In general case,if for given functions a1 , a 2 ,..., a n composition a1  a2  ...  an is defined,

then a1  a2  ...  an   an  an1  ...  a2  a1 .
1 1 1 1 1

b) g x  cbax  where ax   3x; bx   x  5; cx   x 2

The inverse is g 1 x   a 1 b 1 c 1 x 
 x 5
Because a 1  x   ; b  x   x  5; c 1 x    x , we have g 1  x  
x 1
. The inverse is
3 3
not a function, for each value of x there are two values of y.

c) hx  d cbax where ax   ; b x   x  1; cx   x 5 ; d  x   x  9

x
2
Since a x   2 x; b x   x  1; c x   x1 5 ; d 1 x   x  9 , it follows that
1 1 1

    
h 1 x  a 1 b 1 c 1 d 1 x  2 x  9  1  2x  9  2 .
15
 15

The inverse is a function (f 1.34)

1,6
1,4
1,2
1
0,8 Series1
y

0,6
0,4
0,2
0
-10 -5 0 5 10
x

f 1.34

19
d) k  x   x 3  5  1
k x  d cbax where ax  x 3 ; bx  x  5; cx  x ; d x  x  1
Since a 1 x   x1 3 ; b 1 x   x  5; c 1 x   x 2 ; d 1 x   x  1 , it follows that
  
k 1 x   a 1 b 1 c 1 d 1 x   x  1  5   2

13
.
Notice that the domain of k x  is 3 5  x   and the range is 1  x   . So, inverse is a
function (because it is single valued) over domain 1  x   .

Basic functions
-identity function y  x
3

0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1

-2

-3

-constant function y  C
3

0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1

-2

-3

Note: the slope of the graph of any constant function is 0.

Basic polynomial functions

8
8
3
6
6
4

2 2 4

0 2
-2 -1 0 1 2
-2
1 0
-4
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-6 -2

0 -8 -4
-2 -1 0 1 2
yx 2
yx 3 quartic polynomial

20
 Root functions
2 2

1,5 1

1 0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

0,5 -1

-2
0
0 1
y x2 3
y3 x

Shifts
The graph of the function y  f ( x  h)  k is the graph of the function f(x) shifted h units in
x-direction and k units in y-direction.

Polynomial functions
A polynomial function of degree n has the form
y  an x n  an1 x n1  ...  a1 x  a0
where an  0 and n is an integer, n  0.
-A linear function is a polynomial function of degree 1.
-A quadratic function is a polynomial function of degree 2.

Rational functions

A rational function is a function of the form

f ( x)
y with g ( x)  0
g ( x)
where f ( x) and g ( x) are both polynomials. Its domain is the set of all real numbers for
which g x   0 .
3

2 y  1/ x
1

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-1

-2

-3

21
Asymptotes
Vertical asymptote
f ( x)
The graph of the function y  has a vertical asymptote at x = c if g(c)=0 and f(c)  0.
g ( x)

Horizontal asymptote
f ( x) an x n  an 1 x n 1  ...  a1 x  a0
Consider the rational function y  
g ( x) bm x m  bm 1 x m 1  ...  b1 x  b0
1. If n < m (that is, if the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator),
a horizontal asymptote occurs at y = 0 (the x-axis).
2. If n = m (that is, if the degree of the numerator is equal to that of the denominator), a
a
horizontal asymptote occurs at y  n (the ratio of the leading coefficients).
bm
3. If n > m (that is, if the degree of the numerator is greater than that of the denominator),
there is no horizontal asymptote.

Piecewise defined functions

 x if x0
x  (The absolute value function)
 x if x0

3 f ( x)  x
2

0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

x2 1
1. If F x   , find the following:
x
(a) F  1 / 3 (b) F 10 (c) F 0,001 (d) Is F 0 defined?
Solution:

(a) F  1 / 3 
 1 / 32  1   8 / 9  8  3  8 ;
(b) F 10  9,9 ;
 1/ 3  1 / 3 9 1 3
102  1 99
(b) F 10    9,9
10 10
0,0012  1 0,000001 1  0,999999
(c) F 0,001     999,999 ;
0,001 0,001 0,001
(d) F 0 is not defined.

22
2. If H x   x  1 , find the following.
(a) H  1 (b) H 1 (c) H 0 (d) H  x   H x  ?
Solution:
(a) H  1   1  1   2  2 ; (b) H 1  1  1  0  0 ; (c) H 0  0  1   1  1
(d) Since (a) and (b). it follows that in general H  x   H x  .

 4  2x if x  0
3. If k x    , find the following.
 x  4 if 0  x  4

(a) k  0,1 ; (b) k 0,1 ; (c) k 3,9 ; (d) k 4,1 .

Solution:
(a) k  0,1  4  2 0,1  4,2 ; (b) k 0,1  0,1  4  3,9 ; (c) k 3,9  3,9  4  0,1
(d) k 4,1 is not defined.

 2 if x  0

4. If k  x    x  4 if 0  x  1 , find the following.
 1  x if x  1

(a) k  5 ; (b) k 0 ; (c) k 1 ; (d) k  0,001 .
Solution:
(a) k  5  2 ; (b) k 0  0  4  4 ; (c) k 1  1  1  0 ; (d) k  0,001  2 .

23
Quadratic functions-parabolas
The general equation of a quadratic function is
y  f ( x)  ax2  bx  c
where a, b, and c are real numbers and a  0.
The graph of a quadratic has a distinctive shape called a parabola.

y  ax 2 a0
the parabolaopens upward

y  ax 2 a0
the parabolaopens downward

The vertex, where the parabola turns, is a minimum point if a > 0 and a maximum point if
a < 0.
The vertical line through the vertex of a parabola is axis of symmetry.

 b  b 
The quadratic function y  f ( x)  ax2  bx  c has its vertex at   , f     .
 2a  2a  

b
The optimum value (either minimum or maximum) of the function occurs at  and it is
2a
 b 
f   .
 2a 

24
Zeros of quadratic functions
The zeros (the x – intercepts) of quadratic function y  f ( x)  ax2  bx  c are the solutions of
the quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c  0 .

Graphs of quadratic functions

y  ax 2  bx  c
a > 0 parabola opens upward; vertex is a minimum point.
a < 0 parabola opens downward; vertex is a maximum point.
b  b 
Coordinates of vertex: x   , y f  .
2a  2a 
b
Axis of symmetry equation: x   .
2a

 b  b 2  4ac
x - intercepts or zeros (if real): x  .
2a
y – intercept: If x = 0 then y = c.

Using these informations, we can sketch the graph of a parabola.

25
1. For the quadratic functions
1 2
(a) y  x x (b) y  6  4 x  2 x 2 (c) y  x 2  2 x  3
2
(i) find the vertex of the graph of the equation;
(ii) determine if the vertix is a maximum or minimum point;
(iii) determine what value of x gives the optimal value of the function;
(iv) determine the optimal (maximum or minimum value of the function.
Solution:
1
(a) a  ; b  1; c  1
2
 b  b   1
(i) The vertex is   , f     i.e.   1,   ;
 2a  2a    2
1
(ii) The vertix is a minimum point since a   0 ;
2
(iii) x  1;
1
(iv) y min   .
2

(b) a  2; b  4; c  6

(i) The vertex is  1, 8 ;
(ii) The vertix is a maximum point since a  2  0 ;
(iii) x  1;
(iv) y max  8 .

(c) a  1; b  2; c  3
 b  b 
(i) The vertex is   , f     i.e.  1,  4 ;
 2a  2a  
(ii) The vertix is a minimum point since a  1  0 ;
(iii) x  1;
(iv) y min  4 .

26
2. For the quadratic functions
1 2
(a) y  x  x (b) y  x 2  6 x  9 (c) x 2  x  2 y  5
4
Find the vertex of the graph of the equation; Determine if the vertix is a maximum or
minimum point and find the coordinates of this point; Find the zeros, if any exist and sketch
the graph of the function.
Solution:
1 2 1
(a) y  x  x , a   ; b  1; c  0
4 4
The vertex is the point V 2,1 . It is a maximum point since a  
1
 0.
4
x  0  x 2  4 x  0  x x  4   0  x  0  x  4 .
1 2
y 0  x
4
The zeros are x  0  x  4 .

(b) y  x 2  6 x  9 , a  1; b  6; c  9
The vertex is the point V 3, 0. It is a minimum point since a  1  0 .
y  0  x 2  6x  9  0  x  3  0  x  3 .
2

The zero is x  3 .

27
 1 1 5 1 1 5
(c) x 2  x  2 y  5  y   x 2  x  (a   ; b   ; c  )
2 2 2 2 2 2
 1 21  1
The vertex is the point V   ,  . It is a maximum point since a    0 .
 2 8  2
 1  21
y  0  x 2  x  5  0  x1 / 2  .
2
 1  21  1  21
The zeros are x1  ; x2  .
2 2

3. The daily profit from the sale of a product is given by P  16x  0,1x 2  100 dolars. What
level of production maximizes the profit and what is the maximum possible profit?
Solution:
The profit function is a quadratic function with a=-0,1 < 0, thus the graph is parabola that
opens downward. The vertex is maximum point. The coordinates of the vertex are 80, 540 .

Therefore, the maximum profit is $540 when 80 units are sold.

28
4. If 100 feet of fence is used to enclose a rectangular yard, then the resulting area is given by
A  x50  x 
where x feet is the width of the rectangle and 50  x feet is the length. Graph this equation
and determine the length and width that give maximum area.
Solution:

A  x50  x    x 2  50x a  1, b  50, c  0

The Area function is a quadratic function with a < 0, thus the graph is parabola that opens
downward. The vertex is maximum point.
b 50
The coordinates of the vertex are x     25 ; y  A(25)  252  625 .
2a 2   1
The maximum area is obtained if the width and the length are equal to 25 feet (square yard).

29
Exponential functions
If a is real number with a  0 and a  1 , then the function
f ( x)  a x
is an exponential function with base a.

Graph of exponential growth functions

The domain is the set of all real numbers and the range is y > 0. The horizontal asymptote is
x-axis (negative half).

Graph of y  e x
A special function that occurs frequently in many sciences is y  e x , e is a fixed irrational
number (approximately e = 2.718282…).
50

40

30

20

10

0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

30
Graph of exponential decay functions

The domain is the set of all real numbers and the range is y > 0. The horizontal asymptote is
x-axis (positive half).

1. Graph each function.

(a) y  8 x (b) y  3 2 x (c) y  3 x 1 (d) y  2  e x (e) y  32 x
Solution:
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

31
(e)

Logarithmic functions
Logarithmic function and graphs
For a > 0 and a  1, the logarithmic function
y  loga x (logarithmic form)
has domain x > 0, base a, and is defined by
a y  x (exponential form)

Common and natural logarithms

y  log x In Excel we write =LOG (number)

y  ln x In Excel we write =LN (number)
y  loga x In Excel we write =LOG (number; base)

32
Properties of logarithms
Logarithmic function  y  loga x
Exponential function  y  a x (a  0, a  1)
-The connection between logarithmic and exponential function is that x and y have been
interchanged from one function to the other.

In general we say that y  f x  and y  g x  are inverse functions if, whenever the pair
a, b satisfies y  f x , then the pair b, a  satisfies y  g x . Furthemore, because the
values of the x  and y  coordinates are interchanged for inverse functions, their graphs
are reflections of each other about the line y  x .
Properties of logarithms
1) If a > 0, a  1, then log a a x  x , for any real number of x.

2) If a > 0, a  1, then a loga x  x , for any positive real number of x.

3) If a > 0, a  1, and M and N positive real numbers, then
loga ( MN )  loga M  loga N

4) If a > 0, a  1, and M and N positive real numbers, then

loga ( M / N )  loga M  log a N

5) If a > 0, a  1, and M is a positive real number and N is any real number, then
 
loga M N  N loga M

1. Write each equation in exponential form.

1 1
(a) 4  log2 16 (b)  log 4 2 (c)  2  log3  
2 9
Solution:
1 1 1
(a) 4  log2 16  2 4  16 ; (b)  log 4 2  41 / 2  2 ; (c)  2  log3    3  2  .
2 9 9

2. Solve for x by writing the equation in exponential form

(c) log3 7  x   3
1
(a) log4 x  2 (b) log8 x  
3
Solution:
(a) log4 x  2  x  4 2  x  1 / 16 ;
1
(b) log8 x    x  8 1 / 3  1 / 2 ;
3
(c) log3 7  x  3  7  x  33  x  7  27  x  20 .

33
3. Write each equation in logarithmic form
(a) 2 5  32 (b) 4 1  1 / 4 (c) 91 / 2  3
Solution:
1 1
(a) 2 5  32  5  log2 32 ; (b) 4 1  1 / 4   1  log 4 ; (c) 91 / 2  3   log9 3 .
4 2

4. Graph each equation

(a) y  log3 x (b) y  log2  x 
Solution:
(a) (b)

5. If f x  ln x , find f e x  .
Solution: f e x   ln e x  x .

6. If f x   10 x , find f log 2 .
Solution: f log 2  10log 2  2 .

7. Evaluate each logarithm by using properties of logarithms and the following facts.
loga x  3,1 log a y  1,8 loga z  2,7
z
(a) log a  xy  (b) loga   (c) log a x 4 (d) loga 3 z
 y
Solution:
(a) loga xy  loga x  loga y  3,1  1,8  4,9 ;
z
(b) log a    log a z  log a y  2,7  1,8  0,9 ;
 y
(c) loga x 4  4 loga x  4  3,1  12,4
1 1
(d) log a 3 z  log a z 1 / 3  log a z   2,7  0,9 .
3 3

34
8. Write each expression as the sum or difference of two logarithmic functions containing no
exponents

(a) log
 x 
 x 1
 (b) lnx  14 x  5 
(c) log7 x3 x  4  x2 
(d) log5  
 x4
Solution:
 x 
(a) log   log x  log x  1 ;
 x 1
(b) lnx  14 x  5  lnx  1  ln4 x  5 ;
 
(c) log7 x3 x  4  log7 x  log7 3 x  4  log7 x  log7 x  4 ;
1
3
 x 2

  log5 x 2  log5 x  4  2 log5 x  log5 x  4 .
1
(d) log5 
 x4 2

9. Use the properties of logarithms to write each expression as a single logarithm.

(b) log3 x  1  log3 x  1 (c) log5  x  1  log5 x
1
(a) ln x  ln y
2
Solution:
x
(a) ln x  ln y  ln ;
y
 
(b) log3 x  1  log3 x  1  log3 x  1x  1  log3 x 2  1 ;

(c) log5 x  1  log5 x  log5  x  1  log5 x  log5 x x  1 .

1
2

Change-of-base formula
loga x
If a  1, b  1, a  0, b  0, then logb x 
loga b
For the purpose of calculations, we can convert logarithms to Common logarithms and
log x ln x
Natural logarithms i.e. logb x  and logb x  .
log b ln b

10. Using the change-of-base formula and properties of the logarithms to evaluate
(a) log2 17 (b) log5 0,78 (c) log3 12 (d) log8 0,15
Solution:
log17 1,230449
(a) log2 17    4,087463;
log 2 0,30103
log 0,78  0,107905
(b) log5 0,78    0,154377;
log 5 0,69897

35
 log12 2 log 2  log 3 log 2 0,30103
(c) log3 12   2 1  2  1  2,26186;
log 3 log 3 log 3 0,477121
log15 log100 log3  5  log10 2
(d) log8 0,15  log8 15 / 100  log8 15  log8 100   
log 8 log 8 log 2 3
log 3  log 5  2 log10 0,477121 0,69897  2  0,823909
    0,912322.
3 log 2 3  0,30103 0,90309

Solving exponential equations using logarithmic properties

Exponential equation is a equation where the variables appears in the exponent.
Procedure:
i) Isolate the exponential by rewriting the equation with a base raised to a power on one side.
ii) Take the logarithm (either base e or base 10) of both sides.
iii) Use a property of logarithms to remove the variable from the exponent.
iv) Solve for the variable.

1. Solve each equation, giving the answer correct to 3 decimal places

(a) 7 2 x  823,543 (b) 0,13P  P  2  x (c) 2500  600e 0, 05 x
60
(d) 500  600  600e 0, 4 x (e) 55 
1  5e 0,6 x

Solution:
(a)
ln 823,543 6,714
7 2 x  823,543  ln 7 2 x  ln 823,543  2 x ln 7  ln 823,543  x    1,725
2 ln 7 3,892

ln 0,13 2,040
(b) 0,13P  P  2  x  2  x  0,13   x ln 2  ln 0,13  x     2,944 ;
ln 2 0,693
(c)
ln25 / 6
 0,05x  ln25 / 6  x 
2500
2500  600e 0, 05 x  e 0,05 x   x  28,542 ;
600 0,05
ln(1 / 6)
(d) 500  600  600e 0, 4 x  600e 0, 4 x  100  e 0, 4 x  1 / 6  x    4,479 .
0,4

36
2. The purchasing power P (in dollars) of an annual amount A dollars after t years of 5%
inflation decays according to
P  Ae 0, 05t
(a) How long will it be before a pension of $60000 per year has a purchasing power of
$30000.
(b) How much pension A would be needed so that the purchasing power P is $50000 after
15 years?
Solution:
(a) A =60000; P =30000; t  ?
ln( P / A) ln30000/ 60000 ln1 / 2 ln1  ln 2 ln 2
P  Ae 0,05t  t        13,863
0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05
years.
(b) P =50000; t  15 ; A =?
P  Ae 0,05t  A  P  e 0,05t  50000 e 0,0515  50000 e 0,75  105850 dollars.

3. Suppose that the length x (in centimeters) of an individual of a certain species of fish is
given by
x  50  40e 0,05t
where t is its age in months.
(a) Find the length after 1 year.
(b) How long (to the nearest month) will it be until the length is 45 cm?
Solution:
(a) t  12
x12  50  40e 0,0512  50  40e 0,6  28,05
The length after 1 year is approximately 28 cm.
(b)
x  45  50  40e 0,05t  45  40e 0,05t  5  e 0,05t  8  0,05t  3 ln 2  t  42
It takes approximately 42 months.

37
Trigonometric functions

Start with the circle generated by the end point A

of a straight line OA of unit length rotating anticlockwise about the end O

f 2.1

For angles  where 0 <  < /2 radians we have:

AB
sin    AB since OA=1
OA
That is, the value of the trigonometric ratio sin is equal to the height of A above B (f 2.1).

The sine function with output sin

is now defined as the height of A above B for any angle  0     (f 2.2).

f 2.2

Notice that when A is bellow B the height is negative.

38
The definition of the sine function can be further extended by taking into account negative
angles, which represent a clockwise rotation of the line OA giving the complete graph of the
sine function as in the diagram below (f 2.3):

f 2.3
As you can see from this diagram, the value of sin ranges from +1 to -1 depending upon
the value of  .

For angles  where 0 <  < /2 radians we have:

OB
cos    OB since OA=1.
OA
This time, the value of the trigonometric ratio cos is equal to the distance from O to B (f
2.1).

The cosine function with output cos

is now defined as the distance from O to B for any angle        (f 3.4).

f 2.4
Notice that when B is to the left of O the distance from O to B is negative.
As you can see from this diagram, the value of cos also ranges from +1 to -1 depending
upon the value of  .

39
The third basic trigonometric function, the tangent, is defined as:
sin
tan 
cos 
Because cos  0 whenever  is an odd multiple of  2 , the tangent is not defined at these
points.
Instead, the graph has vertical asymptotes as seen below (f 2.5):

f 2.5

Sine and cosine functions:

• Have repeated sinusoidal wave pattern
• Each of them rises and falls between +1 and -1
• They cross the horizontal axis:
(a) every whole number of  for the sine function
(b) every odd multiple of /2 for the cosine function

Tangent function:
• has repeated branch pattern
• rises from - to +
• crosses the horizontal axis every even multiple of /2
• has a vertical asymptote every odd multiple of /2.

Period
Any function whose output repeats itself over a regular interval of the input is called a
periodic function, the regular interval of the input being called the period of the function.
From the graphs of the trigonometric functions you can see that:
Both the sine and the cosine functions repeat themselves every 2 radians so both are
periodic with period 2 radians. The tangent function repeats itself every  radians so it is
periodic with period  radians.

Amplitude
Every periodic function possesses an amplitude that is given as the difference between the
maximum value and the average value of the output taken over a single period.

40
Note: Periodic functions are not always trigonometric functions.

Phase difference
The phase difference of a periodic function is the interval of the input by which the output
leads or lags behind the reference function.

Inverse trigonometric functions

If the graph of y  sin x is reflected in the line y=x, the graph of the inverse of the sine
function is what results:

f 2.6

However, as you can see, this is not a function because there is more than one value of y
corresponding to a given value of x. if you cut off the upper and lower parts of the graph you
obtain a single-valued function and it is this that is the inverse sine function sin 1 x (f 2.7).

f 2.7

41
In the similar manner you can obtain the inverse cosine function cos 1 x (f 2.8) and the
inverse tangent function tan1 x (f 2.9)

f 2.8

f 2.9

Some trigonometric identities

For any angles  and  holds:
a) sin     sin ; cos    cos  ; tan     tan
   
b) sin     cos  ; cos     sin
2  2 
c) sin     sin ; cos      cos  ; tan      tan
d) sin     sin cos   cos  sin  ; cos     cos  cos   sin sin 
tan  tan 
tan    
1  tan tan 
2 tan
e) sin 2  2 sin cos  ; cos 2  cos 2   sin 2  ; tan 2 
1  tan 2 
f) sin 2   cos 2   1
       
g) sin  sin   2 sin cos ; cos   cos   2 cos cos
2 2 2 2
       
h) sin  sin   2 sin cos ; cos   cos   2 sin sin
2 2 2 2

42
1. The following angles are given in radians.Transform them in to degrees:
 7 9
a) b) c)  d) 4,2 rad e) 1 rad f) 13 rad g) 43,2 rad
6 8 4
Solution:
x 6
a) Let x is the measure of the angle in degrees. From the proportion  we have
180 
180 
x   30 . We get x  30 .
 6
x 7 8 180 7 180  7
b) Since  , we have x     157,5  .
180   8 8
180  9  180
c) x       405 d) x   4,2  756
  4  
180 180 180 180  13 2340
e) x  1   57,32 (to 2 d.p) f) x   13    745,22 (to 2
 3,14  3,14 3,14
d.p)
180 180  43,2 7776
g) x   43,2    2476,43 (to 2 d.p)
 3,14 3,14

2. The following angles are given in degrees.Transform them in to radians:

a) 60  b)  18 c) 1 d) 23,8  e) 73 24 f) 2  11 37
Solution:
x 60
a) Let x is the measure of the angle in radians. From the proportion  , we obtain that
 180
 
x  60  rad ( or 1,05 rad)
180 3
x  18  
b) Since  , we have x    18   rad
 180 180 10
 
c) x  1  rad (0,02 rad)
180 180
 23,8  3,14
d) x   23,8   0,42 rad
180 180

 24   73,4  3,14
e) Since 73 24  73     73,4  , we have x 
 
 73,4   1,28 rad
 60  180 180
 
 11   37 
f) Since 2  11 37  2         2  0,183  0,01  2,193 , we have
 

 60   3600 
 2,193  3,14
x  2,193   0,038 rad
180 180

43
3. Use a calculator to find the value of each of the following (take care to ensure that your
calculator is in the correct mode):
a) sin 4 b) sin5 6 c) cos 126  d) cos 5 7 e) tan 3
f) tan 93 

g) cot 30 

h) sec18 11 i) cosec  13 k) sin 1 1
l) sin1 1,32 m) sin 1 0,64 n) cos 1 1 2 o) cos 1 0,87 p) cos 1  0,32
q) tan 1 1 r) tan 1 25 s) tan1  68

Solution:
a) sin 4  0,707 (to 3 d.p)
b) sin5 6  0,5 ( sin5 6  sin  5 6  sin 6  0,5 )
c) cos 126   0,588 (to 3 d.p) ( cos 126  = cos126  0,588 )
d) cos 5 7  cos5 7  0,623
e) tan 3  1,732
f) tan93   19,081

g) cot  30  
1 1 1
   1,733
tan 30 

tan 30 
0 ,577

h) sec18 11 
1 1
  2 ,4073
cos18 11 0 ,4154

i) cos ec  13 

1 1
  4 ,1789
sin  13  0 ,2393
k) sin 1 1   2
l) sin1 1,32 does not exist because the domain of the sin-1 is the segment  1,1 .
m) sin1 0,64  0,6945 n) cos 1 1 2  1,0472 o) cos 1 0,87  0,5156
p) cos 1  0,32  1,8965 q) tan1 1  0,7854 r) tan1 25  1,5308
s) tan1  68  1,5561

4. Find the period, amplitude and phase (in radians) of each of the following:
a) f    3sin 9 b) f    4cos 7
c) f    5 cos7  3 d) f    2 sin2   2
e) f    tan3    f) f     cot 4  5

Remark: Further in our work, the following notation will be used:

T-period of function
A-amplitude
 -phase

44
Solution:

a) f    3sin 9

y=3sin9x

4
3
2
1
y-axis

0 Series1
-6 -4 -2 -1 0 2 4 6
-2
-3
-4
x-axis

f 2.10
3 sin 9  3 sin9  2   3 sin 9  2 9 so the period of f   is T  2 9 and the phase
is
  0 . The maximum value of f   is 3 and the average value is 0, so the amplitude of
f   is
A=3.

b) f    4cos 7

5
4
3
2
1
y-axis

0 Series1
-4 -2 -1 0 2 4
-2
-3
-4
-5
x-axis

2.11
 4 cos 7  4 cos7  2   4 cos 7  2 7 so T  2 7 .
The maximum value of f   is 4 and the average value is 0, so the amplitude of f   is
A=4. The phase is   0 .

45
c) f    5 cos7  3

2
y-axis

0 Series1
-4 -2 0 2 4
-2

-4

-6
x-axis

f 2.12
 5 cos7  3  5 cos7  3  2   5 cos 7  2 7  3 7 so
T  2 7 ; A  5;   3 7 .
(The phase difference of f    5 cos7  3 relative to y  5cos 7 is  3 7 radians, or
said with different words: The graph of f    5 cos7  3 lags behind y  5cos 7 with
a phase difference of  3 7 )

d) f    2 sin2   2

2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
y-axis

0 Series1
-4 -2 -0,5 0 2 4
-1
-1,5
-2
-2,5
x-axis

f 2.13
2 sin2   2  2 sin2   2  2   2 sin 2     4 so T   ; A  2;    4
(The graph of f    2 sin2   2 lags behind y  2 sin 2 with a phase difference of
 4 )

46
e) f    tan3   
tan3     tan   3  tan   3    so T   and f    tan3    leads tan   by
phase 3 with an infinite amplitude.

f) f     cot 4  5
 cot 4  5  cot  4  5  cot  4  5     cot 4    4  5 4 so T   4 and
f     cot 4  5 leads cot 4  by the phase 5 4 with an infinite amplitude.

47