Formulation of The Curriculum

Topic X Formulation
of the
1 Curriculum
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. State the meaning of the term „curriculum‰;
2. Discuss the philosophical considerations in formulating a curriculum;
3. Discuss the psychological considerations in formulating a curriculum;
and
4. Discuss the social and economic considerations in formulating a
curriculum.
X INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.1: How is a curriculum developed?

2 X TOPIC 1 FORMULATION OF THE CURRICULUM
Look at the scenario in Figure 1.1. If you were the teacher how would you answer
the question posed by the parent?
ACTIVITY 1.1
What do you understand by the term „curriculum‰?
Browse the Internet or use reference books to find out what „curriculum‰
means.
While doing Activity 1.1, you would have come across many different definitions
of the term „curriculum‰. The word curriculum is derived from an ancient Latin
word currere which means „running course‰. Over time the word curriculum
has come to mean „sequence of courses or learning experiences.‰ Many attempts
have been made to provide more specific definitions of curriculum.
The Merriam Webster Dictionary defines curriculum as:
„The courses offered by an educational institution‰.
This view defines curriculum as an organised body of knowledge to be conveyed

to students. This is a general way of defining curriculum and refers to the subject
matter, content or syllabus. However, views such as these are narrow and
simplify the complexity of the curriculum. Curriculum is a broad term and refers
to more than just courses offered.
Tanner and Tanner (1995) describe curriculum as a plan or programme of all

experiences which the learner encounters under the direction of a school.
Another definition by Taba (1962) is:
The curriculum usually contains a statement of aims of specific objectives, it

indicates some selection and organisation of content, it implies certain
patterns of learning and teaching, whether because the objectives demand
them or because the content organisation requires them. Finally it includes a
programme of evaluation of the outcomes.
Taba (1962)
TOPIC 1 FORMULATION OF THE CURRICULUM W 3
From the above definitions we can conclude that a curriculum has the following
elements:
(a) Learning objectives;

(b) Content;
(c) Instructional strategies;
(d) Learning experiences for the learners; and
(e) Programme of evaluation.
Now, if you were a curriculum developer and had to formulate a new science
curriculum where would you start? How would you decide the learning
objectives and choose what content is relevant? How would you choose suitable
instructional strategies and learning experiences to fulfil the curriculum?
Curriculum developers use different curriculum development models or

approaches when formulating a curriculum. Their main concern would be what
should be included in the curriculum (the content) and how to present and
arrange what is selected (learning experiences). Regardless of the model or
approach used, curriculum developers need to consider the philosophical,
psychological, social and economic needs of the society when planning the
curriculum.
In this topic, you will learn about the philosophical, psychological, social and
economic considerations in formulating a curriculum. A sound understanding of
this will reflect on how you think and approach the teaching and learning
process in your classroom. You will also be able to give informed answers to
parents if the need arises.
1.1 PHILOSOPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN

FORMULATING A CURRICULUM
What is the connection between philosophy and the curriculum? Philosophy
provides curriculum developers, educators and teachers with a framework of
values and beliefs related to the goals of education that they can use for planning,
implementing and evaluating the curriculum in school. Curriculum developers
need to identify an educational vision or philosophy which will form the basis of
planning the curriculum. Philosophy helps in answering questions like:
(a) „What are schools for?‰

(b) „What subjects are important?‰
(c) „How should students learn?‰
(d) „What teaching strategies must be used?‰
(e) „How should evaluation be carried out?‰
Learning in schools in any country is guided by its national goals and philosophy
which reflect the desires of the nation. In Malaysia there is a written philosophy
known as The National Philosophy of Education. The National Philosophy of
Education is shown in Figure 1.2. Read through it carefully and think about how
it can guide curriculum development.
The National Education Policy is based on the National Philosophy of Education

which constitutes the basis for all educational activities and programmes. Thus
the Malaysian school curriculum is developed in line with the National
Philosophy of Education. The role of the Malaysian school curriculum is to
ensure the holistic development of an individualÊs potential, and develop him or
her, mentally, spiritually, emotionally and physically. The curriculum is to
develop Malaysian citizens who are balanced and well-rounded individuals,
trained, skilful and who cherish the national aspiration for unity.
Figure 1.2: The National Philosophy of Education of Malaysia

The Malaysian science curriculum is also influenced by the National Philosophy

of Science as shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3: National Science Education Philosophy
ACTIVITY 1.2
Study the Primary Science Curriculum and the National Philosophy of

Education Malaysia (NPE). Discuss in what ways the content selection
and teaching strategies of the primary science curriculum are able to fulfil
the NPE.
1.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN

FORMULATING A CURRICULUM
The school curriculum development is also influenced by psychology.
Psychology deals with how humans learn and behave. It forms a basis for
understanding the teaching-learning process. Ralph Tyler, a well-known scholar
in curriculum development proposed in the 1960s that anything that is to be
taught in the classroom should be subjected to a psychology „screen‰ to establish
whether they are suitable for the way humans learn.
The curriculum developed must be based on a sound understanding of child

growth and development. Psychological considerations such as the mental,
physical and emotional requirements of the child need to be taken into account
when planning the curriculum. The school curriculum developers look at the
childÊs level of development and maturity. Younger children should be given
what they can handle in terms of depth and quantity.
For example, in science at the primary level, there is more concern with the
systems and processes that affect the learnerÊs life without giving the principles
and theories behind them. At higher levels, the physical, chemical and biological
systems and processes are described in terms of the principles and theories that
explain them. The level of complexity increases as the mental capacity of the
learner develops. Learning experiences increase in intensity and complexity with
increased manipulative skills. Thus the physical condition of the learners also
influences the selection of subjects and experiences.
Theories of learning also have to be considered when developing the content of

the curriculum and how it will be delivered. The curriculum developer has to
know how pupils learn and take into consideration individual differences when
designing a curriculum. Learning can be maximised by ensuring that activities
and experiences are introduced at the most „teachable‰ moment.
You would remember from your earlier modules that there are many different
explanations of how humans learn. There are four major psychological schools of
thought of how learning occurs that have had an impact on curriculum. These
schools of thought are Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Humanism and
Constructivism. Study Table 1.1 which shows the four major psychological
orientations of learning and the main proponents.
Table 1.1: The Four Major Psychological Orientations

of Learning and the Main Proponents
Behaviourism Cognitivism Humanism Constructivism

x Pavlov x Piaget x Maslow x Piaget
x Thorndike x Bruner x Rogers x Vygotsky
x Skinner x Ausubel
x Gagne
x Gardner
Do you recall the main principles of these theories? The principles of these
learning theories are used as a guide to select the content and strategies of the
curriculum. A brief description of these theories is as follows.
(a) Behaviourism
In behaviourism, the main task of the teacher is to arrange the classroom
and learning activities so as to enhance connection between a stimulus and
response. Behaviour that is positively reinforced will be repeated and
information presented in small amounts can reinforce and shape the
formation of the behaviour desired.
(b) Cognitivism
Cognitivism explains how information is received, assimilated, stored and
recalled in the brain. There should be a step-by-step structured method of
teaching and learning. Teachers should present easier and simpler
materials to be followed later by complex and difficult materials. Teachers
should also teach from whole to part. The learners should develop some
kind of a frame of reference that will help them relate an aspect of what is
learned to its other aspects as well as to their previous experiences. What
has been taught earlier should be related to what is currently being taught.
Memory can be improved by making meaningful connections between
what is known and what is new.
(c) Humanism
The learner is a person who has feelings, attitudes and emotions, according
to humanistic theories. Emotions such as self-efficacy, self-assurance,
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation determine how a pupil approaches
learning.
(d) Constructivism
In constructivism, learners are not passive recipients of information but are
active agents engaging in constructing their own knowledge. Pupils should
not be treated as passive learners but rather as active learners exploring
and going beyond the information given. They should be provided with
authentic and challenging projects that encourage them to work with other
students and teachers. Cooperative, collaborative and group investigation
methods allow pupils to discuss ideas and misconceptions with their peers
and teachers. Learning is enhanced when pupils learn how to learn
together.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Identify which learning theories were used to select the content and
teaching strategies in the primary science curriculum for one selected
year.
1.3 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC

CONSIDERATIONS IN FORMULATING A
CURRICULUM
„Education is a major contributor to the development of our social and
economic capital. It inspires creativity and fosters innovation; provides our
youth with the necessary skills to be able to compete in the modern labour
market; and is a key driver of growth in the economy‰
(DatoÊ Sri Mohd Najib bin Tun Haji Abdul Razak
Malaysian Education Blueprint 2013-2025)
Read the statement given above. Do you see the importance of education in the
development of Malaysian social and economic capital?
1.3.1 Social Considerations in Formulating a

Curriculum
We must understand that schools are part of society and exist for society.
Schools, through their execution of the curriculum, can shape and mould a
society. Therefore curriculum developers need to take into account societal
considerations when planning the curriculum. If this does not happen, the
curriculum becomes irrelevant.
So what do you think society wants from the curriculum? The main societal
consideration in Malaysia is that the curriculum must promote a sense of
national pride and identity. In Malaysia, which has a heterogeneous ethnic
population, the school curriculum is expected to promote a sense of cohesion and
unity amongst the various ethnic groups. The curriculum must assist the
individual to understand the process of harmonisation and develop values and
attitudes such as compassion, understanding, tolerance, sensitivity and
awareness. The curriculum should also be able to impart social norms, social
order and morality.
The design of the curricular materials should be of relevance to the culture of the
society. For example, would pupils in Malaysia need to learn about the customs
of the Eskimo people in detail? It would not be relevant to them. On the other
hand, they would need to learn the beliefs, values and culture of the various
ethnic groups in Malaysian society to promote understanding and tolerance of
other cultures in the society that they live in.
A continuous examination of the goals and demands of society which are

continuously changing is needed to determine what knowledge is most
worthwhile and which values are relevant.
ACTIVITY 1.4
1. The concerns of society twenty years ago is different from the

concerns of society today. Discuss how this has affected the present
science curriculum.
2. Social factors are very critical in formulating a curriculum. Identify

at least two social factors that should be considered when
formulating a curriculum.
1.3.2 Economic Considerations in Formulating a

Curriculum
The national economy is an important consideration when formulating a
curriculum. Are you wondering how the economy of the country affects the
curriculum?
The children you teach will one day be employed. Schools need to meet the
workforce demands of a changing world. The 21st century world is a
technologically advanced world. Modern careers require skills that are
technologically complex. There is a demand for skilled and literate workers.
Successful workers in the modern world must possess both an understanding of
electronic technology, and the ability to work more cooperatively with others to
solve problems of a highly intricate nature, are able to communicate their ideas
confidently.
The curriculum offered has to provide appropriate education for the students to
develop the skills, knowledge and attitudes required by the workforce so as to
sustain the countryÊs progress with a competent labour force. It is therefore
important that serious consideration is given to economic demands when
designing the curriculum.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Explain what you understand by the term „curriculum‰.
2. A country has been using the same curriculum for the last 10
years. Do you think this is a good practice? Why?
3. How do the philosophical foundations of education influence

curriculum formulation?
4. How do the psychological foundations of education influence

curriculum formulation?
5. To what extent can the school curriculum equip individuals to

cope with the challenges and requirements of the 21st century?
x A curriculum consists of learning objectives, content, instructional strategies,

learning experiences of the learner and a programme for evaluation of
outcomes.
x Curriculum developers need to consider the philosophical, psychological,

social and economic needs of the society when planning the curriculum.
x Philosophy provides a framework of values and beliefs related to the goals

of education that can be used for planning, implementing and evaluating the
curriculum in school.
x The National Philosophy of Education is the basis for all educational

activities and programmes in Malaysia.
x The Malaysian school curriculum is developed in line with the National

Philosophy of Education.
x The Malaysian science curriculum is also influenced by the National

Philosophy of Science.
x The curriculum developed must be based on a sound understanding of

psychological factors such as child growth, child development and learning
theories.
x Psychological considerations such as the mental, physical and emotional

requirements of the child need to be taken into account when planning the
curriculum.
x Schools, through their teaching of the curriculum, can shape and mould a
society.
x Curriculum developers need to take into account societal considerations

when planning the curriculum.
x Consideration must be given to economic demands when designing the

curriculum so as to develop the skills, knowledge and attitudes required by
the workforce to sustain the countryÊs progress with a competent labour
force.
Curriculum Philosophical considerations

Economic considerations Psychological considerations
National Philosophy of Education Social considerations
National Science Education Philosophy
Educational Planning and Research Division, Ministry of Education Malaysia.

(2008). Education in Malaysia - A journey to excellence. Retrieved from
http://www.slideshare.net/Fadzliaton/education-in-malaysia
Heslep, R. (1997). Philosophical thinking in educational practice. London:

Greenwood Publishing.
Ornstein, A. C. & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum foundations, principles and

theory. USA: Allyn and Bacon.
Psychological Influences in the Curriculum Decision Making Process. Anne

Syomwene (Ph.D) 1*; Kisilu Kitainge (Ph.D) 2; Marcella Mwaka (PhD)
3*Moi University, Kenya 2University of Eldoret, Kenya 3Moi University,
Kenya . Retrieved from (http://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEP/
article/view/5201/5319)
Sharifah, Maimunah Syed Zin & Lewin, K. M. (1991). Curriculum development

in Malaysia in curriculum development in east Asia. Ed by Marsh, C. &
Morris, P. London: The Falmer Press.
Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. New York, NY:
Harcourt, Brace, & World.
Tanner, D., & Tanner, L. (1995). Curriculum development: Theory into practice
(3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill.
Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press.
Topic X Issues in
Science
2 Education
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Examine the goals of a science curriculum;
2. Analyse the content of a science curriculum;
3. List the relevant methods for teaching science;
4. Explain the meaning of scientific literacy;
5. Discuss the meaning of scientific language; and
6. Discuss some of the contemporay issues of science education.
X INTRODUCTION
Figure 2.1: Planning lessons for Science Year 4

14 X TOPIC 2 ISSUES IN SCIENCE EDUCATION
What should Cik Lee do? What documents should she refer to in planning the
teaching of the subject? Yes, she should study the science curriculum. She should
refer to the primary science syllabus and curriculum specifications for Year Four.
Then only should she look at the textbook and other resources to plan the
lessons.
The curriculum is a course or path. It is meant to be connected and integrated

and it should lead to educational attainment. Thus, by understanding the science
curriculum, Cik Lee would be clear about the aspirations of the curriculum, the
topics to be taught, and how to assess her pupilsÊ learning.
In this topic you will be looking at the details of any science curriculum goals of
a science curriculum, the contents of the curriculum, how to teach them, the
language of science, the concept of scientific literacy and the issues pertaining to
the science curriculum.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Recall how science was taught when you were in primary school. Take
time to list down the characteristics of the science lesson.
2.1 GOALS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

Knowing where you want to go will make it easier for you to plan your
destination. Thus knowing the goals of science education will make it easier for a
curriculum planner to plan the appropriate curriculum needed. And for you as a
teacher, knowing the goals will make it easier to plan how to teach and assess the
teaching and learning of science.
Let us study a few of the goals of science curriculum in different countries.

TOPIC 2 ISSUES IN SCIENCE EDUCATION W 15
ILLINOIS LEARNING STANDARDS
According to Illinois Learning Standards (ISBE, 1997), the general and

subsidiary goals of the science curriculum are as follows:
Goal 1: Understand and apply the methods of scientific inquiry and

technological design to investigate questions, solve problems and analyse
claims.
x Explain the principles and practices of scientific research.
x Apply the steps and methods of scientific inquiry to conduct experiments

and investigate research questions.
x Apply the principles and methods of technological design to solve

problems.
x Assess the credibility of scientific claims.
Goal 2: Understand the facts and unifying concepts of the life, physical and
earth/space sciences.
x Apply concepts of systems within the sciences.
x Apply concepts of form and function within the sciences.
x Apply concepts of change and constancy within the sciences.
x Apply concepts of models and explanations within the sciences.
Goal 3: Understand connections and relationships among science, technology

and society.
x Explain the historical development and importance of science and

technology.
x Explain conceptual relationships between science and technology.
x Describe and analyse relationships among science, technology and

society in practical situations.
NEW ZEALAND
The outcome of school science education programmes should be that pupils

leaving the school system will have developed the knowledge, skills,
attitudes and values that will allow them to take an informed position on
scientific issues and tensions that may be facing them and the society they
live in at the time. School-leavers should be aware of and have an
understanding of the scientific process and its values. They should have
developed an enquiring attitude and the knowledge and skills that will allow
them to find the answers to their questions.
There are five overarching integrated aspects of science that those seeking to
identify goals for science education should consider: scientific literacy,
attitudes and interests towards the environment, doing science, science as a
career and communication in science.
MANITOBA SCIENCE CURRICULA
The following goals were developed for all Canadian pupils, regardless of
gender or cultural background, to have an opportunity to develop scientific
literacy.
x Encourage pupils in all grades to develop a critical sense of wonder and

curiosity about scientific and technological endeavours.
x Enable pupils to use science and technology to acquire new knowledge

and solve problems, so that they may improve the quality of their own
lives and the lives of others.
x Prepare pupils to critically address science-related societal, economic,

ethical and environmental issues.
x Provide pupils with a proficiency in science that creates opportunities for

them to pursue progressively higher levels of study, prepares them for
science-related occupations, and engages them in science-related hobbies
appropriate to their interests and abilities.
x Develop in pupils of varying aptitudes and interests a knowledge of the

wide variety of careers related to science, technology and the environment.
If you analysed all the curricula above, the goals underlying science curriculum
and instruction are the same. The goals can be classified into the following
categories: scientific knowledge, scientific methods, social issues, personal needs,
and career awareness.
(a) Science education should develop a fundamental understanding of natural

systems: There is a body of knowledge concerning biological, physical, and
earth systems. For over 200 years, our science education programmes have
aimed towards informing pupils of these natural systems. This goal has
been, and will continue to be, of significant importance for science teachers.
(b) Science education should develop a fundamental understanding of, and

ability to use the methods of scientific inquiry: This goal will ensure pupils
will acquire the skills of planning and doing science investigations in
finding answers to problems.
(c) Science education should prepare citizens to make responsible decisions

concerning science-related social issues. Science education exists in society
and should contribute to the maintenance and aspirations of the culture.
This goal is especially important when there are social challenges directly
related to science.
(d) Science education should contribute to an understanding and fulfilment of

personal needs, thus contributing to personal developmen. All individuals
have needs related to their own biological/psychological systems.
(e) Science education should inform pupils about careers in the sciences:
Scientific research, development, and application continue through the
work of individuals within science and technology and through the
support of those not directly involved in scientific work.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Study our primary science curriculum. Compare and contrast the aims
stipulated in the curriculum with the curricula that you have just read.
2.2 CONTENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

What content to be taught in the science curriculum at any level is a statement
about the elements of science we choose to teach selected from a much larger set
of possibilities. There are many factors that need to be considered before deciding
the content to be taught. Looking at the goals of science education will certainly
help us to determine what content should be taught in the curriculum.
The content of science for primary school children should be an interplay among
concepts, scientific reasoning, the nature of science, and doing science. Although
science concepts are important as a basic foundation of science knowledge,
children need to begin to build an understanding of basic concepts and how they
connect and apply to the world in which they live. It could be done through
hands-on activities where the children are actively exploring and finding out the
concepts. These first-hand experiences help them to find answers to problems
themselves by exploring their own environment.
Scientific skills are the tools that need to be acquired by the children so that they
could do the activities. Thus, broadly the content should contain a skills section
and a content section.
(a) The Skills Section

The skills section will help children to work scientifically, and in designing
and making. Children are encouraged to work as scientists as they
investigate and explore their physical and natural surroundings. The
curriculum should support children in developing skills of enquiry during
this investigative work: observing, asking questions, suggesting
explanations, predicting outcomes, planning investigations or experiments
to test ideas and drawing conclusions.
Designing and making are the technological components of the science

curriculum. This aspect of the curriculum provides children with
opportunities to apply scientific ideas to everyday situations and problems.
The children are challenged to explore, plan and make models and
functional objects in order to solve practical problems. This develops
children's awareness of the value of technology in their lives.
(b) The Content Section

What to include in the content section is debatable. Different countries have
different ways of organising the basic concepts that should be taught in
primary science. In the Malaysian Science Curriculum the contents are
organised around themes. What is important is this content should cover
core concepts, principles, and theories of science that would be continued

in the secondary school science curriculum.
We should also remember that not all pupils would end up as scientists as
their careers. Thus the content should cover just enough concepts so that
they become ‰scientifically literate‰. Consequently, the science curriculum
should be oriented more towards developing awareness among the
learners about the interface of science, technology and society, sensitising
them, especially to the issues of environment and health, and enabling
them to acquire practical knowledge and skills to enter the world of work.
ACTIVITY 2.3
What are the themes used in our primary science curriculum? Discuss
with your classmates.
2.3 TEACHING OF SCIENCE

Did you enjoy studying science in school? Who were your science teachers? Do
you think they enjoyed teaching science? There is no doubt that a teacher who
outwardly states a dislike for a subject can negatively influence pupilsÊ attitudes
towards that subject. Similarly, a teacher who demonstrates enthusiasm and
genuine interest in teaching a subject can be a catalyst for pupil learning.
Teaching strategies also shape the learning environment. An effective teacher

would need to select teaching strategies to engage pupils in learning science.
There are teaching strategies that can be transferred from other subjects to also
teach science. For example, you could use storytelling or drama, which are very
useful in learning language, into the teaching of science. There are also strategies
that are more specific to teaching science. For example, project and
experimentation are synonymous with science teaching. What strategy that you
as a teacher decide to employ depends on many factors. These factors include:
(a) PupilsÊ learning styles;

(b) PupilsÊ prior knowledge and skills;
(c) Availability of teaching resources;
(d) TeachersÊ knowledge and skills; and

(e) SocietyÊs expectations.
The nature of science should be the most, or at least, a big consideration when
deciding on the pedagogy when teaching science.
The main complaint of pupils about science is that it is not sufficiently relevant.
What is learnt in the science classroom is only used in the classroom and has no
connection with the real world, although science is in fact the study of the natural
world.
For activities to be meaningful and engaging they should help the understanding
of things pupils have encountered directly in their day-to-day experience and
indirectly through films and television programmes. It should be possible for
children to make a link between new experiences and previous experiences.
There can be a dilemma here in relation to whether science activities should be
taken from real-life events often complex and with several ideas involved or
whether they should be „tidied up‰ to demonstrate certain relationships or
principles. Some degree of abstraction from real events is generally necessary,
but it should always be possible for the children to link what is learned to real
events.
Inquiry-based is the essence of science teaching and learning. It „fits‰ with the
nature of science. Pupils should be actively engaged in exploring the concepts
through hands-on activities. Pupils learn effectively when they are actively
engaged in the discovery process, often working in small groups. They should be
provided opportunities to have direct experience with common objects,
materials, and living things in their environment. Good instruction focuses on
understanding important relationships, processes, mechanisms and applications
of concepts.
Teachers act as facilitators. Managing inquiry during a lesson is not the only
thing that a science teacher must do. Her work starts before the lesson begins.
She decides the concepts and the skills that should be developed during the
lesson. Then, throughout the lesson, the teacher should be listening to the
discussion about the concepts and observing the skills as the pupils are doing
their work. This information or formative assessment can later be used as
feedback for the teacher and pupils about learning. Have they understood the
lesson? Have they mastered the skills? Do the concepts need to be explored
again? These are some of the questions that the teacher can answer from
formative assessments.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
Would the following scenarios be the elements in the teaching and

learning of science?
Scenario Yes? No?

Children have the opportunity to express their ideas, to listen to
the ideas of others and to build on their existing ideas when
faced with new experiences.
Teachers pose questions that require children to hypothesise,

predict and suggest answers.
Teachers engage children in thinking about and discussing how

to test their predictions and see if their ideas „work‰.
Children are clear about what they are finding out and what they
are learning by doing so.
Children consider the evidence they collect in relation to initial

ideas and predictions.
Children reflect and report on how and what they have learned.
Not all learning in science involves inquiry. There are some things, such as
conventions, names and the basic skills of using equipment, that are more
efficiently learned by direct instruction. If you want your pupils to know how to
use the thermometer, or the measure correctly the length of a room using a metre
rule, then demonstrating and explaining to them the skills would be more
appropriate, followed by practice in using the skills.
ACTIVITY 2.4
Which of the following strategies would have high impact for primary
science?
Strategies High Impact? Low Impact?

Misconceptions are
targeted
Enthusiasm from
teacher
Uniform on individual
interests
Usable and practical

scientific knowledge
Group work
Hands-on experiences
Chalk and talk or

copying from OHT
Interactivity with life
Purposes are clearly

articulated
Excursions for science

understanding
In summary there is no one best method to teach any subject. Although the
inquiry-based method is considered a very good method to teach science, if
pupils are not equipped with the knowledge, skills and attitude, then it is not the
effective method to choose. You, as the teacher, know best what works and what
does not work with your pupils.
2.4 SCIENTIFIC LITERACY

Have a look at Figure 2.2 and see if you can recall anything.
Figure 2.2: A definition of scientific literacy (Rennie, 2005)

Source: Skamp: Teaching Primary Science Constructively, pg 3
We have discussed this concept in detail in Topic 1 of HBSC1103 Teaching and

Learning of Science.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
By referring to Figure 2.2, can you summarise the definition of scientific

literacy?
Yes! Scientific literacy means that a person can ask, find, or determine answers to
questions derived from curiosity about everyday experiences. It means that a
person has the ability to describe, explain, and predict natural phenomena. A
literate citizen should be able to evaluate the quality of scientific information on

the basis of its source and the methods used to generate it.
As mentioned above, one of the goals of the science is to develop a scientifically

literate population. Feasey (1996) suggests that most people are scientifically
illiterate and often hold negative and contradictory viewpoints of science. The
public think that science belongs to the scientists and is too difficult for them to
understand.
Skamp (2004) mentioned that Feasey and Gott (1996) suggest two elements that
can provide a foundation for a scientifically literate individual.
(a) Factual background which relates to the understanding of key ideas and
facts in science. A sound knowledge and ability to apply such concepts in a
range of contexts is essential.
(b) An understanding of evidence that focuses on the individualÊs

understanding of how and why scientists collect evidence and an ability to
challenge the reliability and validity of evidence in order to decide on its
believability.
Why do you think we need to be scientifically literate? One of the main reasons is
that the society we live in depends to an ever-increasing extent on technology
and scientific knowledge that makes it possible. Decisions we make every day
have the capacity to affect energy consumption, our personal health, natural
resources, and the environment ultimately our well-being and that of our
community and the world. Individual decisions may not seem to be critical, but
when they are multiplied by 300 million nationwide, or nearly seven billion
worldwide, they have the power to change the face of the planet (Scearce, 2007).
ACTIVITY 2.5
1. Draw your image of a typical scientist and list the characteristics of

the person that you have drawn.
2. What work does he or she do?

2.5 SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE

Teachers often say: „I have explained so many times, yet pupils cannot
understand!‰ What could the reason be? One of the reasons is because the pupils
do not understand the scientific language that the teacher is using. What and
how is scientific language different from everyday language? This section will
discuss these points.
2.5.1 Difficulties in Language

The use of scientific language and terminology enables scientists around the
world to communicate effectively with each other. However, the use of scientific
words and phrases is often confusing for non-specialists, let alone non-scientists.
There are a number of ways language can make understanding science more
difficult, such as alternative meanings of words, pupilsÊ lack of appropriate
vocabulary, the specialised vocabulary used by scientists, and English as a
second language. Pupils may begin to separate school explanations and home
explanations. Or, pupils may begin to believe they are unable to learn science it
is just too difficult to figure out. Still others may reject the scientific explanation
as too difficult and accept their own, or their community's explanation instead.
Learners may develop an understanding of the meaning of certain words that is

different from the scientists' meaning of these words. People outside the scientific
community and scientists themselves give these same words other meanings
and/or use them in other contexts, resulting in slight nuances to the original
meaning. These alternative meanings can make understanding and/or accepting
the scientist's use of the word or term difficult. Table 2.1 illustrates the different
meaning of certain terms.
Table 2.1: Examples of the Meaning of Words in

Scientific Language and Everyday Language
Concepts Scientific Language Everyday Language

Living and Living and non-living are Describe those and other non-living
non-living associated with the terms objects as being alive, e.g. a live wire or
alive and dead. the fire „came to life‰ when we added
wood, or as having died, e.g. the car or
battery died.
Community The interaction of living Within the general culture, communities

organisms within a bounded are determined by groups of residents
system. who have some common identity.
Communities in this sense focus on the
activities, needs and care of human
beings.
Force We talk about force as one However, the everyday use of the term
aspect of a field of influence force includes such phrases as, „I was
surrounding objects. That is, forced to go to bed without my dinner‰,
a force field is a complex „Someone forced their way into the
system of pushes and pulls. house‰, „My mom works in the police
force,‰ and in the movies, „May the
force be with you.‰
The language used by scientists to communicate their work reflects the nature of
science. Scientific language used by scientists includes:
(a) Appeals to evidence. E.g., „Based upon the evidence gathered in this
investigation, ....‰
(b) Expressions about the validity and reliability of the evidence. E.g., „The
design called for the control of ....‰, „A new technology allowed for ....‰,
„This procedure ....‰, „The skill of the technician was such that we were
able to ....‰,
(c) Appeals to prominent scientists. E.g., „Ian Stirling found in his research
that ....‰
(d) Appeals to accepted literature. E.g., „A research study reported in

Science indicated that ....‰, „Peer reviewed research in Nature suggests
that ....‰
(e) Expressions of (un)certainty. E.g., „This was an initial study ....‰, „The
sample size was small but ...‰,
(f) Appeals to the nature of science. E.g., „Although science requires us to

be open-minded about this counter-claim,‰, „This is only a correlational
study and not a cause and effect study so ...‰.
(g) Appeals to logical reasoning. E.g., „If ..., then ....‰, „If ... and ...., then
....‰, "Logical consistency requires that ....‰
These characteristics are typically found in scientific research papers and ideally
in science educational materials such as science textbooks. Popular science
magazines and newspaper articles about science often take liberties with
scientific language by translating it into more common everyday language. This
translation often removes important aspects about the nature of science, or
worse, misrepresents the nature of science. Two common problems with popular
science articles are a lack of expression of appropriate uncertainty (tending to
more absolute statements) and confusion between evidence and interpretation.
Evidence is the ultimate authority in science even though all evidence is
uncertain to some degree. Expressions such as „facts‰, „exactly‰, „absolutely‰ or
„we proved ‰ are not appropriate in the context of a scientific investigation.
Evidence can support or fail to support a prediction and/or hypothesis, but
cannot „prove‰ either. „Proof‰ is considered too absolute and does not connote
the uncertainty accompanying all scientific evidence and knowledge. Table 2.2
shows more examples of the use of scientific language.
Table 2.2: Some Examples of the Use of Scientific Language
Expressing the Authority Expressing the Degree of Certainty

Based on the concept of The certainty is three significant digits.
According to the law of Based upon the limited evidence gathered,

Using the theory of Without full control of all variables
Based on the evidence obtained in this The experiment needs to be replicated by

investigation another group but
In our judgment, Careful control of all known variables

suggests
Our interpretation of the evidence is that Accepting that all knowledge is uncertain,

If this concept is valid, then The accuracy as a per cent difference is
This accepted concept leads us to believe Having a high degree of confidence in the
that evidence, it is appropriate to
Logical and consistent reasoning suggests In this correlational (not cause and effect)
that study
Source: http://www.crystaloutreach.ualberta.ca/en/ScienceReasoningText/Scientific
Languageaspx
ACTIVITY 2.6
The main reason pupils find it difficult to understand science is because

of the difficulty in writing, spelling and reading the terms. Actually,
scientific vocabulary is a jumble of little words that are linked together to
have different meanings. Guess the meaning of each of these terms:
(a) Epidermis;
(b) Abiotic;
(c) Endocytosis;
(d) Anaerobic; and
(e) Monochrome.
2.5.2 Sources of Scientific Words

Scientific words in English may conveniently be divided, from the standpoint of
their origins, into three groups:
(a) Those taken from the ordinary English vocabulary;

(b) Those taken virtually unchanged from another language; and
(c) Those which have been invented.
Table 2.3 shows a few examples.

Table 2.3: Examples of Scientific Words and Their Origin
Sources Examples of Words
(a) Taken from the ordinary English Energy, work, power, salt, base, fruit
vocabulary.
Although the scientist may give

them precise meanings, they are
liable to be interpreted more loosely
(or even differently) by the non-
scientist.
(b) Taken virtually unchanged from Latin words: axis, fulcrum, larva, radius,
another language. locus, nimbus, cortex, cerebrum, pelvis,
cornea
Many of the Greek or Latin terms
have retained their original meaning Greek words: thorax, stigma, iris, helix
but in some cases the meanings have
been restricted and rendered more
precise.
(c) Those which have been invented. Ester for a compound formed by the
interaction of an alcohol and an organic
acid.
ScientistsÊ names have also been used to

provide the names of units (e.g. watt, volt,
gauss, joule)
Scientists have taken „bits and pieces‰
roots, prefixes, suffixes from different
languages and joined them together to form
the terms. Thus, when they needed a
general name for animals such as snails and
slugs which apparently walk on their
stomachs, they have taken the Greek roots
gast(e)ro- (stomach) and -pod (foot) and
formed the new word gastropod. When he
wanted a word to describe a speed greater
than that of sound he took the Latin prefix
super- (above, beyond) and the Latin root
son- (sound) and coined the adjective
supersonic.
2.5.3 How to Teach the Language?

Introducing new scientific language to pupils can cause considerable confusion,
particularly when the pupils may have established a different understanding of
the terms from their everyday use. Careful thought needs to be given to the
selection of new scientific terms, the choice of language used in definitions and
the implications of prior understanding based on everyday use.
In learning the language of science, pupils need to learn not only a specialised
vocabulary but also how words go together and when to use this way of
communicating. The challenge is to teach these „rules of the game‰ whilst still
valuing the ways of using language that the pupils bring to the classroom. The
role of teachers is to help pupils build bridges between their known and familiar
ways of using language, and academic ways of using language.
Below are a few suggestions that you as a teacher can take:
(a) Practise Using and Build Perceived Usefulness of the Scientific Model or
Idea
Encourage activities which promote pupil experience with the language of
scientific discourse. Focus on helping pupils to identify scientific terms that
are new to them or terms where their meanings remain unclear. Encourage
pupils to practise language patterns that assist them to describe events,
objects, and processes, to make predictions and to draw conclusions.
Encourage short verbal reporting by pupils or presentations to their peers
where particular scientific terms should be used.
(b) Clarify and Consolidate Ideas for/by Communication to Others

Work with pupils to develop a chart of useful scientific terms. This could be
on permanent display in the classroom and pupils could be encouraged to
make additions as new scientific terms arise or are introduced. Have pupils
collect or develop a range of images that assist in understanding the
meanings of the terms or the context in which they are used. Pupils could
work on developing their own scientific dictionary for use in a particular
context of study. Scientific definitions could be written in their own words
or pupils could draw or collect visual images to help improve their
understanding of the terms encountered.
(c) Clarify and Consolidate Ideas for/by Communication to Others

Adopt teaching approaches that allow pupils to practise verbal, visual and
writing skills. It is important for pupils to have experiences of „doing‰
science and also of developing skills to communicate their findings to
others.
2.6 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

Like it or not, science constitutes a significant part of human life. It impacts on
how people experience and understand the world and themselves. The rapid
advances in science and technology, newly established societal and cultural
norms and values, and changes in the climate and environment, as well as the
depletion of natural resources all greatly impact the lives of children and youths,
and hence their ways of learning, viewing the world, experiencing phenomena
around them and interacting with others.
Science educators must be aware of all these changes. They need to rethink the
science curriculum, the pedagogy and assessment in the science classroom today
as the practice of science education needs to be proactive and relevant to pupils
and prepare them for life in the present and in the future.
Contemporary issues facing science education in Malaysia are no different from

other countries.
In a report commissioned by UNESCO, Section For Science, Technical And

Vocational Education in 2008, titled Science Education Policy-Making: Eleven
Emerging Issues, Fensham listed the following issues concerning science
education (Table 2.4).
Table 2.4: Lists of Issues of Relating to Science Education
Issue A Science in Schooling and its Educational Purposes

Issue B Access and Equity in Science Education
Issue C Interest in, and about Science
Issue D How Technology Relates to Science in Education
Issue E The Nature of Science and Inquiry
Issue F Scientific Literacy
Issue G Quality of Learning in Science
Issue H The Use of ICT in Science and Technology Education
Issue I Development of Relevant and Effective Assessment in Science Education
Issue J Science Education in the Primary or Elementary Years
Issue K Professional Development of Science Teachers
Source: UNESCO (2008)

One of the issues that had and is still faced by science education in our country is
Issue C Interest in, and about science. Professor of Mathematics, CK Raju, a
visiting professor at the Mathematics department in Universiti Sains Malaysia
(USM), calls for a review of teaching methods for science stream subjects as a
way to raise pupilsÊ interest, following reports that the percentage of science
stream pupils had dropped to 29 per cent in 2012 (New Straits Times 19
February 2012).
The same issue is also commented by Prof. Datin Dr Azizan Baharuddin, the
Deputy Director-General of Institute of Islamic Understanding Malaysia. This
issue perhaps needs elaboration and continued engagement because in the
context of the K-economy and MalaysiaÊs developmental policies, science,
technology and innovation are critical drivers. The current data seems to show
that our manpower needs in important areas such as engineering, ICT, health
and agriculture are still far from adequate as our unfulfilled needs range from 30
percent to 50 percent. (The STAR, February 28, 2012).
ACTIVITY 2.7
1. Conduct a survey in your school on the interest in science.
2. Find out the reasons why pupils like or dislike science.
3. As a science teacher, list out different ways that you can adopt to
raise the interest of these pupils.
4. Choose any of the issues in Table 2.4. Research and find out the
current status of the issue in our country.
x Knowing the goals of science education will make it easier for a curriculum
planner to plan the appropriate curriculum needed.
x It also makes it easier for a teacher to plan how to teach and assess the
teaching and learning of science.
x The goals can be classified into the following categories: scientific

knowledge, scientific methods, social issues, personal needs, and career
awareness.
x What content to be taught in the science curriculum at any level is a

statement about the elements of science we choose to teach selected from a
much larger set of possibilities.
x The content of science for primary school children should be interplay

among concepts, scientific reasoning, the nature of science, and doing
science.
x The content of science curriculum should contain a skills section and a

content section.
x The skills section would help children to work scientifically. This would
develop skills of enquiry during the investigative work.
x Designing and making are the technological components of the Science

Curriculum.
x Different countries have different ways of organising the basic concepts that
should be taught in primary science.
x The science content should cover just enough concepts so that they become
„scientifically literate‰ as not all pupils are going to be working as scientists.
x Inquiry-based method is always associated with science teaching and

learning.
x Managing inquiry during a lesson is not the only thing that a science teacher
must do. She should first plan the lesson before acting as facilitator during
the lesson.
x Formative assessment should also be carried out so that it can be used as

feedback for the teacher and pupils about learning.
x Teaching methods used in teaching other subjects are also used in science
teaching when necessary.
x Scientific literacy means that a person has the ability to describe, explain, and
predict natural phenomena.
x The use of scientific language and terminology enables scientists around the
world to communicate effectively with each other.
x There are a number of ways language can make understanding science more
difficult, such as alternative meanings of words, pupils' lack of appropriate
vocabulary, the specialised vocabulary used by scientists, and English as a
second language.
x Learners may develop an understanding of the meaning of certain words

that is different from the scientists' meaning for these words.
x The language used by scientists to communicate their work reflects the

nature of science.
x Scientific words in English may be divided into three groups: those taken
from the ordinary English vocabulary; those taken virtually unchanged from
another language; and those which have been invented.
Designing and making Scientific language

Formative assessment Scientific literacy
Inquiry-based Scientific reasoning
Nature of science Scientific skills
Aims and goals of science education. Retrieved from http://www.tki.org.

nzcurriculum/whats_happening/index_e.php
Carin, A., & Sund, R. B. (1989). Teaching science through discovery (6th ed.).
Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.
Content of science. Retrieved from http://www.curriculumonline.ie/en/

Primary_School_Curriculum/Social_Environmental_and_Scientific_Educat
ion_SESE_/Science/
Critical reflections on Malaysian science curriculum. Retrieved from http://

www.recsam.edu.my/cosmed/cosmed05/AbstractsFullPapers2005/Files%
5Csubtheme1%5CKAM.pdf
Esler, W.K., & Esler, M. K. (2001). Teaching elementary science (8th ed.). Belmont:
Thomson Wadsworth.
Martin, D. J. (2006). Elementary science methods: A constructivist approach.

Methods for constructing understanding. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Perspectives on education primary science. Retrieved from http://www.

wellcome.ac.uk/stellent/groups/corporatesite/@msh_peda/documents/
web_document/wtd042076.pdf
Reimagining science Learning curve New Straits Times, 19 February 2012.

Retrieved from www.nst.com.my/channels/learning-curve/issues
reimagining-science-1.48634#xzz2jAaHEwtA.
Science in primary school. Retrieved from http://archivefuturelab.org.uk/

resources/publications-reports-articles/literature-reviews/Literature-
Review381
Scientific language. Retrieved from http://www.crystaloutreach.ualberta.ca/

en/ScienceReasoningText/ScientificLanguage.aspx
Skamp, K. (2004). Teaching primary science constructively. Southbank, Victoria:

Wadsworth Publishing Company.
WhoÊs getting it right and WhoÊs getting it wrong in the debate about science
literacy? Retrieved from http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/
whos_getting_it_right_and_whos_getting_it_wrong_in_the_debate_about_
science/
Topic X Historical
3 Development
of the Science
Curriculum
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the historical development of the science curriculum;
2. Analyse the strengths and weaknesses of Nature Study, Special
Project, Man and the Environment, KBSR and KSSR curricula; and
3. Compare and contrast the Nature Study, Special Project, Man and the
Environment, KBSR and KSSR curricula.
X INTRODUCTION
TOPIC 3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENCE CURRICULUM W 37
The scenario above is a conversation between two parents outside a science

classroom. You must have heard similar conversations in your school too. Why
do you think there have been so many changes in the science curriculum?
Remember what you studied in Topic 1? We discussed philosophical,

psychological, social and economic considerations when developing a
curriculum. These factors are not constant. Society is constantly evolving. Social
and economic factors may change. There might be new psychological theories
that need to be addressed. Curriculum developers believe that the curriculum
has to be dynamic and responsive in order to remain current and relevant.
The Malaysian school science curriculumÊs main aim is national unity and to
produce a workforce that can contribute to the development of the nation. The
pattern of changes and development in science education in Malaysia is largely
based on National Education Policies and current trends in science teaching.
Study Table 3.1 which shows the different primary science curricula in Malaysia
and the years they were implemented.
Table 3.1: Historical Development of Primary Science Curricula in Malaysia
Science Curriculum Year of Implementation

Nature Study Before 1965
Primary Science curriculum 1965-1968
Primary Science Special Project 1968-1984
Man and The Environment 1985-1993
(Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah, KBSR)
Primary School Science 1994-2010
(Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah, KBSR)
Primary School Science (Revised in English) 2003
KSSR 2011
In this topic you will learn about the historical development of the primary
science curriculum in Malaysia. You will be able to compare the past science
curricula with the present science curriculum and understand the rationale for
the changes.
38 X TOPIC 3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENCE CURRICULUM
ACTIVITY 3.1
Try asking your parents, grandparents or even great grandparents about

their school days. Do they remember learning science? How did they
learn science? Read through the science curricula in Malaysia in this topic
and see if you can identify what curriculum they were using.
3.1 NATURE STUDY

At the end of the 19th century and until the middle of the 20th century, science
was taught as „Nature Study‰ in primary schools. The Nature Study curriculum
focused on knowledge of facts and laws of nature based on scientific
investigation of the natural world.
Pupils were asked to learn the facts and laws of nature through careful
observation and classification of nature. However, the curriculum ignored much
of the natural environment that had an impact on pupilsÊ lives. The teaching
approach mainly focused on textbooks and rote learning. There was a need to
teach science that linked together ideas from all fields of science and relate to
studentsÊ surroundings and everyday experiences.
The science curriculum was only made uniform and official after 1956 when the
Razak Report recommended that a single syllabus be implemented in schools.
The Nature Study curriculum was replaced by the Primary Science curriculum in
1965. This new curriculum was adapted for local needs from the Nuffield Junior
Science Project, United Kingdom (1964). The Primary Science curriculum focused
on mastery of scientific facts.
Many primary science teachers especially in rural schools had poor educational
backgrounds and had not received adequate teacher training in science content
and methodology. They had been trained as general subject teachers and as such
the teaching of science was textbook-centred focusing on rote learning and
memorisation. The academic achievement in science of pupils was weak
especially in the rural areas. Can you see that a change was needed to overcome
these problems?
3.2 SPECIAL PROJECT (PROJEK KHAS)

In 1968, the Ministry of Education started a project called Primary School Special
Project. The main aim of this project was to raise the teaching standard of science
and mathematics in Malaysia. The development of the Special Project was a
historic event as it was the first large-scale curriculum reform undertaken by the
Ministry of Education.
The Primary School Special Project used new teaching approaches but the
content remained the same as it was assumed that the teachers had mastered the
content. The focus was to help teachers gain more confidence in using the inquiry
approach so as to be able to instil an interest and understanding in pupils of the
world around them.
In 1971, the Ministry of Education formulated the Primary School Syllabus for
Science. Its content did not differ much from the previous curriculum, except for
the aspects of the teaching-learning approach, strategy and methods. The Special
Project was introduced in schools for Standard 1 in 1970. Services and facilities
were provided to the teachers as support. Study Figure 3.1 which shows the
services and facilities given to science teachers under the Special Project.
Figure 3.1: Support given to science teachers under special project

The Primary Science Special Project was pupil-centred and activity-oriented.

Activity centres were set up to spread knowledge and resources to all schools.
However, there were too many teachers and not enough trainers and this
weakened the impact of this curriculum.
ACTIVITY 3.2
1. Analyse the Nature Study Curriculum. What were its strengths?

What was the rationale for its change?
2. What were the strengths of the Primary Science Special Project

Curriculum? What were its weaknesses?
3.3 MAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT

The Cabinet Committee for Review of Implementation of the Education Policy
(Jawatankuasa Kabinet Mengkaji Pelaksanaan Dasar Pendidikan) 1979,
recommended that the primary school curriculum be developed based on three
areas namely: communication; man and his surroundings; and individual self
development. Based on this, the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC)
formulated a new curriculum called the New Primary School Curriculum
(Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah) (KBSR). KBSR was a completely new
innovation with changes in content, pedagogy, pupil assessment, evaluation,
remedial and enrichment activities, and the role of teachers.
Alam dan Manusia

Man and His Environment (Alam dan Manusia) was one of the subjects in the
area of Man and his Surroundings. Unlike the Special Project, Alam dan Manusia
was only offered in Level One, that is, in Years Four, Five and Six. Alam dan
Manusia was planned to help students acquire knowledge and understanding of
man and his environment with emphasis on the Malaysian society and
environment. Alam dan Manusia was a humanistic curriculum that stressed on
integration of disciplines, enhancement of thinking skills, inquiry and problem-
solving skills and inculcation of moral values. It integrated elements that were
previously taught separately in subjects such as Geography, History, Civics,
Science and Health Science. This integration aimed not only to reduce the
number of subjects, but also ensure that students could understand certain topics
better and as a whole.
The CDC published teacherÊs guides called Buku Panduan Khas Alam dan
Manusia for Years Four, Five and Six. These teachersÊ guides specified the
curriculum in detail by listing objectives to be achieved by pupils for each topic.
It also contained suggested lesson plans and teaching-learning strategies. Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka also published Alam dan Manusia textbooks for each year.
Did you teach this curriculum or do you have any experience of it? What do you
think the constraints of this curriculum were? There were physical constraints
when implementing this curriculum such as large class size and lack of facilities.
There was also inadequate in-service training and professional support. Due to
this, teachers lacked competency in integrating subject content and using an
inquiry approach. Teachers were also stressed and overburdened.
ACTIVITY 3.3
What were the strengths and weaknesses of the Man and Environment
(Alam dan Manusia) Curriculum?
3.4 KBSR (INTEGRATED CURRICULUM FOR

PRIMARY SCHOOL) (KURIKULUM
BERSEPADU SEKOLAH RENDAH)
The Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah was revised based on the evaluation
findings and also the future needs and challenges of the country. Alam dan
Manusia was replaced by two new subjects, namely the Primary School Science
Curriculum and Local Studies (Kajian Tempatan) in 1994 with the
implementation of the Integrated Curriculum for Primary Schools (Kurikulum
Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah), (KBSR).
The Integrated Curriculum for Primary Schools was formulated to improve and
enhance the standard of education in primary schools and to achieve the
aspirations of the National Philosophy of Education (NPE). The aims of this
primary school science curriculum were to:
(a) Provide opportunities for pupils to learn about themselves and the
environment through everyday experiences and scientific investigations;
(b) Acquire knowledge and skills in science and technology;

(c) Enable pupils to apply these knowledge and skills based on scientific
attitudes; and
(d) Acquire noble values to make decisions and solve problems in everyday
life.
The curriculum also aimed to provide a strong foundation in science and

technology to prepare pupils for the learning of science in secondary school.
(Integrated curriculum for primary schools: Science syllabus, 2003)
Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah

The CDC developed the curriculum specifications called Huraian Sukatan
Pelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah in 1993. The Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Sains
Sekolah Rendah contained general and specific learning objectives and suggested
learning experiences. Besides this, CDC also published training packages called
Pukal Latihan Sains Rendah (PuLSaR). These training packages contained
modules on teaching-learning strategies accompanied by video cassettes.
Science was taught as both content and a process which included scientific
knowledge, scientific skills, thinking skills and scientific attitude and values. A
thematic approach was used. School-based assessment in the form of PEKA
(Penilaian Kemahiran Amali) was introduced to measure the pupilsÊ mastery of
science process skills and manipulative skills. The science curriculum
emphasised constructivism, the inquiry-discovery approach and the use of
technology.
Science Taught in English

In 2003, the science curriculum was revised and science was introduced as a
subject in Level One. The medium of instruction was English. Globalisation and
the need to keep abreast with the advances of science using technology as a
means to acquire knowledge had convinced the government to change its policy
of using English in the teaching of these two subjects. The teaching of Science
using English enables pupils to obtain various sources of information written in
English either in electronic or print form. This helps to keep them abreast with
the latest developments in science and technology. Pupils will be able to relate
their knowledge to the world beyond the school. Teachers were trained to teach
Science in English and textbooks and courseware were developed.
However in 2009, this policy was changed and the medium of instruction for
Science and Mathematics reverted to the Malay language (Bahasa Malaysia).
ACTIVITY 3.4
Answer the following questions based on your understanding of the

KBSR primary science curriculum.
(a) What is science education for?
(b) What kind of pupils and society do we want to produce?
3.5 KURIKULUM STANDARD SEKOLAH

RENDAH (KSSR)
The Primary School Standard Curriculum, KSSR (Kurikulum Standard Sekolah
Rendah) was introduced in 2011 as an effort to transform, restructure and
improve the current curriculum to ensure that students have the relevant
knowledge, skills and values to face the challenges of the 21st century. You will
learn more about the KSSR in Topic 6. Here we will look at how science is taught
in this new curriculum and the differences between the KBSR and KSSR.
KSSR was formulated based on a statement of standards. The statement of

standards consists of content standards and learning standards. This is shown in
Table 3.2 below:
Table 3.2: KSSR Standards
Content Standards Learning Standards

Specific statements on what the students Set criteria or indicators of education
must know and can do, within a specific quality and achievements which can be
period of schooling measured for each content standard
Under KSSR, primary education is divided into two levels similar to KBSR: Level
One from Years One to Three, and Level Two from Years Four to Six. Level One
KSSR focuses on the mastery of the 4Ms (Reading, Writing, Counting and
Reasoning), basic information and technology (ICT) skills, social, emotional,
spiritual, cognitive, physical development, attitudes and values. Level Two
focuses on reinforcing and the application of 4Ms, basic ICT skills, social,
emotional, spiritual, cognitive, physical development, attitudes and values.
In Level One all knowledge disciplines are reorganised for more effective
curriculum management to form Basic Core Modules, Thematic Core Modules,
and Elective Modules. Study Table 3.3, the Thematic Core Modules were
introduced to reduce the number of subjects taken at Level One. These modules
comprise the themes of the World of Art and World of Science and Technology.
The World of Science and Technology (Dunia Sains dan Teknologi, DST) contains
elements of Science, Information and Communication Technology (ICT), and
Design and Technology (Reka Bentuk & Teknologi, RBT).
Science is introduced in the Thematic Core Modules to provide basic knowledge

on the discipline of Science. There are two different standard documents for the
World of Science and Technology, that is Standard Document for Science
Curriculum and RBT, and the Standard Document for ICT. The Standard
Document for Science Curriculum contains the following themes: Life Science,
Physical Science, Materials Science, Earth and Space Science and Technology and
Sustainable Living (Kehidupan Lestari) (RBT).
Table 3.3: Organisation of Subjects in KSSR Level One
Basic Core Modules Thematic Core Modules Elective Modules

x Malay Language x World of Art x Arab Language
x English Language x World of Science and x Chinese Language
Technology (BCSK)
x Chinese Language
x Tamil Language (BTSK)
x Tamil Language
x Iban language
x Mathematics
x Kadazandusun
x Physical Education
Language
x Health Education
x Islamic Education/
Moral Education
In Level Two KSSR, the curriculum is organised into Core Subjects and Elective
Subjects. All subjects are carried out in a modular way. Science is introduced as a
Core Subject at this level.
The aim of the science curriculum is to inculcate interest and develop creativity
in pupils through experiences and investigations to master science knowledge,
scientific skills, thinking skills and scientific attitude and noble values.
Study Table 3.4 which shows the differences between the KSSR and KBSR.
Table 3.4: The Differences between KSSR and KBSR
KSSR (2011 - Untill Today) KBSR (1983-2010)

Curriculum design is based on six areas: Curriculum design is based on three areas:
x Communication x Communication
x Spiritual, Attitude and Values x Man and his environment
x Humanitarian x Self-development of the individual
x Physical and Aesthetical Development
x Science and Technology
Curriculum Materials Curriculum Materials
x Curriculum Standard documents x Syllabus
x Curriculum Specifications
Design of the Curriculum: Design of the Curriculum:
x Modular x Linear
Organisation of the Curriculum: Organisation of the Curriculum:

Level I (Years 1, 2 and 3) Level I (Years 1, 2 and 3)
x Basic Core Modules, Thematic Core x Core, compulsory and additional
subjects
x Modules and Elective Modules
Level II (Years 4, 5 and 6)
Level II (Years 4, 5 and 6)
x Core , Compulsory and Additional
x Core and Elective Subjects subjects
Elements of creativity and innovation, Elements of analytical and creative
entrepreneurial, information technology thinking
and communication skills
Focus: Focus:
4M (Reading, Writing, Counting and 3M (Reading, Writing and Counting)
Reasoning)
Source: Official website of MOE. http://www.moe.gov.my/en/soalan-lazim-

view?id=146&cat=30&keyword=&page=1&
ACTIVITY 3.5
Study Table 3.4. Discuss the improvements in the KSSR curriculum and
its implications on the teaching of science.
Look at Figure 3.2 which shows the development of the science curricula in
Malaysia from 1983 until today.
Figure 3.2: The development of the science curricula in Malaysia
Each curriculum was formulated based on contemporary contents, current

learning strategies and the needs of the country. A lot of careful planning went
into the formulation of these curriculums. However, the success of any
curriculum not only depends on how well it is planned but also on the
implementation. You, the teacher, are the one who implements the curriculum.
As a teacher you must understand the philosophy and foundations of the
curriculum you are using so you can implement it effectively so that its objectives
and aims are attained.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. Compare and contrast the Special Project Science Curriculum,

Man and The Environment and the Primary School Science
Curriculum (KBSR) in the following aspects:
(a) Background of curriculum formulation
(b) Rationale for curriculum formulation
(c) What conclusion can you make?
2. Use a suitable graphic organiser to show the similarities and

differences between the following science curricula:
(a) Nature Study
(b) Special Project Science Curriculum.
(c) Man and the Environment
(d) Primary School Science Curriculum (KBSR)
(e) KSSR
Discuss the similarities and differences using the following

aspects:
(a) Rationale
(b) Strengths
(c) Weakenesses
x The curriculum has to be dynamic and responsive in order to remain current

and relevant.
x At the end of the 19th century and until the mid-20th century science was
taught as „Nature Study‰ in primary schools.
x The Nature Study curriculum focused on knowledge of facts and laws of

nature based on scientific investigation of the natural world.
The Nature Study did not take into account the pupilsÊ natural environment.
The teaching approach mainly focused on textbooks and rote learning.
x The Primary School Special Project was started in 1968. The main aim of this
project was to raise the teaching standard of science and mathematics in
Malaysia.
x The Primary School Special Project used new teaching approaches but the
content remained the same.
x Services and facilities were provided to the teachers as support under the
Special Project.
x The Primary Science Special Project was pupil-centred and activity-oriented.

But there were too many teachers and not enough trainers.
x Man and His Environment was one of the subjects offered in the New
Primary School Curriculum (Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah) (KBSR).
x Alam dan Manusia stressed on integration of disciplines, enhancement of

thinking skills, inquiry and problem-solving skills and inculcation of moral
values.
x The problems encountered in this curriculum were physical constraints such

as large class size and lack of facilities. There was also inadequate in-service
training and professional support. Teachers were also stressed and
overburdened.
x Primary School Science Curriculum was implemented in 1994 under the

Integrated Curriculum for Primary Schools (Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah
Rendah), (KBSR).
x The objectives of this primary school science curriculum were to provide

opportunities for pupils to learn about themselves and the environment
through everyday experiences and scientific investigations, to acquire
knowledge and skills in science and technology and to enable pupils to
apply these knowledge and skills based on scientific attitudes and noble
values to make decisions and solve problems in everyday life.
x In the KSSR, Science is taught under the Thematic Core Modules at Level
One under the World of Art and World of Science and Technology.
x The World of Science and technology (Dunia Sains dan Teknologi, DST)
contains elements of Science, Information & Communication Technology
(ICT), and Design & Technology (Reka Bentuk & Teknologi, RBT).
x Science is introduced under the Thematic Core Modules to provide basic

knowledge in the discipline of Science.
x In Level Two KSSR, Science is introduced as a Core Subject.
x The aim of the KSSR science curriculum is to inculcate interest and develop
creativity in pupils through experiences and investigations to master science
knowledge, scientific skills, thinking skills and scientific attitude and noble
values.
Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah, Man and the Environment

(KBSR)
Nature Study
Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah,
Primary Science curriculum
(KBSR)
Primary Science Special Project
Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah,
(KSSR)
Bahagian Pembangunan Kurikulum. (2012). Kurikulum Standard Sekolah

Rendah Tahun Tiga. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia.
Buku Penerangan Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah, Kementerian Pendidikan

Malaysia. Retrieved from http://web.moe.gov.my/bpk/v2/ index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=313&Itemid=482&lang=en.

. Ministry of Education Malaysia. Integrated curriculum for primary schools.
Science syllabus. Retrieved from http://web.moe.gov.my/bpk/sp_
hsp/sains/kbsr/sp_science_primary_school.pdf.
Pusat Pembangunan Kurikulum. (2002). Huraian sukatan pelajaran Sains.

Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia.
Poh, S. H. (2003). Pedagogy Science 1: Science curriculum. Kuala Lumpur:

Kumpulan Budiman.
Razak Report, 1956. Malaysia Fact Book. Retrieved from http://malaysiafact

book.com/Razak_Report_1956 .
Sharifah Maimunah Syed Zin (1990) Curriculum Innovation: Case Studies Of

Man and the Environment in the Malaysian Primary School Curriculum
PhD thesis, University of East Anglia (unpublished).
Tan, J. N. (1999). The Development and Implementation of the Primary

School Science Currriculum in Malaysia. Unpublished PhD thesis of the
University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom.
Wong, Francis Hoy Kee, & Yee Hean Gwee (1980). Official Reports on Education:
Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States, 1870-1939. Singapore:
Pan Pacific Book Distributors.

ȱ ȱ ȱ
Topic
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X KBSR Science
ȱ
Curriculum I
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4
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
ȱ
ȱ By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
ȱ
ȱ 1. State the aims of primary school science;
ȱ 2. List the objectives of primary school science;
ȱ 3. Describe the scientific skills that are listed in the science curriculum;
ȱ
4. Identify thinking skills encompassed in any given scientific skill;
ȱ
ȱ 5. Explain various teaching methods used in science teaching and
ȱ learning; and
ȱ 6. Relate between KBSR Science Curriculum with National Philosophy,
ȱ National Science Philosophy and Vision 2020.
ȱ
ȱ
X INTRODUCTION
Science is always viewed as a difficult subject, full of abstract concepts that need
to be remembered. But if we start introducing science as early as possible and
with the right approach, children will end up being innovative scientists
contributing to the nation.
Young children are naturally curious and constantly exploring the world around
them. Classroom science provides the opportunity for children to extend this
natural curiosity and building of theories. With the help of teachers, children can
develop a greater appreciation and understanding of the natural world.
52 X TOPIC 4 KBSR SCIENCE CURRICULUM I
In this topic we will study the KBSR Science Curriculum. We will look at the
aims, objectives, scientific skills, scientific attitudes and values, the teaching and
learning strategies that can be used in the science classroom. Lastly, we will
discuss how the National Philosophy, Science Education Philosophy and Vision
2020 relate to one another.
4.1 KBSR SCIENCE CURRICULUM

Science is being offered as one subject in primary schools in Malaysia. It has
undergone a few changes in the last few years. It was first introduced as KBSR
Science under the Man and His Environment component of the curriculum in
1994. When it was first introduced, the subject was taught in Years Four, Five and
Six. Later, the subject was taught starting from Year One to Year Six. Then, in
2003, the government introduced Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Sains dan
Matematik Dalam Bahasa Inggeris (P PPSMI) (the teaching and learning of science
and mathematics in English).
The policy was the result of a Cabinet meeting on July 19, 2002 under the
administration of the fourth prime minister, Tun Dr Mahathir bin Mohamad.
According to the Ministry of Education, the policy would run in stages, starting
with the 2003 school session, pioneered by all students of Year One at primary
education level, and Form One at the secondary education level. The teaching of
science in English was then fully implemented in secondary schools in 2007, and
in primary schools in 2008. Under this policy, the science curriculum itself did
not change, only the language of instruction. But in 2009 this policy was
discontinued.
4.2 CURRICULUM SPECIFICATIONS OF KBSR

SCIENCE SYLLABUS
In this subtopic, we will look at the KBSR curriculum specifications.
4.2.1 Aims and Objectives

The aims of the primary school science curriculum are to provide opportunities
for pupils to learn about themselves and the environment through everyday
experiences and scientific investigations, to acquire knowledge and skills in
science and technology and to enable pupils to apply these knowledge and skills
based on scientific attitudes and noble values to make decisions and solve
problems in everyday life. It is hoped that this curriculum will develop the
TOPIC 4 KBSR SCIENCE CURRICULUM I W 53
potential of individuals in an overall and integrated manner so as to produce

Malaysian citizens who are scientifically and technologically literate, competent
in scientific skills, practise good moral values, capable of coping with the changes
in scientific and technological advances and be able to manage nature with
wisdom and responsibility for the betterment of mankind.
Emphasis is given to the mastery of scientific skills needed to study and

understand the world. Scientific skills refer to process skills and manipulative
skills.
The curriculum also aims to provide a strong foundation in science and

technology to prepare pupils for the learning of science in secondary school.
(a) Level One

The aim of the Primary School Science Curriculum for level one is to
develop studentsÊ interest in science and to nurture their creativity and
their curiosity.
The objectives of the Primary School Science Curriculum for Level One are
to:
(i) Stimulate pupilsÊ curiosity and develop their interest in the world
around them;
(ii) Provide pupils with opportunities to develop science process skills
and thinking skills;
(iii) Develop pupilsÊ creativity;
(iv) Provide pupils with basic science knowledge and concepts;
(v) Inculcate scientific attitudes and positive values; and
(vi) Create awareness on the need to love and care for the environment.
(b) Level Two

The aims of the Primary School Science Curriculum for level two are to
produce human beings who are experienced, skilful and morally sound in
order to form a society with a culture of science and technology and which
is compassionate, dynamic, and progressive so that people are more
responsible towards the environment and are more appreciative of natureÊs
creations.
The objectives of the Primary School Science Curriculum for level two are
to:
(i) Develop thinking skills so as to enhance intellectual ability;

(ii) Develop scientific skills and attitude through inquiry;
(iii) Enhance natural interest in their surroundings;
(iv) Gain knowledge and understanding of scientific facts and concepts to
assist in understanding themselves and the environment;
(v) Solve problems and make responsible decisions;
(vi) Handle the latest contributions and innovations in science and
technology;
(vii) Practise scientific attitudes and noble values in daily lives;
(viii) Appreciate the contributions of science and technology towards the
comfort of life; and
(ix) Appreciate arrangement and order in nature.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Choose science activities that you have done before. Which objectives
were included in the activities?
4.2.2 Scientific Skills

You have also explored scientific skills in detail in HBSC2203 Tools in Learning
Science. Thus in this section we will just mention and list them briefly. Science
emphasises inquiry and problem-solving. In inquiry and problem-solving
processes, scientific and thinking skills are utilised. Scientific skills are important
in any scientific investigation such as conducting and carrying out projects.
Scientific skills encompass science process skills and manipulative skills.
(a) Science Process Skills

Science process skills enable students to formulate their questions and find
the answers systematically. Descriptions of the science process skills are as
shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Description of Science Process Skills
Observing Using the senses of hearing, touch, smell, taste and sight to find
out about objects or events.
Classifying Using observations to group objects or events according to

similarities or differences.
Measuring and Making quantitative observations by comparing with a

Using Numbers conventional or non-conventional standard.
Making Inferences Using past experiences or previously collected data to draw

conclusions and come up with explanations of events
Predicting Making a forecast about what will happen in the future based on
prior knowledge gained through experiences or collected data.
Communicating Using words or graphic symbols such as tables, graphs, figures

or models to describe an action, object or event.
Using space-time Describing changes in parameters with time. Examples of

relationship parameters are location, direction, shape, size, volume, weight
and mass.
Interpreting data Giving rational explanations about an object, events or pattern

derived from collected data.
Defining Defining all variables as they are used in an experiment by

operationally describing what must be done and what should be observed.
Controlling variables Naming the fixed variables, manipulated variables, and

responding variables in an investigation.
Making Hypotheses Making a general statement about the relationship between a

manipulated variable and a responding variable to explain an
observation or event. The statement can be tested to determine
its validity.
Experimenting Planning and conducting activities including collecting,

analysing and interpreting data and making conclusions.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
What are the basic skills encompassed in the experimenting skill?

(b) Manipulative Skills

Manipulative skills in scientific investigation are psychomotor skills that
enable students to:
(i) Use and handle science apparatus and substances;

(ii) Handle specimens correctly and carefully;
(iii) Draw specimens, apparatus;
(iv) Clean science apparatus; and
(v) Store science apparatus.
4.2.3 Thinking Skills

Thinking is a mental process that requires an individual to integrate knowledge,
skills and attitude in an effort to understand the environment.
One of the objectives of the national education system is to enhance the thinking
ability of students. This objective can be achieved through a curriculum that
emphasises thoughtful learning. Teaching and learning that emphasises thinking
skills is a foundation for thoughtful learning.
Thoughtful learning is achieved if students are actively involved in the teaching

and learning process. Activities should be organised to provide opportunities for
students to apply thinking skills in conceptualisation, problem-solving and
decision-making.
Thinking skills can be categorised into critical thinking skills and creative
thinking skills. A person who thinks critically always evaluates an idea in a
systematic manner before accepting it. A person who thinks creatively has a high
level of imagination, is able to generate original and innovative ideas, and
modify ideas and products.
Thinking strategies are higher order thinking processes that involve various
steps. Each step involves various critical and creative thinking skills. The ability
to formulate thinking strategies is the ultimate aim of introducing thinking
activities in the teaching and learning process.
(a) Critical Thinking Skills

A brief description of each critical thinking skill is as follows (Table 4.2):
Table 4.2: Critical Thinking Skills
Attributing Identifying criteria such as characteristics, features, qualities and

elements of a concept or an object.
Comparing and Finding similarities and differences based on criteria such as

Contrasting characteristics, features, qualities and elements of a concept or
event.
Grouping and Separating and grouping objects or phenomena into categories

Classifying based on certain criteria such as common characteristics or features
Sequencing Arranging objects and information in order based on the quality or

quantity of common characteristics or features such as size, time,
shape or number.
Prioritising Arranging objects and information in order based on their

importance or priority
Analysing Examining information in detail by breaking it down into smaller

parts to find implicit meaning and relationships.
Detecting Bias Identifying views or opinions that have the tendency to support or
oppose something in an unfair or misleading way.
Evaluating Making judgments on the quality or value of something based on

valid reasons or evidence.
Making Making a statement about the outcome of an investigation that is

Conclusions based on a hypothesis.
(b) Creative Thinking Skills

A brief description of each creative thinking skill is as follows (Table 4.3):
Table 4.3: Creative Thinking Skills
Generating Ideas Producing or giving ideas in a discussion.
Relating Making connections in a certain situation to determine in a certain

situation to determine a structure or pattern of relationship.
Making Using past experiences or previously collected data to draw

Inferences conclusions and come up with explanations of events.
Predicting Making a forecast about what will happen in the future based on
prior knowledge gained through experiences or collected data.
Making Making a general conclusion about a group based on observations

Generalisations made on, or some information from, samples of the group.
Visualising Recalling or forming mental images about a particular idea,

concept, situation or vision.
Synthesising Combining separate elements or parts to form a general picture in

various forms such as writing, drawing or artefact.
Making Making a general statement about the relationship between a

Hypotheses manipulated variable and a responding variable to explain an
observation or event. The statement can be tested to determine its
validity.
Making Understanding a certain abstract or complex concept by relating it

Analogies to a simpler or concrete concept with similar characteristics.
Inventing Producing something new or adapting something already in

existence to overcome problems in a systematic manner.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Refer to the curriculum specifications. What are the thinking skills

encompassed in:
(a) Observing?
(b) Classifying?
(c) Making inference?
(d) Measuring and using numbers?
4.2.4 Scientific Attitudes and Noble Values

Science learning experiences can be used as a means to inculcate scientific
attitudes and noble values in students. These attitudes and values encompass the
following:
(a) Having an interest and curiosity in the environment;

(b) Being honest and accurate in recording and validating data;
(c) Being diligent and persevering;
(d) Being responsible about the safety of oneself, others, and the environment;
(e) Realising that science is a means to understand nature;
(f) Appreciating and practising clean and healthy living;
(g) Appreciating the balance of nature;
(h) Being respectful and well mannered;
(i) Appreciating the contribution of science and technology;
(j) Being thankful to God;
(k) Having analytical and critical thinking skills;
(l) Being flexible and open-minded;
(m) Being kind-hearted and caring;
(n) Being objective;
(o) Being systematic;
(p) Being cooperative;
(q) Being fair and just;
(r) Daring to try;
(s) Thinking rationally; and
(t) Being confident and independent.
The inculcation of scientific attitudes and noble values generally occurs through
the following stages:
(a) Stage 1: Being aware of the importance and the need for scientific attitudes
and noble values.
(b) Stage 2: Giving emphasis to these attitudes and values.
(c) Stage 3: Practising and internalising these scientific attitudes and noble
values.
ACTIVITY 4.3
1. Think of science activities that you can do.
2. What are suitable attitudes and noble values that can be

incorporated in those activities?
4.2.5 Teaching and Learning Strategies

Teaching and learning strategies in science curriculum emphasise thoughtful
learning. Thoughtful learning is a process that helps students acquire knowledge
and master skills that will help them develop their minds to the optimum level.
Thoughtful learning can occur through various learning approaches such as
inquiry, constructivism, contextual learning and mastery learning.
Learning activities should therefore be geared towards activating studentsÊ

critical and creative thinking skills and not be confined to routine or rote
learning. Students should be made aware of the thinking skills and thinking
strategies that they use in their learning. They should be challenged with higher
order questions and problems and be required to solve problems utilising their
creativity and critical thinking. The teaching and learning process should enable
students to acquire knowledge, master skills and develop scientific attitudes and
noble values in an integrated manner.
Inquiry-discovery emphasises learning through experiences. Inquiry generally

means to find information, to question and to investigate a phenomenon that
occurs in the environment. Discovery is the main characteristic of inquiry.
Learning through discovery occurs when the main concepts and principles of
science are investigated and discovered by students themselves. Through
activities such as experiments, students investigate a phenomenon and draw

conclusions by themselves. Teachers then lead students to understand the science
concepts though the results of the inquiry. Thinking skills and scientific skills are
thus developed further during the inquiry process. However, the inquiry
approach may not be suitable for all teaching and learning situations. Sometimes,
it may be more appropriate for teachers to present concepts and principles
directly to students.
The use of variety of teaching and learning methods can enhance studentsÊ
interest in science. Science lessons that are not interesting will not motivate
students to learn and subsequently will affect their performance. The choice of
teaching methods should be based on the curriculum content, studentsÊ abilities,
studentsÊ repertoire of intelligences, and the availability of resources and
infrastructure. Different teaching and learning activities should be planned to
cater for students with different learning styles and intelligences.
The following are brief descriptions of some teaching and learning methods.
(a) Experiment
An experiment is a method commonly used in science lessons. In
experiments, students test hypotheses through investigations to discover
specific science concepts and principles. Conducting an experiment
involves thinking skills, scientific skills and manipulative skills.
In the implementation of this curriculum, besides guiding students to carry

out experiments, where appropriate, teachers should provide students with
the opportunities to design their own experiments. This involves students
drawing up plans as to how to conduct experiments, how to measure and
analyse data and how to present the results of their experiment.
(b) Discussion
A discussion is an activity in which students exchange questions and
opinions based on valid reasons. Discussions can be conducted before,
during or after an activity. Teachers should play the role of facilitator and
lead a discussion by asking questions that stimulate thinking and getting
students to express themselves.
(c) Simulation
In simulation, an activity that resembles the actual situation is carried out.
Examples of simulation are role play, games and the use of models. In role
play, students play out a particular role based on certain pre-determined
conditions. Games require procedures that need to be followed. Students
play games in order to learn a particular principle or to understand the
process of decision-making. Models are used to represent objects or actual

situations so that students can visualise the said objects or situations and
thus understand the concepts and principles to be learned.
(d) Project
A project is a learning activity that is generally undertaken by an
individual or a group of students to achieve a particular learning objective.
A project generally requires several lessons to complete. The outcome of
the project either in the form of a report, an artefact or in other forms needs
to be presented to the teacher and other students. Project work promotes
the development of problem-solving skills, time management skills, and
independent learning.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
„Several experiments can be included while completing a project.‰
Explain the given statement.
(e) Visits and Use of External Resources

The learning of science is not limited to activities carried out in the school.
Learning of science can be enhanced through the use of external resources
such as zoos, museums, science centres, research institutes, mangrove
swamps, and factories. Visits to these places make the learning of science
more interesting, meaningful and effective. To optimise learning
opportunities, visits need to be carefully planned. Students should be
assigned tasks during the visit. No educational visit is complete without a
post-visit discussion.
(f) Use of Technology

Technology is a powerful tool that has great potential in enhancing the
learning of science. Through the use of technology such as television, radio,
video, computer, and the Internet, the teaching and learning of science can
be made more interesting and effective.
Computer simulation and animation are effective tools for the teaching and
learning of abstract or difficult science concepts. Computer simulation and
animation can be presented through courseware or webpages. Application
tools such as word processors, graphic presentation software and electronic
spreadsheets are valuable tools for the analysis and presentation of data.
ACTIVITY 4.4
What would be the suitable methods that can be used to teach the
following learning outcomes?
Learning Outcome Method

Specify the parts of the human body.
Mimic animal sounds.
Simulate animal movements.
Design a book cover.
4.2.6 Relationship between KBSR Science Curriculum

and National Philosophy, National Science
Philosophy and Vision 2020
All efforts in education in Malaysia are based on the National Philosophy of
Education (Figure 4.1). In consonant with this philosophy the National Science
Education Philosophy (Figure 4.2) is derived. With these two main references, the
KBSR Science Curriculum was formulated. The aims and objectives when
fulfilled will lead to the achievement of the two philosophies. The contents are
just the tools to achieve the aims and objectives through appropriate teaching
and learning strategies.
Figure 4.1: National Philosophy of Education

Figure 4.2: National Science Education Philosophy
The needs of the nation are also factors to consider when formulating a
curriculum. Vision 2020 is one of the many policies introduced by the
government. What it hopes to achieve is that by the year 2020, Malaysia can be a
united nation, with a confident Malaysian society, infused with strong moral and
ethical values, living in a society that is democratic, liberal and tolerant, caring,
economically just and equitable, progressive and prosperous, and in full
possession of an economy that is competitive, dynamic, robust and resilient.
There can be no fully developed Malaysia until we have finally overcome the
nine central strategic challenges that have confronted us from the moment of our
birth as an independent nation. The challenge that is most relevant to the science
education is the sixth challenge.
The sixth is the challenge of establishing a scientific and progressive society, a

society that is innovative and forward-looking, one that is not only a
consumer of technology but also a contributor to the scientific and
technological civilisation of the future.
If all science teachers really understand the aims and objectives of primary
science curriculum, they will be able to fulfil the aspirations of the National
Philosophy of Education, the National Science Education Philosophy and the
sixth challenge of Vision 2020.
ACTIVITY 4.5
As a science teacher how would you incorporate the national philosophy,

the science education philosophy and Vision 2020 in your daily lessons?
x The main aim of the primary school science curriculum is to provide

opportunities for pupils to learn about themselves and the environment
through everyday experiences and scientific investigations.
x It is also to produce Malaysian citizens who are scientifically and

technologically literate, competent in scientific skills, and practise good
moral values.
x There are six objectives in Level I and nine objectives in Level II to be

achieved in the curriculum.
x There are 12 science process skills and five manipulative skills to inculcate in
the curriculum.
x Thinking skills can be categorised into critical thinking skills and creative
thinking skills.
x Thinking skills are sub-skills of the science process skills.
x Science learning experiences can be used as a means to inculcate scientific

attitudes and noble values in students.
x Inquiry-discovery is the approach suitable for science learning. It emphasises

learning through experiences.
x Experiment, project, discussion, simulation, visit and use of external

resources, and use of technology, are some methods recommended for the
teaching of science.
x The aims and objectives of KBSR Science are based on the National
Philosophy of Education and the Science Education Philosophy. The sixth
challenge of Vision 2020 can also be achieved if the teaching and learning of
science is implemented as stipulated in the curriculum.
Creative thinking skills Science process skills

Critical thinking skills Scientific attitudes and values
Discussion Scientific skills
Experiment Simulation
Manipulative skills Thinking skills
National Philosophy of Education Use of technology
Project Vision 2020
Science Education Philosophy Visit and external resources
Esler, W. K., & Esler, M. K. (2001). Teaching elementary science (8th ed.).
Washington: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Green, N. P., Stout, G. W., & Taylor, D. J. (1993). Biological science (2nd ed.).
Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Martin, D. J. (2006). Elementary science methods: A constructivist approach (4th

ed.). Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.
Martin, R., Sexton, C., & Gerlovich, J. (2002). Teaching science for all children

Harcourt Brace.
Yap, K. C., Toh, K. A., Goh, N. K., & Bak, H. K. (2004). Teaching primary science.
Singapore: Pearson Prentice Hall.
ȱ
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Topic
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X KBSR Science
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Curriculum II
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ȱ
ȱ
5
ȱ
ȱ LEARNING OUTCOMES
ȱ
ȱ
1. Describe the content organisation of the KBSR science curriculum;
ȱ
ȱ 2. List the themes, learning areas, learning objectives, and learning
ȱ outcomes of Level I and Level II of the KBSR science curriculum;
ȱ 3. Explain the role of the „Suggested Learning Activities‰ column in the
ȱ curriculum specifications; and
ȱ 4. Explain the role of the „Notes and vocabulary‰ column in the
ȱ curriculum specifications.
ȱ
X INTRODUCTION
You have learnt about the background of the KBSR Science Curriculum that is
currently being implemented in our primary schools in the last topic. This
curriculum is being phased out and replaced by Kurikulum Standard Sekolah
Rendah (KSSR). This curriculum began in 2011. Thus currently this year, students
in Years One, Two and Three are using the KKSR while students in Years Four,
Five and Six are still using the KBSR Science Curriculum. We will discuss KSSR
in detail in Topic 6.
In Topic 4 we looked at the aims and objectives of the curriculum, and the main
emphases of the curriculum. In this topic we will study how those aims and
objectives are going to be achieved in any daily science lesson. Specifically, we
will look at the content organisation of the KBSR Science Curriculum. The main
reference that you need to enable you to fully understand this topic are the KBSR
Science Syllabus and the Curriculum Specifications of Level I and Level II.
68 X TOPIC 5 KBSR SCIENCE CURRICULUM II
5.1 CONTENT ORGANISATION OF KBSR

SCIENCE SYLLABUS
The content is organised under different themes (see Figure 5.1). The themes are
then divided into learning areas. These define the scope of science content that is
needed to be taught in each year. Learning objectives can be regarded as targets
that a teacher has to achieve for each learning area. These are further clarified by
the learning outcome statements.
Figure 5.1: Content organisation of the KBSR Science Curriculum
5.1.1 Themes
The science curriculum is organised around themes. Each theme consists of
various learning areas,, each of which consists of a number of learning objectives.
A learning objective has one or more learning outcomes.
There are two themes for Level I and five themes for Level II.
TOPIC 5 KBSR SCIENCE CURRICULUM II W 69
Level I
x Learning about Living Things (Benda Hidup)

The theme introduces pupils to living things and non-living things.
Pupils learn about themselves, animals and plants around them. Pupils
also learn about senses, good health, good habits and some of the life
processes that humans undergo.
x Learning about the World Around Us (Dunia di sekeliling kita)

The theme introduces pupils to the senses of sight, touch, smell, hearing
and taste. Pupils also learn about batteries, magnet, light, soil and force.
Pupils learn about properties of materials such as sink and float,
absorption and magnetism.
Level II
x Investigating Living Things (Menyiasat Benda Hidup)

The theme introduces pupils to the basic understanding of the basic
needs of living things, life processes, and interactions among living
things and how living things survive and create a balance in nature. This
theme also focuses on life processes in man for pupils to understand
themselves. It also explains why man is special compared with other
living things.
x Investigating Force and Energy (Menyiasat Daya dan Tenaga)

The theme introduces the basic physical quantities through which pupils
are exposed to the principles of measurement, the use of standard units
and the importance of using standard units. The theme also includes
light, heat, sound, energy, movement and electricity. Pupils are
introduced to force and speed too at this level.
x Investigating Materials (Menyiasat Bahan)

This theme aims to provide pupils the opportunities to investigate
natural materials and man-made materials. Pupils use their knowledge
about physical properties of materials and relate them to their use. The
theme also includes the study of the formation of clouds and rains.
Acid, alkali and neutral substances are also introduced. It also enables
pupils to understand how things around them rust and how food is
preserved. Finally an exposure to issues on waste disposal will create an
awareness that man needs to play a responsible role in an effort to
manage nature wisely.
x Investigating the Earth and the Universe (Menyiasat Bumi dan Alam
Semester)
The theme aims to provide the understanding of the Earth, Moon, Sun
and Solar System as a whole. The theme also provides understanding of
the effects of the earth, moon and sun movements and how these
movements can be beneficial to mankind.
x Investigating Technology (Menyiasat Teknologi)

The theme aims to provide an introduction to the study of the
development of technology and current technologies in agriculture,
communication, transportation and construction. Pupils are given the
chance to design their own working models based on the science
concepts they have learnt.
[Science Syllabus, PPK 2003]
5.1.2 Learning Areas

The basic science concepts that need to be mastered by the primary school
students is organised into learning areas under each theme. These concepts are
sequentially arranged from easy to complex. The easy concepts are to be taught
first before moving to the next concepts. The concepts included in the syllabus
are also those that are suitable for the cognitive developments of primary school
students.
ACTIVITY 5.1
Each theme consists of many learning areas. Fill in the various learning
areas for each theme from Year One to Year Six. (Refer to the curriculum
specifications). You can use the following table as a guide.
Year Year Year Year Year

Theme Year Six
One Two Three Four Five
5.1.3 Learning Objectives

The terms „goals‰ and „objectives‰ are different. Goals are broad and sometimes
difficult to directly measure. Goals help us to focus on the big and important
picture. From a particular goal we could write a set of related and specific
learning objectives. For example, the goal is that students should understand the
relationship between protein structure and function. To achieve this goal the
following objectives might have to be met: describe amino acid structure, list
common categories of amino acid, explain how peptide bonds are formed,
describe how covalent, ionic and hydrophobic interactions create secondary and
tertiary structures.
A learning objective should describe what students should know or be able to do

at the end of the course that they would not have been able to do before.
Learning objectives should be about student performance. Each individual
learning objective should support the overarching goal of the course, that is, the
thread that unites all the topics that will be covered and all the skills students
that should have been mastered by the end of the semester.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
Which statements are true?

(a) Goals are general; objectives are specific.
(b) There are more objectives than goals.
(c) Goals are like strategies; objectives are like tactics.
Learning objectives are also statements that describe what a learner will be able
to do as a result of teaching. However, the connection between teaching and
learning is not a simple one. Just because knowledge or skills are taught does not
mean that particular knowledge or skills are learned. Many factors can interfere
with the achievement of objectives: the existing knowledge of the learner, the
relevance or usefulness of the material presented, and the skills of the teacher.
Learning objectives are aimed at the three domains of learning: knowledge, skills
and attitudes. For example:
(a) Knowledge: Microorganism is a living thing.

(b) Skill: Make inferences about microorganism.
(c) Attitude: Appreciate the importance of microorganism.
ACTIVITY 5.2
Get any science curriculum specifications. Identify and list examples of

learning objectives that refer to knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
The scope of science concepts that the students have to achieve for each learning
area is stated as learning objectives in our science curriculum specifications. The
learning objectives are worded differently in Level I and Level II. Table 5.1 shows
some examples of learning objectives.
Table 5.1: Examples of Learning Objectives according to Year
Year Learning Objectives

Two x To observe and compare lengths; and
x To measure length using non-standard tools.
Three x To observe and recognise external features of plants; and
x That plants can be grouped according to external features.
Four x Being aware that certain behaviour can disturb life processes; and
x Understanding the life processes in plants.
Five x Understanding that some microorganisms are harmful and some are
useful; and
x Understanding the uses of energy.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
Study all the learning objective statements in Level I and Level II. How
do they differ?
5.1.4 Learning Outcomes

What is the difference between learning objective and learning outcome
statements in our curriculum specifications? Yes! Learning outcome statements
are more specific than learning objective statements.
In our curriculum specifications, one learning objective could contain one

learning outcome or a few learning outcomes.
For example:
Learning objective:
x What animals need to live?
Learning outcome:
x State that animals need food, water and air to stay alive.
Learning objective:
x The different foods that animals eat.
Learning outcomes:
x List the foods eaten by some animals
x State that some animals
eat plants
eat other animals
eat plants and other animals
Learning outcomes are written in the form of measurable behavioural terms. In

general, the learning outcomes for a particular learning objective are organised in
order of complexity. However, in the process of teaching and learning, learning
activities should be planned in a holistic and integrated manner that enables the
achievement of multiple learning outcomes according to needs and context.
Teachers should avoid employing a teaching strategy that tries to achieve each
learning outcome separately according to the order stated in the curriculum
specifications.
A good learning outcome should contain three parts:
(a) What the students will do to demonstrate learning.

(b) The context within which the students will demonstrate learning.
(c) How well the students demonstrate their learning.
Here is one example of a learning outcome with each of the three parts.
The student will be able to design and draft a company report using
information provided in case study materials such that the final report is
suitable for discussion at Board level.
(a) What the student will do: design and draft a company report
(b) In which context: using information provided in case study materials
(c) How well she/he will do it: suitable for discussion at Board level.
ACTIVITY 5.3
Do the following learning outcomes contain the three components?
Learning Outcomes Yes No What is Missing?
State examples of use of microorganisms
State various ways plants disperse their

seeds and fruits
Give examples of plants that disperse

seeds and fruits by water
Construct a food chain
SELF-CHECK 5.1
Must you write down the three components of the learning outcomes
when you are planning the daily lesson plan? Why?
Learning outcomes in the cognitive domain are written using appropriate words
(verbs) that reflect the hierarchy of thinking. Table 5.2 shows a sample of such
words according to BloomÊs taxonomy.
Table 5.2: Learning Outcomes in the Cognitive Domain
BloomÊs Level Specific Learning Outcomes

Knowledge Define, describe, identify, label, list, match, state
Understand Estimate, explain, give examples, measure, classify
Apply Calculate, count, demonstrate, adapt, generate ideas
Analyse Exemplify, choose, differentiate, solve problems, sequence,
prioritise, conclude, control variables
Synthesise Plan, summarise, construct, structure, conceptualise, make an
analogy, define operationally
Evaluate Compute, criticise, support, rationalise, decide
ACTIVITY 5.4
The following learning objectives are taken from Science Year Two. Write
out the learning outcomes for these learning objectives.
Learning Objective Learning Outcomes

To measure length using non- standard
tools.
To make a complete circuit.
5.1.5 Suggested Learning Activities

The Suggested Learning Activities provide information on the scope and
dimension of learning outcomes. The learning activities stated under the column
ÂSuggested Learning ActivitiesÊ are given with the intention of providing some
guidance as to how learning outcomes can be achieved. A suggested activity may
cover one or more learning outcomes. At the same time, more than one activity
may be suggested for a particular learning outcome.
If you are a new teacher or you may not be familiar with the content of the topic,
you are thus advised to just do the suggested learning activities as listed. After a
few tries, you can modify the suggested activity to suit the ability and style of
learning of your students. The suggested activities may also need to be modified
because you cannot get the resources, or maybe just to make learning more
meaningful when it is contextualised to things that are familiar to your students.
Experienced teachers are encouraged to design other innovative and effective

learning activities to enhance the learning of science. You could include the use
of ICT into the lesson as your students adapt to those resources. You could assign
projects to be done individually or in groups if your students are more
independent. And later you could ask the students to present their projects in a
science fair so that students could share with the rest of the schools and even
show their parents.
ACTIVITY 5.5
Prepare the mapping of the curriculum specifications for two selected

learning objectives using the following table.
Teaching and
Topic Scientific Skills Values
Learning Strategy
ACTIVITY 5.6
Select a few learning objectives from the curriculum specifications for

Science Year Five and suggest learning activities other than the suggested
learning activities given.
5.1.6 Notes and Vocabulary

In the `notesÊ column, additional information is given to teachers to help them to
plan the teaching and learning activities more effectively. You may use this
information if you wish. It also contains safety measures that you need to take
note of to ensure your studentsÊ safety while doing the activities.
The `vocabularyÊ column contains important vocabulary that is included in each

learning objective. You can use these as a checklist in the beginning when you are
planning the lesson, so that you can attract your studentsÊ attention to these
concepts. You could also use these at the end of the lesson as a check whether
students have understood these concepts.
ACTIVITY 5.7
Select any learning objectives from the curriculum specifications and

study the notes described in those sections.
(a) How does the description help you to plan the daily lesson plan?
(b) What additional notes can you add that could further help to
achieve the learning objectives?
x The science curriculum is organised around themes.
Each theme consists of various learning areas,, each of which consists of a

number of learning objectives.
There are two themes for Level I and five themes for Level II.
A learning objective has one or more learning outcomes.
The scope of science concepts that the students have to achieve for each
learning area are stated as learning objectives in our science curriculum
specifications.
Learning outcomes are written in the form of measurable behavioural terms.

x A good learning outcome should contain three parts, what the students will
do that demonstrates learning, the context within which the students will
demonstrate learning, and how well they can demonstrate their learning.
x The Suggested Learning Activities provide information on the scope and

dimension of learning outcomes and how learning outcomes can be
achieved.
x A suggested activity may cover one or more learning outcomes.
x The suggested learning activities can be used as it is, modified, or changed

completely.
x The Notes and Vocabulary are additional guides that can further help
teachers to plan and conduct lesson plans.
Learning area Notes and vocabulary

Learning objectives Suggested learning activities
Learning outcomes Themes
Bahagian Perkembangan Kurikulum. (2012). Spesifikasi Kurikulum Sains Tahun

4. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Education Malaysia.
Curriculum Development Centre. (2002). Curriculum specifications Science Year

2. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Education Malaysia.
Curriculum Development Centre. (2003). Science Syllabus. Kuala Lumpur:

Ministry of Education Malaysia.
Esler, W.K. & Esler, M. K. (2001). Teaching elementary science (8th ed.).
Green, N.P., Stout, G.W, & Taylor, D.J. (1993). Biological science (2nd ed.).
Learning Objectives. Retrieved from http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/medical-

school/tips/aims_objectives.html
Martin, D. J. (2006). Elementary science methods: A constructivist approach(4th

Martin, R.; Sexton, C.; Gerlovich, J. (2002). Teaching Science for all children:

Harcourt Brace.
Writing Learning Outcomes: Some Suggestions. Retrieved from http://www.

brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsld/resources/writing_learning_outcomes.html
Yap, K. C., Toh, K. A., Goh, N. K., and Bak, H. K. (2004). Teaching primary
science. Singapore: Pearson Prentice Hall.
ȱ
Topic X KSSR
6
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the concept and aims of the Primary School Standard
Curriculum (KSSR);
2. Discuss the principles and focus of the KSSR;
3. Describe the organisation and specifications of the KSSR; and
4. Discuss the implementation of the KSSR.
X INTRODUCTION
TOPIC 6 KSSR W 81
Look at the scenario above. Many parents will be asking such questions
especially when a new curriculum has been implemented. If you were the
teacher how would you go about explaining the KSSR to parents?
You would need to explain the concept, aims, main principles and focus of the
KSSR followed by its organisation and how it will be implemented. In this topic
you will learn about the Primary School Standard Curriculum, KSSR. This
knowledge will enable you to understand the curriculum fully and carry out the
teaching and learning process more effectively.
6.1 CONCEPT AND AIMS OF THE KSSR

The Primary School Standard Curriculum (Kurikulum Standard Sekolah
Rendah), or KSSR, was introduced in stages starting in 2011. The KSSR replaced
the Primary School Integrated Curriculum (KBSR) which was first introduced in
1983, and subsequently reviewed in 2003. KSSR will be fully implemented by
2016.
Why do you think there was a transformation of the curriculum? Try to recall
what you learnt in Topic 1 about the factors of how a curriculum is formulated.
There was a need to develop a curriculum that was on par globally with other
developed nations. KSSR was introduced as an effort to restructure and improve
the current curriculum (KBSR) to ensure that students have the relevant
knowledge, skills and values to face the challenges of the 21st century.
6.1.1 The Aims of the KSSR

The KSSR is based on the National Philosophy of Education and the National
Education Policy. The KSSR also takes into account the challenges of the 21st
century, the New Economic Model (MBE), current learning theories and the four
pillars of education. The four pillars of education according to United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) are the
fundamental principles for reshaping education. These pillars are: Learn to
Learn, Learn to Do, Learn to Be and Learn to Live Together. This is illustrated in
Table 6.1.
82 X TOPIC 6 KSSR
Table 6.1: The Four Pillars of Education
Pillar Description
Learning To provide the cognitive tools required to better comprehend the world and
to know its complexities, and to provide an appropriate and adequate foundation for
future learning.
Learning To provide the skills that would enable individuals to effectively participate
to do in the global economy and society.
Learning To provide self-analytical and social skills to enable individuals to develop
to be to their fullest potential psychosocially, affectively as well as physically, to
become an all-round ÂcompleteÊ person.
Learning To expose individuals to the values implicit within human rights,
to live democratic principles, intercultural understanding and respect, and peace
together at all levels of society and human relationships and also to enable
individuals and societies to live in peace and harmony.
Source: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/networks/global-
networks/aspnet/about-us/strategy/the-four-pillars-of-learning/
Pupils under the KSSR will be well balanced intellectually, spiritually, emotionally,
physically and socially. They will become responsible citizens, global players, and
knowledge workers. Table 6.2 shows the desired characteristics of pupils under the
KSSR.
Table 6.2: Desired Characteristics of Pupils Under KSSR
Pupils who are well balanced intellectually, Responsible Citizens

spiritually, emotionally, physically and socially
x Knowledgeable x Courteous
x Competent x United
x Belief in God x Patriotic
x High moral fibre x Fair
x Confident x Loving
x Independent x Dedicated
Global Players Knowledge Workers
x Competitive x Innovative
x Resilient x Creative
x Communication skills x Knowledge seeking
x Identity x ICT competent
x Inventors of Technology
x Lifelong learners
(Adapted from Hasrat KSSR)
Source:
http://web.moe.gov.my/bpk/v2/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=31
1&Itemid=477&lang=en&limitstart=1
TOPIC 6 KSSR W 83
6.1.2 Principles of the KSSR

The principles of the KSSR are given below:
(a) Integrated approach;

(b) Holistic development of the individual;
(c) Equal education for all pupils; and
(d) Lifelong education.
Do you see any similarities with the principles of the KBSR? The KSSR upholds
all the principles of the KBSR because of its relevance in developing well-
balanced holistic individuals.
6.1.3 Focus of the KSSR

KSSR stresses on the 4Ms, that is, reading (membaca), writing (menulis),
arithmetic (mengira), and reasoning (menaakul).
At Level I, teaching and learning stresses on the mastery of the 4Ms. The focus is
on literacy and numeracy at this level. Added values such as creativity and
innovation, entrepreneurship and personality development are also stressed.
At Level II, the emphasis is on strengthening and application of the 4M skills in

addition to mastering more complex skills, ICT skills, knowledge acquisition and
personality development.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. Why was there a need for the transformation of the primary

school curriculum?
2. What are the main aims of the KSSR?

84 X TOPIC 6 KSSR
6.2 THE ORGANISATION AND

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE KSSR
The KBSR was based on three areas namely: Communication; Man and His
Surroundings; and Individual Self Development. The KSSR has been redesigned
and the primary school curriculum is now based on six pillars, namely:
(a) Communication;
(b) Spiritual Attitude and Values;
(c) Humanitarianism;
(d) Physical and Aesthetic Development;
(e) Science and Technology; and
(f) Self-Excellence.
This is shown and explained in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: The 6 Pillars of KSSR
Pillars of KSSR Description

COMMUNICATION x Integration of verbal and non-verbal communication
(Komunikasi) during interaction.
SPIRITUAL ATTITUDE x Appreciation of religious practices, beliefs, attitudes and
AND VALUES values.
(Kerohanian, Sikap dan
Nilai)
HUMANITARIANISM x Mastery of knowledge and practices about the local
(Kemanusiaan) community and environment as well as about the national
and global environment.
x Inculcation of the spirit of patriotism and unity.
PHYSICAL AND x Physical development and health for well being.
AESTHETIC x Fostering imagination, creativity, talent and appreciation.
DEVELOPMENT
(Perkembangan Fizikal
dan Estetika)
SCIENCE AND x Mastery of scientific knowledge, skills and attitudes.
TECHNOLOGY x Mastery of mathematical knowledge and skills.
(Sains dan Teknologi)
x Mastery of technological knowledge and skills.
SELF EXCELLENCE x Fostering leadership and personal development through
(Ketrampilan Diri) curricular and co-curricular activities.
TOPIC 6 KSSR W 85
6.2.1 Organisation of the KSSR

What are the changes in the organisation of the primary school curriculum?
KSSR is organised in a modular form with a group of subjects in a group called a

module. Subjects too are arranged in a modular way, that is, the subject content is
arranged in self-contained modules. Each module contains the knowledge, skills
and values that have been identified for each module. Different disciplines have
been integrated to make the teaching and learning process more interesting, fun
and meaningful.
In Level I KSSR, all knowledge disciplines are reorganised for more effective
curriculum management to form Basic Core Modules, Thematic Core Modules,
and Elective Modules. Study Table 6.4.
Table 6.4: Level One Modules of KSSR
Basic Core Modules Thematic Modules Elective Modules

x Bahasa Malaysia x World of Art x Arab Language
(Integrates Visual Arts
x English Language x Chinese Language
and Thematic Music)
(BCSK)
x Chinese Language
x World of Science and
x Tamil Language
x Tamil Language Technology (DST)
(BTSK)
(Integrates Science,
x Mathematics RBT and ICT) x Iban language
x Physical Education
x Kadazandusun
x Health Education Language
x Islamic Education/
Moral Education
x These subjects are x These subjects are x Schools must offer at
compulsory. compulsory. least one language
subject based on
x Islamic Education for
teacher preparation,
Muslim pupils, and
pupilsÊ request and
Moral Education for
school infrastructure
non-Muslim pupils.
Level I emphasises the mastery of the 4Ms, basic ICT and the development of
socio-emotional, spiritual, physical, cognitive, attitudes and values.
86 X TOPIC 6 KSSR
In Level II KSSR, the curriculum is organised into Core Subjects and Elective
Subjects. Study Figure 6.1 which shows the core and elective subjects together
with the respective pillars.
Figure 6.1: Level II subjects of KSSR

Source:
TOPIC 6 KSSR W 87
At Level II, the emphasis is on strengthening and application of the 4M skills in

addition to mastering more complex skills, ICT skills, knowledge acquisition and
personality development.
(a) Cross-curricular Elements

Cross-curricular elements are an added value applied to the teaching
learning process other than those specified in the content standards. These
elements aim to strengthen the skills and expertise of human capital and
are intended to address current and future challenges. These elements are
English, Science and Technology, Environmental Education, Noble Values
and Patriotism. Study Figure 6.2 which shows the cross-curricular elements
in the KSSR.
Figure 6.2: Cross-curricular elements in KSSR

Source:
88 X TOPIC 6 KSSR
(b) Special Education

Students in Special Education (Hearing Impaired) and students in Special
Education (Visually Impaired) generally use the mainstream curriculum.
However, there are some modifications made to the number of elective
subjects offered in accordance with special learning needs. Students in
Special Education (Hearing Impaired) and students in Special Education
(Visually Impaired) are required to learn additional subjects such as Sign
Language Communication (PCI) and Basic Skills for the Visually Impaired
Individuals (KAIMaL) respectively.
The Curriculum for Special Education (Learning Difficulties) is developed

based on the capabilities and needs of pupils. The curriculum for these
pupils is more focused on the mastery of skills to meet the needs of
individuals, and is not too academically oriented. The teaching and
learning programmes are designed in a flexible manner in accordance with
the Regulations of Education (Special Education) 1997.
In Level I, Special Education (Learning Difficulties) pupils are given basic

3M subjects, Life Management, Creative Arts, Islamic Education, Moral
Education and Physical Education. In Level II, the subjects offered are
Bahasa Malaysia, English, Mathematics, Islamic Education, Moral
Education, Health and Physical Education, Science Education, Social and
Environmental Education, Visual Arts, Music Education, Basic Life Skills,
Information Technology and communication, and Life Management.
6.2.2 Implementation of the KSSR

The implementation of the KSSR brings changes to the curriculum content and
practices in the primary school system. Do you know what these changes are?
There is a change in design, organisation, pedagogy, time allocation and
curriculum management. The curriculum has been remodelled and new subjects
have been introduced. There is an emphasis on sound pedagogical approaches
and holistic assessment methods.
In KBSR, the learning objectives were stated in terms of learning outcomes. The
KSSR, however, is formulated based on a statement of standards. The statement
of standards consists of content standards and learning standards. This was
explained in Topic 3. Content standards are specific statements on what the
students must know and can do, within a specific period of schooling. Learning
Standards are a set criteria or indicators of education quality and achievements
which can be measured for each content standard.
TOPIC 6 KSSR W 89
The KSSR requires teachers to apply classroom strategies which promote creative
and critical thinking and innovation among pupils. Teachers need to carry out
teaching and learning activities which are student-centred, provide opportunities
for pupils to master thinking and scientific skills and most importantly, provide a
fun learning environment. Teachers need to be sensitive to pupilsÊ learning needs
and be able to identify learning styles most suited to them.
The KSSR also proposes the implementation of school-based assessments

(Penilaian Berasaskan Sekolah, PBS) to gauge pupilsÂ potential and the
effectiveness of the teaching and learning process in the classroom. This
formative assessment will inform teachers of suitable remedial or enhancement
treatments for pupils. It will also help teachers to identify and plan effective
classroom strategies in the classroom.
ACTIVITY 6.1
1. Describe the organisation of subjects for Level I and Level II in the

KSSR curriculum.
2. „KSSR is organised in a modular form with a group of subjects in a
group called a module.‰
3. What do you understand by this statement?
4. What do you understand by cross-curricular elements?
5. How is the KSSR implemented?
SELF-CHECK 6.2
Identify the changes in the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah

(KSSR) and suggest in what ways you can implement this curriculum in
the teaching and learning of science.
90 X TOPIC 6 KSSR
x KSSR was introduced as an effort to restructure and improve the current

curriculum (KBSR) to ensure that students have the relevant knowledge,
skills and values to face the challenges of the 21st century.
x The formulation the KSSR curriculum takes into account the National
Philosophy of Education, The National Education Policy, challenges of the
21st century, the New Economic Model (MBE), current learning theories and
the four pillars of education (UNESCO).
x The desired characteristics of pupils under the KSSR are well-balanced

intellectually, spiritually, emotionally, physically and socially, responsible
citizens, global players, and knowledge workers.
x The principles of the KSSR are an integrated approach, holistic development

of the individual, equal education for all pupils and lifelong education.
x KSSR stresses on the 4Ms, that is, reading (membaca), writing (menulis),
arithmetic (mengira), and reasoning (menaakul).
x At Level One, teaching and learning stress on the mastery of the 4Ms. The
focus is on literacy and numeracy at this level. Added values such as
creativity and innovation, entrepreneurship and personality development
are also stressed.
x At Level Two, the emphasis is on strengthening and application of the 4M

skills in addition to mastering more complex skills, ICT skills, knowledge
acquisition and personality development.
x The KSSR is based on six pillars: Communication, Science and Technology,

Physical and Aesthetic Development, Self Excellence, Humanitarianism and
Spiritual Attitude and Values.
x KSSR is organised in a modular form with a group of subjects in a group

called a module. Subjects too are arranged in a modular way.
x In Level One KSSR, all knowledge disciplines are organised into three
modules, which are Basic Core Modules, Thematic Core Modules, and
Elective Modules.
x In Level Two KSSR, the curriculum is organised into Core Subjects and
Elective Subjects.
TOPIC 6 KSSR W 91
x Cross-curricular elements are an added value applied to the teaching and

learning process. These elements are English, Science and Technology,
Environmental Education, Noble Values and Patriotism.
x The Curriculum for Special Education is developed based on the capabilities

and needs of pupils. The curriculum for these pupils is more focused on the
mastery of skills to meet the needs of individuals, and is not too
academically oriented.
x The KSSR is formulated based on a statement of standards. The statement of

standards consists of content standards and learning standards.
x Teachers need to carry out teaching and learning activities which are
student-centred, provide opportunities for pupils to master thinking and
scientific skills and most importantly, provide a fun learning environment.
x Teachers need to be sensitive to pupilsÊ learning needs and be able to

identify learning styles most suited to them.
x The KSSR proposes the implementation of school-based formative

assessments (PBS) to gauge pupilsÂ potential and the effectiveness of the
teaching and learning process in the classroom. This formative assessment
will inform teachers of suitable remedial or enhancement treatments for
pupils.
Basic core modules KSSR

Content Standards Learning Standards
Core subjects Lifelong education
Cross-curricular elements Modular
Elective modules Pillars of KSSR
Elective subjects School-based formative assessment
(PBS)
Global players
Standards
Holistic development
Thematic core modules
Integrated
Knowledge workers
92 X TOPIC 6 KSSR
Bahagian Pelajaran Malaysia. (2010). KSSR Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah.

Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia.
UNESCO. Education. The Four Pillars of Education. Retrieved from http://

www.unesco.org/new/en/education/networks/global-networks/
aspnet/about-us/strategy/the-four-pillars-of-learning/
ȱ
Topic X Teaching
Science to
7 All Children
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define cultural diversity;
2. Discuss strategies for adapting science instructions for children with
cultural differences;
3. Define gender bias; and
4. Explain strategies to avoid gender bias in the science classroom.
X INTRODUCTION
Year Five Melati is made up of 15 Malay, 12 Chinese and 10 Indian pupils. Of

these, there are 18 boys and 19 girls. On the first day of the school year, the
pupils were greeted by their science teacher En Razak. As each one of them
entered the classroom En Razak said,‰ Hello, I am glad you are going to be in
my class. This is the place where everyone learns science‰.
Read the above scenario. What do you think En Razak meant? What did he mean
when he said „everyone‰?
If you study the composition of En RazakÊs class, you can see that the class is
made up of different ethnic or cultural groups. In terms of gender, there are both
males and females in his class. En RazakÊs class is a diverse class but he believes
in one very important principle, that is, everyone regardless of these differences
must have an equal opportunity to learn science.
94 X TOPIC 7 TEACHING SCIENCE TO ALL CHILDREN
In this topic, you will learn about cultural diversity and gender differences. You
will look at strategies for adapting science instruction for children with cultural
differences. You will also learn how to avoid gender bias in your science
classroom.
7.1 CULTURAL DIVERSITY

We live in a multicultural country with a variety of different races and cultures.
Schools too reflect this variety. This variety is even more pronounced in this era
of globalisation where there might even be foreign pupils in your classroom.
What are the challenges in this to you as a teacher? We must understand that the
future will be in a culturally pluralistic nation with a diversity of cultural, ethnic,
religious and socioeconomic groups. The main goal of teachers will be to inspire
the intellectual, social, and personal development of all their pupils to the highest
potential regardless of the differences. Teachers need to provide each pupil with
an equal opportunity to learn.
7.1.1 Definition of Cultural Diversity

Let us look at the term „cultural diversity‰. The word „cultural‰ according to the
Oxford Online Dictionary means relating to the „ideas, customs and social
behaviour of a society.‰ Diversity means a range of different things. So what do
you think cultural diversity means? Cultural diversity refers to the existence of a
variety of cultural or ethnic groups in a society. Figure 7.1 shows a culturally
diverse classroom.
Figure 7.1: A culturally diverse classroom

Source: http://chrome.blogspot.com/2013/04/for-malaysia-bringing-google-apps-
and.html
TOPIC 7 TEACHING SCIENCE TO ALL CHILDREN W 95
7.1.2 Strategies for Adapting Science Instruction for

Children with Cultural Differences
En RazakÊs classroom shows cultural diversity. There are differences in terms of
ethnic groups, beliefs, customs, experiences, learning styles and socioeconomic
status. All of these dimensions shape who the pupils are and how they learn
science. According to Martin (2006), ethnic and cultural factors exert powerful
influences on the way children learn science. From the constructivist perspective,
pupils with different cultures have different prior experiences and thus bring
different perceptions and understanding to the classroom. How can En Razak
adapt his instructions to ensure that these differences are taken into account and
every pupil has an equal opportunity to learn?
The strategies for adapting science instruction for children with cultural
differences are given below:
(a) Recognise and Understand Cultural Differences
„Nothing inherent in culture itself, or in other forms of human

diversity, creates pedagogical problems It is that attitude of the
educator towards diversity that creates problems in the education
setting. When educators do not notice diversity they create a bogus
reality for teaching and learning.
(Hilliard, 1994)
The first thing the teacher has to do is to be aware that differences exist.
Sometimes, as teachers we might overlook this and think that all pupils are
the same. The teachersÊ knowledge and understanding of culture can help
all students reach their potential. As a teacher, you need to be sensitive to
pupilsÊ learning needs and abilities, to their personal interests and
motivation as well as cultural differences and similarities.
(b) Vary Your Teaching Style to Accommodate Different Learning Styles

Teachers tend to teach in a dominant style that consists of multiple factors,
including those related to the teacherÊs background. When a childÊs
learning style is similar to the teacherÊs, the child tends to learn more and
retain it longer (Martin, 2006). However, in a culturally diverse class, there
are pupils from a variety of different cultures and ethnic groups whose
behaviours and cognitive styles differ from the teacherÊs. The teacher must
be responsive to the needs of all pupils and vary the teaching styles.
(c) Examine All Curriculum Material for Ethnic and Cultural Bias
As a teacher you must be sensitive to racist content in reference materials
and also in classroom interactions. Use science teaching as an opportunity
to select and use curriculum materials and teaching strategies that reflect
and incorporate diversity.
(d) Include the Experiences of Different Cultural Groups in the Classroom

The teacher can also select classroom teaching examples that show the
contributions and participation of different cultural groups. These
contributions can be displayed on the bulletin boards. Projects or pupil
presentations which infuse multicultural concepts can be planned.
(e) Role Model Respect

Show respect for and interest in differences in opinions and perspectives of
different groups. Correct pupilsÊ misinformation based on cultural groups
whenever possible.
(f) Provide Hands-On, Discovery-Based Science Experiences

Hands-on activities and discovery-based experiences help build pupil
confidence and cultivate a positive attitude towards school.
(g) Promote and Foster Healthy Interaction among Diverse Groups

Collaborative learning and group work among diverse groups can be
carried out for making decisions and solving problems.
ACTIVITY 7.1
1. Explain what you understand by the term „cultural diversity‰.
2. Study each strategy given in 7.1.2 and discuss how you can apply it
to your science classroom.
7.2 GENDER BIAS
Statement A Statement B
„Girls donÊt need to learn about „A woman can be a great
electricity or light‰ scientist „
Read Statements A and B above. Which statement do you agree with? If you
agreed with Statement A, then you might want to examine your belief system
about science and gender.
7.2.1 Definition of Gender Bias

Gender bias refers to different views of males and females, often favouring one
gender over the other (Woolfolk, 2001). These different views are sometimes seen
in school textbooks and also in the practices of the teachers themselves. Why do
you think there is gender inequality in the learning of science?
Let us look at how females are socialised in society. In most cultures, females are
seen to be the softer, weaker sex. Males are seen to be more dominant and
adventurous. These sex stereotyped attitudes are sometimes portrayed in school
textbooks where the female character is shown as a homemaker and child
minder, behaving passively and being helpless. The males are shown as the ones
who are more active and who go out to earn a living.
How do you treat male and female pupils in your class? Research shows that
teachers tend to interact more with male pupils. The imbalances of teacher
attention given to boys and girls are more dramatic in science classes. In one
study, boys were questioned on the subject matter 80% more often than girls
(Baker, 1986). Boys also dominate the use of equipment in science labs, often
dismantling the apparatus before the girls in the class have a chance to perform
the experiments (Rennie & Parker, 1987).
Parents, teachers, school counsellors and peers also tend to discourage females
from pursuing scientific careers. There is a low enrolment of women in advanced
science careers.
7.2.2 Strategies to Avoid Gender Bias in the Science

Classroom
How can you as a teacher avoid gender bias in the science classroom?
Firstly you need to form high expectations of all pupils and believe that both
sexes are capable in science. You would also need to give equal amounts of
attention and opportunities for success to both males and females.
The following are strategies to help you avoid gender bias in your science
classroom.
(a) Check to See that Textbooks and Other Instructional Materials You are
Using are Not Gender Biased
Select and use resources that reflect the current and evolving roles of
women and men in society. Posters, textbooks, videos and other media
should have equal representation of both males and females.
(b) Watch Out for Any Unintended Biases in Your Own Classroom Practices
For example, do you group pupils by sex or do you call on one sex more for
answers. You would also need to use teaching examples that are gender
balanced.
(c) Make Sure Your Expectations are the Same for All of Your Pupils
You must believe that both sexes can succeed in science.
(d) Use Gender-Free Language as Much as Possible

„You guys‰ may be a popular way of addressing groups, but it is an
example of gender bias. Try to put the placement of girls first in the
sentence and balance this. Make the classroom atmosphere one where both
girls and boys are encouraged, questioned and reinforced.
(e) Avoid Stereotyping Jobs for Pupils

Avoid having girls clean up and boys carry things. Make sure all pupils
have a chance to do complex technical work. Provide equal opportunities
for both sexes to participate in class and take on leadership roles.
(f) Model Gender Balance by What You Say or Do

Show respect for each gender and correct pupil misconceptions or
attitudes.
(g) Diversify References

Use a variety of ethnic names in test questions and examples. Balance
names with roles, so that sometimes the professional has a female name
and sometimes the professional has a male name. Pupils should see
opportunities for people like themselves.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. Explain why there is gender inequality in the instruction of
science.
2. How can teachers overcome gender problems in the teaching and

learning of science?
Reflect on En RazakÊs aspirations for his classroom. His pupils are fortunate to
have him as their science teacher. He will provide them with learning
experiences irrespective of gender, language and cultural barriers. By having a
classroom that respects cultural diversity and avoids gender bias, you can make a
real difference in the lives of your pupils.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
1. Which of the following is NOT a way to support your pupilsÊ

diversity through your teaching?
(a) Plan special lessons on different cultures.
(b) Use different types of teaching strategies.
(c) Create classroom displays that reflect your pupilsÊ cultures.
(d) Plan your teaching to include quiet pupils in classroom

discussions.
2. List three instructional strategies or techniques that are effective

for teaching pupils of diverse backgrounds.
3. Cultural differences can have a positive impact on the social

climate of the classroom.‰ Discuss this statement.
4. Which of the following help to avoid gender bias in the science

classroom?
(a) Using gender to group pupils.
(b) Stereotyping jobs for male and female pupils.
(c) Modeling gender balance by what you say and do.
(d) Having different expectations for male and female pupils.
Cultural diversity refers to the existence of a variety of cultural or ethnic

groups in a society.
x The main goal of teachers will be to provide every pupil with an equal
opportunity to learn.
x The strategies for adapting science instruction for children with cultural
differences are recognising and understanding cultural differences, varying
teaching styles, making sure teaching materials are free from cultural bias,
including the multicultural experiences in teaching, being a role model,
providing hands-on, discovery-based science experiences and promoting
healthy interaction among diverse groups.
Gender bias refers to different views of males and females, often favouring
one gender over the other.
x The strategies to avoid gender bias in the science classroom are ensuring
instructional materials are free from gender bias, ensuring there are no biases
in classroom practice, having same expectations of all pupils, using gender
free language, avoiding stereotyping jobs for pupils, modelling gender
balance and diversifying references in test questions and examples.
Cultural diversity Gender bias

Cultural differences Gender stereotyping
Abruscato, J. & DeRosa, D.A. (2010). Teaching children science: A discovery

approach (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Baker, D. (1986). Sex differences in classroom interaction in secondary science.

Journal of Classroom Interaction, 22,212-218.
Hilliard, A.G. (1994). Educating young children in a diverse society. Boston:

Allyn & Bacon.
Martin, R. et al. (2008). Teaching science for all children: An inquiry approach
(5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
NARST. Teaching for Gender Differences. Retreived from https://www.narst.

org/publications/research/gender.cf.
Rennie L. J., & Parker,L.H.(1987). Detecting and accounting for gender differnces
in mixed-sex and single-sex groupings in science lessons. Educational
Review, 39(1), 65-73.
Woolfolk, A. (2001). Educational psychology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

ȱ ȱ ȱ
Topic
ȱ
ȱ
X Strategies
ȱ
for Diverse
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
8 Learners
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ LEARNING OUTCOMES
ȱ
ȱ 1. Identify slow learners, gifted and talented learners, minority learners,
ȱ and learners with physical and learning disabilities;
ȱ 2. Describe strategies for slow learners;
ȱ
3. Describe strategies for gifted and talented learners;
ȱ
ȱ 4. Describe strategies for students with physical and learning
ȱ disabilities; and
ȱ 5. Describe strategies for minority students.
ȱ
X INTRODUCTION
In this topic we will discuss different groups of students that may be present in
your class or in your school. We will discuss slow learners, gifted and talented
learners, learners who have physical disabilities or learning disabilities, and
learners that come from minority groups.
ACTIVITY 8.1
What comes to your mind when you hear the term „diverse learners‰?
TOPIC 8 STRATEGIES FOR DIVERSE LEARNERS W 103
8.1 STRATEGIES FOR DIVERSE LEARNERS

All classes have students with varied characteristics and a range of abilities.
MeetingACTIVITY 1.1learning needs of students can be a challenge for teachers.
the diverse
Designing effective lesson plans is the best course of action to meet this challenge
(Kaméenui & Simmons, 1999).
Students come from diverse cultures and ethnicities, with varied experiences and
learning styles, among other influencing factors. All these shape who they are
and how they learn.
Effective teachers understand this and use a variety of teaching methods to

promote student learning. Below are some basic tips on how to teach effectively
in a diverse learning environment as suggested in Module 2.8 produced by The
Centre for Excellence in Teaching, University of Southern California.
(a) Having a „colour-blind‰ classroom is probably neither possible nor a good

idea. Trying to do so inevitably privileges a particular perspective (usually
that of the teacher) and fails to recognise the experiences and needs of the
learners. It is preferable to use strategies that recognise and capitalise on
this diversity.
(b) Appreciating the individuality of each student is important. While

generalisations sensitise us to important differences between groups, each
individual student has unique values, perspectives, experiences and needs.
(c) Articulate early in the course that you are committed to meeting the needs
of all students and that you are open to conversations about how to help
them learn.
(d) As teachers, it is important that we recognise our own learning styles and
cultural assumptions, because these styles and assumptions influence how
we teach and what we expect from our students. Being aware of them
allows us to develop a more inclusive teaching style.
(e) As you plan your course, and each class, prepare multiple examples to
illustrate your points. Try to have these examples reflect different cultures,
experiences, sexual orientations, genders, etc., to include all students in
learning.
104 X TOPIC 8 STRATEGIES FOR DIVERSE LEARNERS
(f) Help students move between abstract, theoretical knowledge and concrete,
specific experiences, to expand everyoneÊs learning.
(g) Use different teaching methods (lectures, small groups, discussions,

collaborative learning) to meet the variety of learning needs.
Source:
http://cet.usc.edu/resources/teaching_learning/docs/teaching_nuggets_docs/
2.8_Teaching_in_a_Diverse_Classroom.pdf
8.2 SLOW LEARNERS

It is an admitted fact that every class has a composition of 20% to 30% or more of
slow learners. They are defined as „children who are doing poorly in school, yet
are not eligible for special education‰ (Shaw, Grimes & Bulman, 2005: 11). They
do well outside the classroom and show no evidence of having a medical
problem.
According to research, the difference between slow learners and other

mainstream students is that their intelligence is usually only 75 per cent to 90 per
cent of other students their age. They learn at a rate which is 80 per cent to 90 per
cent of that of normal students, and they learn to read approximately one year
later than the majority of children. Most authorities agree that slow learners may
be slow in reading and arithmetic, but not necessarily slow to the same extent in
mechanical or social activities. They may also be adept in peer play activities,
work or sports. Most elementary school classes in an average community can be
expected to include three to five slow learners. Abstract thinking is difficult for a
slow learner and their attention span is short. A slow learner reacts slower than
average, self-expression is awkward and self-esteem is low.
Science concepts are sometimes difficult to grasp even for average students,
especially concepts related to earth sciences, force and energy. How do you
explain such concepts to slow learners?
(a) Begin with Simple Concepts

Begin with simple science concepts that they can see and touch like
concepts of living things, animals, plants, man-made objects and natural
objects. Use plenty of examples and non-examples to explain the concepts.
The slow learner may encounter difficulties if too many concepts are
presented at one time. Use simple and short sentences or even non-verbal
explanations. Use plenty of concrete materials to illustrate the concepts. Let
us say you want to introduce the concept of external features of animals; it
would be easier to understand when students can see and touch real
animals rather than pictures of animals. When you say „the beak is
smooth‰, students can touch the bird and experience what smoothness is.
Slow learners need more time to understand concepts being taught to them.
So do not rush them and repeat the explanation a few times using different
methods. When you use different modes of instruction to convey the same
lesson, it is called a multimodal approach. Show pictures and videos,
conduct games and group activities and provide hands-on tools that can
reinforce learning. Have students build models, paint pictures or act out
scenes that explain an idea. Give students mnemonics that will help them
memorise the names of the planets or trigonometric ratios.
(b) Give and Seek Feedback

Feedback is also crucial to help the student with their low self-esteem and
to ensure that they continue to work hard and volunteer. Check for
understanding often and giving immediate feedback will let the slow
learner know that they are doing the activity right, which supports their
self-esteem so that they are motivated to continue with their efforts. It also
helps for the teacher to touch the student on the shoulder or call their name
before important information is given to make sure they stay focused.
(c) Use Appropriate Material

The materials that a slow learner works with can be adapted to help them
learn better. The teacher should utilise a variety of materials. For example,
computers help to drill the students and provide reinforcement.
(d) Make Targets Easier to Achieve

Another effective method to use is to simplify or shorten the assignment
given to these students. When you set out to achieve three learning
outcomes for the class, why not set just one learning outcome for the slow
learner? It is imperative for the teacher not to discourage the student by
overwhelming them with work. A teacher should give this child the
amount of work they can comfortably do in the time allotted.
(e) Hands-on Activities and Giving Proper Instructions

Involve them in hands-on activities so that they have plenty of chances to
practise and acquire the scientific skills. Before doing the activities, give
students instructions, and have them repeat the activities back to the
teacher. The slow learner needs to hear or see directions more than once to
fully understand what you want them to do. Slower learners need to have
repetition for everything; it is a key factor in how they optimally learn.
(f) Make the Environment Suitable

There are environmental changes that a teacher can make to help these
students (Danielle, 2007). They include parent volunteers, changes in
seating, and the reduction of distractions. The teacher simply has to let the
slow child learn in a quiet, private place where they have space to work. It
is crucial that the teacher does not put the slow learner next to students
who would be a distraction. Danielle also points out that it is important not
to overwhelm the slow learner. Small groups and one-on-one instruction,
either with a peer, parent or teacher, provide the most beneficial value to
the student. Over and above, repetition is key to the success of the slow
learner.
The average student placed in a stimulating environment naturally picks

up information and ideas. A slow learner needs a mediator who can
interpret the environment and each learning step for the student. Critical
skills, such as making connections between lessons taught in different
areas, can be explicitly taught through the process of mediation.
ACTIVITY 8.2
Study the following suggestions. Will these suggestions help the slow
learner to learn?
Strategies Yes No
Reduce distractions by providing a quiet, private place to
work.
Emphasise strengths. Use lots of praise and reinforcement

frequently.
Make lessons short. Limit the working time and have several
short work periods rather than one long one.
Make learning fun and comfortable. Your positive attitude is

very important.
Go over his/her daily work to reinforce the learning. Slower

learners need repetition.
Provide interesting, creative and abstract activities.
Work on material that is somewhat challenging so that they

feel motivated.
8.3 THE CONCEPT OF GIFTED AND TALENTED

How do we define gifted and talented? There is no universal definition for the
concept of gifted and talented. Some professionals define „gifted‰ as an
intelligence test score above 130, two or more standard deviations above the
norm, or the top 2.5%. Others define „gifted‰ based on scholastic achievement: a
gifted child works two or more grade levels above his or her age. Still others see
giftedness as prodigious accomplishment. For example, adult-level work
produced by children.
According to the US Department of Education (1993) „ gifted and talented

children and youth show outstanding talent when they perform or show the
potential for performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when
compared with others of their age, experience, or environment.‰
Whereas Renzulli (1997) considers three factors important for the development of
gifted behaviour: above average ability, creativity, and task commitment.. See
Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1: RenzulliÊs three-ring concept of giftedness

Source: http://www.gigers.com/matthias/gifted/three_rings.html
Within the above average ability, Renzulli makes a difference between general
abilities (like processing information, integrating experiences, and abstract
thinking) and specific abilities (like the capacity to acquire knowledge or perform
in an activity).
By creativity Renzulli understands the fluency, flexibility, and originality of

thought, openness to experience, sensitivity to stimulations, and a willingness to
take risks.
Under task commitment, he understands motivation turned into action (like

perseverance, endurance, hard work, but also self-confidence, perceptiveness and
a special fascination with a special subject). Renzulli argues that without task
commitment, high achievement is simply not possible.
Only when characteristics from all three rings work together can high
achievement or gifted behaviour be witnessed.
Another theory to explain „gifted‰ and „talented‰ is proposed by Francoys

Gagné (Figure 8.2 ).
Figure 8.2: GagneÊs differentiated model of gifted and talented DGMT

Source: http://www.gigers.com/matthias/gifted/gagne_dmgt.html
Gagné thinks that all talents are developed from natural abilities through
learning influenced by inner and outer catalysts. The main components of
Gagné's model, which he refined several times, are:
(a) Natural Abilities

Gagné lists four domains of natural abilities, which according to him are
mostly genetically determined:
(i) Intellectual abilities: reasoning, memory, sense of observation,

judgment, and metacognition;
(ii) Creative abilities: inventiveness, imagination, originality, and

fluency;
(iii) Socioaffective abilities: perceptiveness, communication (empathy and

tact), and influence; and
(iv) Sensorimotor abilities: sensitivity (the senses), strength, endurance,

coordination and others.
(b) Talent
The different fields are open to wider argumentation than the natural
abilities. Gagné thinks the following fields are relevant for school-aged
youths:
(i) Academics;
(ii) Arts;
(iii) Business;
(iv) Leisure;
(v) Social affection;
(vi) Sports; and
(vii) Technology.
(c) Developmental Processes

Without learning processes, whether they are informal (as the learning of a
first language by a child) or formal (as most learning in school) and
practice, gifts do not turn into talents.
(d) Intrapersonal Catalysts

Several characteristics of the person influence the learning process
positively or negatively. They are:
(i) Physical characteristics like health;
(ii) Motivation and volition;
(iii) Self-management; and
(iv) Personality (temperament, self-esteem, adaptability etc.).
(e) Environmental Catalysts

Gagné names four groups of environmental influences on the development
of talents:
(i) Milieu (culture, family);
(ii) Persons;
(iii) Provisions (programmes, activities, services); and
(iv) Events.
(f) Chance
One last factor influencing the catalysts (intrapersonal and environmental)
and the natural abilities (gifts) is chance. Most importantly, chance
determines, through the recombination of paternal genes, which types of
giftedness a child possesses and to what extent.
ACTIVITY 8.3
Compare the three views of the concept of gifted and talented. Is the
concept of gifted and talented the same, or are they two different concepts?
8.3.1 Characteristics/Signs of Gifted Children

Some general characteristics of gifted and talented children are listed below. It is
important to note that academically, gifted and talented children will not
necessarily demonstrate all of these characteristics.
A gifted student:
(a) Learns rapidly and quickly grasps new concepts;
(b) Has an excellent memory;
(c) Is creative or imaginative, e.g. produces many ideas or is highly original;
(d) Is independent may prefer to work alone;
(e) Has a keen sense of humour;
(f) May be highly motivated, particularly in self-selected tasks;
(g) Has unusual or advanced interests;
(h) Demonstrates exceptional critical thinking skills or problem-solving ability;

(i) May have superior leadership and interpersonal skills;
(j) Frequently asks in-depth, probing questions;
(k) May demonstrate a high degree of social responsibility or moral reasoning;
(l) Possesses a large, advanced vocabulary;
(m) Has superior insight and the ability to draw inferences or is intuitive; and
(n) Is an advanced reader either in English or in the home language.
Source: http://www.schools.nsw.edu.au/learning/k-6assessments/oc_character.
php
ACTIVITY 8.4
Do any of your students have those characteristics?
8.3.2 Strategies for Gifted and Talented Learners

There are many things that a teacher can do to help these groups of students.
Remember, there are only a few gifted students in every class, probably only one
or two. We could separate them from the regular class and plan a special
programme for them, or we could let them remain in the regular class and plan
strategies to help them.
(a) Differentiation
One way to help them is by doing differentiation strategies. Differentiation
within the classroom provides students with the best environment for
having their academic needs met. Differentiation is the least intrusive
intervention for gifted students, who like all students should be seen to
be „only as special as necessary‰.
We could differentiate in four aspects content, process, product, and

learning environment.
(i) Content
x Provide more challenging reading materials;
x Focus on the overall trends, patterns and themes rather than

small details and facts;
x Study problems that do not have a clear solution; and
x Use topics of interest to the student, relevant to how the world

works, complex, and worthwhile.
(ii) Process
x Allow for flexible groupings of students: individual, pairs, small

groups;
x Create specialised learning centres for skill work;
x Encourage creativity and reward risk-taking;
x Provide opportunities for divergent (many answers) and

convergent (best answer) thinking; and
x Explicitly teach skills needed to learn independently (research,

organisation, etc.)
(iii) Product
x Allow a variety of acceptable products (using Multiple

Intelligences, for example);
x Offer levelled projects (For an A..., For a B..., etc.);
x Involve the student in creating the scoring guide;
x Assign tasks that are authentic and for a real audience; and
x Match the product to the outcomes being met.
(iv) Learning Environment
x Physical space: Can the student move freely within the room?
The school? Who has control over materials?
x Conditions: Are humour and creativity appreciated? Is the

atmosphere welcoming? Is discovery encouraged?
x Teacher: Is the teacher committed to differentiation? Curious and

enthusiastic? Willing to relinquish control of the learning?
x Groupings: Do gifted students have opportunities to work with

others like them even across grades?
(b) Acceleration
Another strategy to use is acceleration strategies. Acceleration means that
the student advances in a subject more quickly than others. He/she may
complete the year's work in less time or move to a higher level earlier, with
support to fill in any gaps. Acceleration strategies include:
(i) Whole-grade acceleration;

(ii) Subject acceleration; and
(iii) Curriculum compacting.
ACTIVITY 8.5
Search and read more about how to accelerate through whole-grade,

subject and curriculum compacting.
(c) Enrichment
You could also use enrichment strategies. Enrichment means that the
student is working on a topic in more depth or breadth than others. The
student keeps pace with the rest of his/her classmates but has more time to
explore topics of interest. Enrichment strategies include:
(i) Independent study;

(ii) Study contract;
(iii) Mentorship;
(iv) Complete a learning log;
(v) Create an interest centre;
(vi) Tiered assignments;
(vii) Specialised grading criteria;
(viii) Extension activities;
(ix) School-wide enrichment; and

(x) Enrichment clusters.
ACTIVITY 8.6
Choose one of the the enrichment strategies. Search and read about the
strategy. Plan the activity for a particular topic and share it with your
peers.
(d) Project-based Learning

Yet another strategy that you can use is project-based learning. You have
learnt in detail about this strategy in HBSC1103.
ACTIVITY 8.7
Why donÊt you get that module and review again this strategy. Plan a
project-based learning programme that could benefit the gifted student.
What to remember is that these students cannot learn on their own. Even though
they are rapid learners, they are still children; they still need you as a teacher to
plan and guide them, so that they can learn and develop their potential.
Challenging them is the key! Gifted students generally like a challenge, and want
to dig deeper and get more out of the material they are offered. They do not like
repetition, and have a desire to learn as much as possible.
8.4 PHYSICAL AND LEARNING DISABILITIES

In our country, these special groups of students usually do not attend regular
school as a regular classroom is not equipped with the needed learning
environment for them. Also, the teacher may not have the knowledge and skills
to manage and help these students to learn effectively. Normally, they attend
special needs class in a regular school or a special needs school. Thus, in a regular
classroom you might only have students who have minimal visual, hearing or
physical impairment.
8.4.1 Visual Impairment

There are three limitations that are imposed on children with visual impairments.
These include: a loss in the range and variety of experiences; restrictions in the
ability to get around, which influences opportunities both for gaining access to
experiences and for developing social relationships; and restrictions in
interaction with the environment.
What can you do to help these students?
(a) Provide them with meaningful experiences and interaction with real objects
that they can touch, hear, smell and see. They may also need guided
exploration and explanations of what they are interacting with.
Explanations will provide vocabulary associated with the experience and
will help the students make sense of what they are feeling and make
connections to previous experiences. These experiences will help develop
the studentsÊ understanding of new concepts, develop their language, and
motivate them to explore their environment which will subsequently lead
to motor development.
(b) Students should be directly involved in the activity even though they have
visual impairment. Involvement in these repeated routines will promote
independence and minimise the student's dependence on others.
(iii) If a student cannot participate independently, explore ways that the

student can be assisted through the activity, allowing him to complete the
steps that he can do independently. Gradually withdraw assistance until
the student can be independent.
(c) You should not be afraid to rearrange the classroom for the purpose of
improving the environment. Try to avoid changing it too frequently and
keep in mind that when you do rearrange the environment, you will need
to orient the student to the room. It is essential to have a well-organised
classroom that is free of visual and physical clutter..
(d) You could also provide materials that could enhance their learning by:
(i) Increasing contrast in order to view materials presented;
(ii) Increasing size of materials; and
(iii) Reducing visual clutter and increasing visual clarity.
8.4.2 Hearing impairment

Hearing impairment is defined as a reduction in the ability to perceive sound. It
is usually expressed in terms of decibels (dB), the unit used to measure the
intensity of sound. The degree of loss is measured by the number of decibels
needed to amplify a sound above the normal hearing level before it is heard.
Therefore, the larger the number of decibels needed the more severe the hearing
loss. The SERC Report provides a useful summary that illustrates the levels of
hearing impairment. (See Table 8.1)
Table 8.1: Levels of Hearing Impairment
Minimum Audible Intensity Level of Impairment

2030 Decibels Mildly Hard of Hearing
3060 Decibels Moderately Hard of Hearing
6089 Decibels Severely Hard of Hearing
90 Decibels or over Profoundly Deaf
Source: http://www.sess.ie/categories/sensory-impairments/hearing-impairment
(a) Mildly Hard of Hearing

The student hears nearly all speech but may hear incorrectly if not looking
at the speaker or if there is background noise. It can be very difficult to
identify this condition. Students may have difficulties responding to
conversational speech especially with background noise.
(b) Moderately Hard of Hearing

The student will experience difficulty hearing others who are close by
speaking. The student may subconsciously augment his/her
understanding with lip-reading and visual cues. It is difficult to identify the
studentÊs hearing loss from his/her speaking voice, but on close
examination the student misses word endings and omits definite and
indefinite articles.
(c) Severely Hard of Hearing

The student requires a hearing aid and needs to use lip-reading and body
language to augment understanding. The studentÊs speaking voice is
characterised by shortened sentences.
(d) Profoundly Deaf

The student may use a hearing aid but relies on visual cues and/or sign
language to communicate. The studentÊs speaking voice may seem
incomprehensible but some students can achieve good oral skills. Radio
aids may be used to transmit the speakerÊs voice to the listener.
There are a variety of teaching strategies that can be implemented to support the
learning experiences for a student who is deaf or hearing impaired. These can
include making adjustments to:
(a) The method of presenting information to a student:

(i) Make eye contact and get the full attention of the pupil before
speaking.
(ii) Use lively gestures and facial expressions.
(iii) Give the pupil time to process information and respond.
(iv) Give plenty of encouragement.
(v) Ensure the pupil is sitting where they can clearly see the teacher.
(vi) Be clear about how to use any aids.
(vii) Encourage social communication with classmates.
(viii) Check understanding.
(b) The setting they are taught in.
(c) The amount of time they are provided with to engage with new
information, work through activities and present.
8.4.3 Other Disabilities

There are other types of physical disabilities. These can be permanent or
temporary.
They may use wheelchairs, braces, crutches, rotators, canes or prostheses. So

their main concern is the room to move around in. A larger desk would be better
for these students so that they could balance books, papers, and classroom
supplies. Educating them may require modifications and different methods of
teaching. You could set up a buddy system so that another student can take notes
for the student with the disability. The buddy would be very helpful while the
student is doing experiments in the science laboratory.
Specific assignments can be adjusted or modified for students, too. A student

who has difficulty speaking due to cerebral palsy may need an alternative
presentation format in place of an oral presentation. Do not assume, however,
that the student cannot or does not want to give the presentation. He may need
more time to speak and better attention from his audience.
The key to successfully educating students with physical disabilities is making

the classroom environment accessible. A well-planned classroom design and the
right technology greatly enhance the learning environment for the physically
disabled student. The teacher, parents, doctors and school counsellors should
work together as a team to design an individual education plan for each disabled
student.
ACTIVITY 8.6
Have you heard about assistive technology that could be very helpful to
students with physical disabilities? Find out and list these special
technologies that you can use in the science classroom.
8.4.4 Learning Disabilities

A learning disability is not a problem with intelligence or motivation. Students
with learning disabilities are not lazy or dumb. Their brains are simply wired
differently. This difference affects how they receive and process information.
Simply put, children and adults with learning disabilities see, hear, and
understand things differently. This can lead to trouble with learning new
information and skills, and putting them to use.
Most learning disabilities fall into one of two categories: verbal and nonverbal.
People with verbal learning disabilities have difficulty with words, both spoken
and written. The most common and best-known verbal learning disability
iss dyslexia,, which causes people to have trouble recognising or processing letters
and the sounds associated with them. For this reason, someone with dyslexia will
have trouble with reading and writing tasks or assignments.
Some people with verbal learning disabilities may be able to read or write just
fine but struggle with other aspects of language. For example, they may be able
to sound out a sentence or paragraph perfectly, making them good readers, but
they can't relate to the words in ways that will allow them to make sense of what
they're reading (such as forming a picture of a thing or situation).
And some people have trouble with the act of writing as their brains struggle to
control the many things that go into it from moving their hand to form letter
shapes to remembering the correct grammar rules involved in writing a sentence.
People with nonverbal learning disabilities may have difficulty processing what
they see. They may have trouble making sense of visual details like numbers on a
blackboard. Someone with a nonverbal learning disability may confuse the plus
sign with the sign for division, for example. Some abstract concepts like fractions
may be difficult to master for people with nonverbal learning disabilities.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
What is a special term for those students that have problem

understanding numbers?
How Can One Tell if a Person has a Learning Disability?

The following could signify that a person might be having a learning disability:
(a) A distinct gap between the level of achievement that is expected and what
is actually achieved;
(b) Difficulties that become apparent in different ways with different people;
(c) Difficulties that manifest themselves differently throughout development;

and
(d) Difficulties with socio-emotional skills and behaviour.
As a regular classroom teacher you might not have the knowledge and skill to
identify the specific learning disabilities and also probably how to manage and
teach them. What is important is when you notice that your student is not
achieving as well as the other children in your classroom; the first thing you
should do is to refer them to an expert to identify the learning disability. Then try
reading more or ask experts about the disability in order to modify your
strategies.
Learning science is demanding for most students, because of the need to learn
through experiential techniques and complexity of concepts; having a learning
disability increases the degree of difficulty. Teaching science to special needs
students must be customised to their stage of disability, along with other factors
which may affect learning disabled students.
Teaching strategies benefit learning disabled students when teachers make

accommodations and address a variety of learning styles. Teaching techniques
include the use of graphic organisers, scaffolding, extra practice, extra time,
large-print materials, and electronic materials. Direct and explicit instruction
ensure that students are given clear directions for tasks, along with clear
explanations of what they are expected to learn from a science activity.
One example is reading the procedural steps of a science investigation, along

with discussing expected observations, and how data collected is to be recorded
on the laboratory report. You could also teach and model reading and study
strategies for science textbooks. Students could complete a partially filled outline
or graphic organiser of the main ideas and details of the cell transport reading
assignment in their textbook. After several similar assignments, students can
generate outlines for themselves.
Teaching effective ways to organise, revise and review science notes would be
very helpful to these students. Suggest that students highlight main ideas in one
colour and details in another colour. Then in teams, they can compare, contrast
and discuss their highlighting choices.
8.5 MINORITY GROUPS

A minority group is a group that has characteristics different from the majority
group. The differentiation can be based on one or more observable human
characteristics, including, for example, ethnicity, race, gender, wealth, health or
sexual orientation.
Marshall (1998) quoted sociologist Louis WirthÊs definition of a minority group

as „a group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics,
are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential
and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of
collective discrimination‰.
The first thing that you as a teacher teaching science or any other subject should
do is to help the student to acknowledge that they are different and there is
nothing wrong or inferior about being different from others. Motivation and
emotional support are what they need from you as a teacher. Then you need to
help the rest of the students to accept that there are other groups of students
different from them. This will make them feel safe and comfortable in the class,
thus making learning easier.
Their style of life, language, culture and origin can differ from the majority. As a
teacher you could:
(a) Understand students' home cultures to better comprehend their behaviour

in and out of the classroom;
(b) Show students you care by getting to know their individual needs and
strengths and sharing their concerns, hopes, and dreams;
(c) Tap into students' backgrounds to enhance learning; and
(d) Incorporate multiple forms of assessment as they have difficulty in

understanding the language of instruction. You could use informal
assessments such as observations, checklists and rating skills.
Gender bias is sometimes an issue that could arise in your class. As a teacher you
could lessen it by:
(a) Avoiding Stereotypes

Teachers should avoid promoting sexual stereotypes. For example, they
can assign jobs in the classroom without regard to gender, avoiding
automatically appointing males as group leader and females as secretary,
and can ask both males and females to help in physical activities. Teachers
should also refrain from stating stereotypes, such as „Boys donÊt cry‰ and
„Girls donÊt fight,‰ and should avoid labelling students with such terms as
tomboy.
(b) Promoting Integration

One factor that leads to gender stereotyping is the tendency for boys and
girls (particularly in elementary school) to have few friends of the opposite
sex and to engage mostly in activities with members of their own sex.
Teachers sometimes encourage this by assigning them to sex-segregated
tables, and organising separate sports activities for males and females. As a
result, interaction between boys and girls in schools is less frequent than
between students of the same sex.
(c) Treating Females and Males Equally

Observational studies of classroom interactions have found that teachers
interact more with boys than with girls and ask boys more questions,
especially more abstract questions (Sadker et al., 1997). In one study,
researchers showed teachers videotapes of classroom scenes and asked
them whether boys or girls participated more. Most teachers responded
that the girls talked more, even though in fact the boys participated more
than the girls by a ratio of 3 to 1 (Sadker et al., 1997).
When you are explaining a science concept, use examples that can be recognised
by the minority group as well. For example, when you are explaining examples
of plants use local plants rather than foreign plants that students cannot relate to.
When using examples, be aware and be sensitive to the fact that there is diversity
of religion in your class. For example, do not bring any sample that is connected
to pigs if there are Muslims in the class.
A guide titled ÂStrategies for Teaching Science to African American StudentsÊ has
been produced to help improve science learning of the minority group the
African American. The following are some suggestions:
(a) Permit students to bring life experiences into the science learning
environment. All students, especially minority students, tend to perform
best when content is related to previous experience.
(b) Devise science exercises and activities that foster success on the part of all
students.
(c) Have alternative testing methods appropriate for minority students.
(d) Recognise effort as well as accomplishment, especially for minority and

female students.
(e) Recognise that cultural backgrounds may discourage some students from
active participation in the science classroom. Among some ethnic groups,
volunteering a response or comment is a sign of disrespect for authority.
(f) Present science as a subject that everyone can learn rather than as an elite
and difficult subject.
Source: http://www.easted.org/resources/aisne_science.pdf)
ACTIVITY 8.7
Lila is an orang asli child. She has just been transferred into your class.
She has been in your class for two weeks now but she does not have any
friends. She has not participated in any of the hands-on activities and she
scored low marks in a test.
What steps will you take to help Lila?

x Slow learners are defined as „children who are doing poorly in school, yet
are not eligible for special education‰.
x Renzulli (1997) considers three factors important for the development of

gifted behaviour: above average ability, creativity, and task commitment.
Only when characteristics from all three rings work together can high
achievement or gifted behaviour be witnessed .
x Gagne proposed the Differentiated Model of the Gifted and Talented to

differentiate between the concept of gifted and talented.
x Some strategies that can be used to manage gifted and talented students are
differentiation, acceleration, and project-based learning.
x Physical disabilities that students face could be connected to their vision,

hearing or movement.
x General rules to manage these students are to modify the strategies to

accommodate their disabilities, use modified teaching and learning resources
and to arrange the classroom to accommodate their disabilities.
x The brains of students with learning disabilities are wired differently. This
difference affects how they receive and process information.
x Using a variety of teaching strategies to accommodate their learning styles

and helping them with their study skills are the key to help the students with
learning disabilities.
x A minority group is a group that has characteristics different from the

majority group.
x Acknowledging the minorityÊs right to be educated and treated fairly is the

first step in helping the minority group.
x Bringing their culture into the classroom will help the minority group to
learn more effectively.
Acceleration Minority
Differentiation Physical disability
Diversity Project-based learning
Gifted and talented Slow learner
Hearing impairment Visual impairment
Learning disability
Esler, W. K. & Esler, M. K. (2001). Teaching elementary science (8th ed.).

Getting help for children with learning disabilities. Retrieved from http://www.
helpguide.org/mental/learning_disabilities.htm
Green, N. P., Stout, G.W, & Taylor, D.J. (1993). Biological science (2nd ed.).
Helping your slow-learning child. Retrieved from http://www.reacheverychild.

com/feature/slowlearners.html
Martin, D. J. (2006). Elementary Science methods : A constructivist approach (4th

Martin, R.; Sexton, C.; Gerlovich, J. (2002). Teaching Science for all children
Minority group. A Dictionary of Sociology. (1998).Encyclopedia.com. (September

24, 2013). Retrieved from http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O88-
minoritygroup.html

Harcourt Brace.
Teaching Science to Special Needs Students. Retrieved from http://suite101.

com/article/teaching-science-to-special-needs-students-a164863
Yap, K. C.; Toh, K. A.; Goh, N. K.; Bak, H. K. (eds). (2004). Teaching primary
science. Singapore: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Formulation of The Curriculum

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Topic X Formulation

Figure 1.1: How is a curriculum developed?

What do you understand by the term „curriculum‰?

The Merriam Webster Dictionary defines curriculum as:

„The courses offered by an educational institution‰.

This view defines curriculum as an organised body of knowledge to be conveyed

Tanner and Tanner (1995) describe curriculum as a plan or programme of all

The curriculum usually contains a statement of aims of specific objectives, it

(a) Learning objectives;

Curriculum developers use different curriculum development models or

1.1 PHILOSOPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN

(a) „What are schools for?‰

The National Education Policy is based on the National Philosophy of Education

Figure 1.2: The National Philosophy of Education of Malaysia

The Malaysian science curriculum is also influenced by the National Philosophy

Figure 1.3: National Science Education Philosophy

Study the Primary Science Curriculum and the National Philosophy of

1.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN

The curriculum developed must be based on a sound understanding of child

Theories of learning also have to be considered when developing the content of

Table 1.1: The Four Major Psychological Orientations

Behaviourism Cognitivism Humanism Constructivism

1.3 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC

1.3.1 Social Considerations in Formulating a

A continuous examination of the goals and demands of society which are

1. The concerns of society twenty years ago is different from the

2. Social factors are very critical in formulating a curriculum. Identify

1.3.2 Economic Considerations in Formulating a

1. Explain what you understand by the term „curriculum‰.

3. How do the philosophical foundations of education influence

4. How do the psychological foundations of education influence

5. To what extent can the school curriculum equip individuals to

x A curriculum consists of learning objectives, content, instructional strategies,

x Curriculum developers need to consider the philosophical, psychological,

x Philosophy provides a framework of values and beliefs related to the goals

x The National Philosophy of Education is the basis for all educational

x The Malaysian school curriculum is developed in line with the National

x The Malaysian science curriculum is also influenced by the National

x The curriculum developed must be based on a sound understanding of

x Psychological considerations such as the mental, physical and emotional

x Curriculum developers need to take into account societal considerations

x Consideration must be given to economic demands when designing the

Curriculum Philosophical considerations

Educational Planning and Research Division, Ministry of Education Malaysia.

Heslep, R. (1997). Philosophical thinking in educational practice. London:

Ornstein, A. C. & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum foundations, principles and

Psychological Influences in the Curriculum Decision Making Process. Anne

Sharifah, Maimunah Syed Zin & Lewin, K. M. (1991). Curriculum development

Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago:

Figure 2.1: Planning lessons for Science Year 4

The curriculum is a course or path. It is meant to be connected and integrated

2.1 GOALS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

Let us study a few of the goals of science curriculum in different countries.

ILLINOIS LEARNING STANDARDS

According to Illinois Learning Standards (ISBE, 1997), the general and

Goal 1: Understand and apply the methods of scientific inquiry and

x Explain the principles and practices of scientific research.

x Apply the steps and methods of scientific inquiry to conduct experiments

x Apply the principles and methods of technological design to solve

x Assess the credibility of scientific claims.

x Apply concepts of systems within the sciences.

x Apply concepts of form and function within the sciences.

x Apply concepts of change and constancy within the sciences.