Window Shading Strategies

A high percentage of summer heat gain comes Sun’s Path in Winter and Summer
through windows as solar radiation. Much of the
radiation is diffuse or reflected, and not directly from Dec 21 June 21
noon noon
the sun. As a result, it pays to shade all windows,
regardless of the direction they face. The single Dec 21 June 21
noon noon
exception is passive solar glazings in northern states,
which should have calculated overhangs, as shown in
Chapter 18. Dec 21
sunset
The illustration and table below show the per- June 21
W sunset
centage reductions in heat gain through the entire Noon
Dec 21
sunset
S altitude Noon June 21
cooling season for 4- by 4-foot windows at 30 degree altitude W sunset
north latitude, when shaded by continuous over- Noon
S altitude Noon
hangs of various lengths, L. The reductions are seen altitude N
to be nearly independent of window orientation. Of Dec 21
sunrise E
course, there are reasons other than solar shading for June 21 N
Dec 21 sunrise
building overhangs: sunrise E
June 21
1. A 2-foot overhang protects siding, windows, sunrise
and doors from the weathering effects of rain. In
addition, windows can be left open without worry- Overhang Geometry for Table
ing about sudden showers.
4"
2. A 6- to 8-foot overhang is common for porch L
roofs, which are very common in the South. 4"

3. A 10-foot overhang could be provided by a L

carport or vine-covered patio.
48"
Percentage Summer Heat Gain
Reduction from Roof Overhangs 48"

Window Width of Overhang (L), ft

Facing 1 2 3 4 6 10
North 16 32 44 54 66 78
East 14 32 47 58 72 84
South 17 35 47 56 67 79
West 15 32 47 58 71 83
Average 16 33 46 57 69 81

492 COOLING
The illustration at right shows an adjustable opaque Adjustable Awning with Sides
window awning with side panels. Both the awnings
and windows measure 4 feet by 4 feet, so at a
90 degree slope, the awning would completely cover
the window. The table below the illustration shows
the cooling-season reductions in heat gain to be
ing
expected through single-glazed windows with differ- Awn gle
a n
ent shading strategies.
As the slope of a shading device increases, visibility 48"
from the window decreases until, at 90-degree slope,
nothing can be seen. Fortunately, much of the shading
benefit is achieved with a slope of only 30 degrees, at
which point the top half of the view is blocked.
Canvas awnings can be rolled up, but the other
shading options would be difficult or impossible to
adjust in different seasons. We therefore need to know
for each the net effect, or cooling-season savings less
reduction in winter solar gain.
Both cooling and heating bills vary with latitude. Net Savings from Awnings, kwhr/sq ft-yr
As latitude increases, cooling bills decrease and heating
bills increase. Net savings from fixed shading devices Window Tinted Silver Charcoal Awning Awning
Facing Glass Film Screen No Side & Sides
therefore vary with latitude. In the South, net savings
Jacksonville, FL, 30.5º N Latitude
are positive; in the North they can be negative.
North 1.5 3.6 3.8 2.9 4.2
The table at right shows how strongly net savings
can vary. Savings in Miami (virtually zero winter heat- East 1.5 3.4 3.6 4.1 4.5

ing load) are nearly three times those in Jacksonville, South 0.4 0.9 1.0 0.4 0.9

only 4.5 degrees to the north. For example, perma-
nent charcoal-colored screens over 100 square feet of
uniformly distributed glazing would save 1,000 kwhr
in Miami, but only 350 kwhr in Jacksonville.
Shading devices above 30 degrees north latitude
should be of the adjustable variety in order to maxi-
mize both summer and winter savings.
West 2.3 5.4 5.6 5.6 6.8
Average 1.4 3.3 3.5 3.3 4.1
Miami, FL, 26º N Latitude
North 3.1 7.4 7.7 5.8 8.6
East 4.5 10.5 11.0 10.2 13.1
South 17 35 47 67 79
West 15 32 47 71 83
Average 16 33 46 69 81

Window Shading Strategies 493

 Fans
During the cooling season in hot, humid regions
of the United States, air-conditioning costs are the
largest part of the monthly utility bill. In Florida,
for example, air-conditioning accounts for about
30 percent of the total annual electric bill in an all-
electric home. To a large extent, fans can reduce the
need for air conditioning by raising the upper limit
of the comfort zone.
Powered attic vent fans ventilate an attic but not
the house. Research has shown that attics with recom-
mended natural ventilation and insulation levels do
not require attic vent fans. Such vent fans typically
cost more to operate than they save in cooling bills.
Instead, install the recommended R-value of attic
insulation (see Chapter 13) with an attic radiant bar-
rier as described on p. 489. For effective natural attic
ventilation, use continuous soffit vents at the eaves
plus ridge vents at the peak.
There are three generic types of fans:
• ceiling, cooling by air motion.
• window, cooling by air exchange.
• whole-house, cooling by air exchange.
The cooling effect of a breeze depends on its veloc-
ity. Air velocity can be approximated if you know
the total area through which the breeze is blowing
(such as total open area of inlet windows) and the
fan rating in cfm. The chart below shows ranges of
fan cfm versus fan size for the fans discussed in this
chapter, as well as their approximate efficiencies in
cfm per watt of electrical consumption. Note that
ceiling fans are at least three times more efficient
than any other type.

Fan Efficiencies

8,000

6,000
t
at
/w
Air flow, cubic feet per minute (cfm)

cfm
t
at

80
/w

g
cfm

ilin
Ce
10
e
us
ho

4,000
le
ho
t
at

W
/w
cfm
30
ow

t
at
ind

/w
W

cfm

2,000
35
ing
lat
cil
Os

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Fan diameter, inches

494 COOLING
Ceiling Fans Ceiling Fan Operation
Air-circulating fans include oscillating, box, and
ceiling fans. The breezes they create can easily allow
air conditioner setbacks of 5°F to 10°F, lowering 10" min
cooling bills by 40 to 80 percent. Portable fans are
best at cooling small areas, such as people sitting at
desks or working in the kitchen. Larger box fans 7' 0" min
can be placed in doorways to move large volumes of for safety
air between rooms. The quietest and most efficient,
however, are ceiling fans. A ceiling fixture can usu-
ally be easily converted to a ceiling fan plus light.
The illustration at right shows required clearances
and proper fan size.

Window Fans Window Fan Operation

Whole-house fans are effective, but they are also
expensive, difficult to retrofit, and power hungry
(500 to 700 watts). Operated properly, a window
fan can be nearly as effective:
1. Place the fan to blow out in a room far from the
cooled rooms.
2. Locate the specific areas you wish to cool, such
as the two bedrooms below and open those windows.
3. Close all other windows.
et ready to enjoy a cooling breeze through your bed-
G
room window without the noise of a fan.

Whole-House Fans Whole-House Fan Operation

As the illustration at right shows, a centrally located
whole-house fan can pull air from every room in
which there is an open window. The total open win-
dow area should be three times the fan intake area.
Similarly, the total attic vent area should be three
times the fan intake, assuming screened vents.
The fan should be sized to replace one-third of the
house air every minute. For example, a 1,500-square-
foot house with 8-foot ceiling contains 12,000 cubic
feet. The fan should therefore be rated at 1⁄3 × 12,000
= 4,000 cubic feet per minute. If the fan’s rating is for
“free air,” increase the cfm by 20 percent.

Fans 495
 Evaporative Cooling
When water evaporates, it absorbs heat. This is
why you feel so cool when you emerge from swim-
ming on a dry, breezy day. Evaporative coolers (also
known as swamp coolers) utilize this phenomenon
to lower air temperature. As the illustration on the
facing page shows, hot, dry air blown through a
water-soaked pad emerges as humid, but much
cooler, air. The temperature drop can be predicted
from the following equation:
Temperature drop = E × ( DB − WB )
where E = cooler efficiency, percentage
DB = intake air dry bulb temperature
WB = intake air wet bulb temperature
Potential for Evaporative Cooling
Temp Cooled Minutes Temp Cooled Minutes
DB WB Drop Temp per Air
Location ºF ºF ºF ºF Change
AL, Birmingham 96 74 18 78 NR1
AR, Little Rock 99 76 18 81 NR
AZ, Phoenix 109 71 30 79 2
CA, Los Angeles 93 70 18 75 2
CO, Denver 93 59 27 66 4
CT, Hartford 91 74 14 77 NR
DC, Washington 93 75 14 79 NR
DE, Wilmington 92 74 14 78 NR
FL, Orlando 94 76 14 80 NR
GA, Atlanta 94 74 16 78 NR
IA, Des Moines 94 75 15 79 NR
ID, Boise 96 65 25 71 4
IL, Chicago 94 75 15 79 NR
IN, Indianapolis 92 74 14 78 NR
KS, Topeka 99 75 20 79 2
KY, Louisville 95 74 17 78 NR
LA, Baton Rouge 95 77 14 81 NR
MA, Boston 91 73 14 77 NR
MI, Detroit 91 73 14 77 NR
MO, St. Louis 98 75 18 80 NR
MS, Jackson 97 76 17 80 NR
1
NR = Not Recommended
496 COOLING
Evaporative coolers are recommended wherever
the temperature drop (DB − WB ) is over 20°F and
the cooled air would be below 79°F. The table
below lists these criteria for selected cities. Cities
which meet both criteria appear in italics. To size an
evaporative cooler, follow these steps:
1. Compute the volume of house air.
2. Find the recommended minutes per air change
for your location.
3. Divide the house volume by minutes to find the
recommended cooler capacity in cfm.
4. If your home is very energy efficient, divide cfm
by 2; if not insulated, multiply by 2.
DB WB Drop Temp per Air
Location ºF ºF ºF ºF Change
MT, Great Falls 91 60 25 66 3
NC, Greensboro 93 74 15 78 NR
ND, Bismarck 95 68 22 73 3
NE, North Platte 97 69 22 75 3
NV, Las Vegas 108 66 34 74 3
NH, Concord 90 72 14 76 NR
NJ, Newark 94 74 16 78 NR
NM, Albuquerque 96 61 28 68 3
NY, Syracuse 90 73 14 76 NR
OH, Columbus 92 73 15 77 NR
OK, Tulsa 101 74 22 79 1
OR, Portland 89 68 17 72 NR
PA, Pittsburgh 91 72 15 76 NR
RI, Providence 89 73 13 76 NR
SC, Columbia 97 76 17 80 NR
SD, Rapid City 95 66 23 72 3
TN, Nashville 97 75 18 79 NR
TX, Dallas 102 75 22 80 2
UT, Salt Lake City 97 62 28 69 4
VA, Richmond 95 76 15 80 NR
WY, Casper 92 58 27 65 4
How an Evaporative Cooler (Swamp Cooler) Works

A B B A

Fill-valve float Bleed-off drain

(keeps water fresh)

B Cool air to house

80

75

70
˚F
e,
a tur 65 Line
r
pe s of
Tem B Con
stan
r
Ai 60 t En
thal
py (
Energ
55 y)
50
45 A
H
80 %R
RH
60%
RH
40%
20% RH
0% RH
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Air Temperature, ˚F

Evaporative Cooling 497

 Air Conditioning
How Air Conditioners Work

ROOM AIR CONDITIONER The hot refrigerant is cooled by outside air,

condensing into liquid
Warm room air drawn through the
evaporator cools and returns to room
The liquid refrigerant flows through
an expansion valve into the evaporator,
turning it into cool, low-pressure gas

AL
RM
NO
H
G
N HIAN
O FF F
O

W
LO N
FA

The compressor W
LOOL
CO 6 78
turns refrigerant
9 10

into hot, dense gas

4
3

AT
ST
1 2

MO
ER
TH
A thermostat senses
that cooling is needed

Refrigerant recycles
to the compressor

CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONER (SPLIT SYSTEM)

Compressor

Evaporator coil and heat exchanger

Supply duct Condenser coil/

heat exchanger
FUR
NAC
E

Return duct

498 COOLING
If all else fails to cool you into the comfort zone, When you are done, go to the Energy Star site
you have no choice but to air-condition. Air condi- www.energystar.gov. There you will find an up-to-
tioners, powerful but expensive tools, lower humid- date list of all air conditioners, with their rated
ity as well as temperature. cooling capacities and energy efficiency ratios (EER).
What you need first is an estimate of your peak Look for models with the highest EER (the ratio of
cooling load, the number of Btus per hour that Btus removed to watts of electricity consumed) that
need to be removed under the worst conditions of also closely match your load. The most efficient air
the cooling season. The work sheet and tables that conditioner for your purpose will be one that is just
follow allow you to find that load, whether you are capable of supplying the load.
cooling just a bedroom or the entire house, no mat-
ter where you live in the United States.
You may wish to photocopy the work sheet so
that you will be able to calculate the peak cooling
load for a second room.
Read the instructions carefully for each line
before entering any numbers. An example calcula-
tion follows the work sheet.

Cooling Factors for Air Conditioner Work Sheet, Line 9

.70
.70
.80
.75 .75 .70
.75
.90 .80 .75

.90
.80 .90

.90

1.00 1.00

.90
1.10
1.50

1.20
1.20
1.50
1.50

Air Conditioning 499

 Instructions for Work Sheet
Lines 1 and 2. Use line 1 if your house has a
well-ventilated attic; otherwise use line 2. Find the
shading factor in column 1 of Table 1. The insu-
lation factor is 0.8 times the nominal R-value of
the attic insulation. (See Chapter 13 for insulation
R-values.) Use the value 2.4 if there is no insula-
tion present.
Line 3. Follow the same instructions as for lines 1
and 2. Exterior walls are those facing the outdoors.
Enter doors as exterior walls. Do not include win-
dows, as they will be entered below.
Line 4. Interior walls are those that separate the
cooled space from unconditioned spaces. If you are
cooling the entire house, there will be no interior
Table 1. Shading Factors
Degree of Shading Roof, Wall, Ceiling Windows
Unshaded areas 1.00 1.00
Fully shaded areas 0.70 0.20
Partially shaded by awning 0.90 0.65
overhang, or small trees
Shaded inside by window 0.45
shades, drapes, films
Table 2. Floor Factors
Floor Above Factor
Open crawl space 1.0
Closed crawl space 0.0

walls. The insulation factor is 0.8 times the nominal Full basement 0.0

R-value of the wall insulation (see Chapter 13 for Unconditioned room 0.9
insulation R-values), or 2.4 if there is none. Ground (slab-on-grade) 0.1
Line 5. Get the floor factor from Table 2; the insu-
lation factor is as in line 4.
Line 6. Enter the total floor area of the cooled
Table 3. Glazing Factors
space. Estimate air changes per hour as 0.4 for the
tightest possible house to 1.3 for a drafty one. Type of Glazing Line 7 Line 8
Line 7. Calculate window areas as height times Single-glazed window 1.0 1.0
width of the sash (the frames holding the glass). Get Double-glazed window 0.5 0.8
the glazing factors from Table 3. Triple-glazed window 0.33 0.65
Line 8. Get the shading factors from Table 1 and
the glazing factors from Table 3.
Line 9. Add the results from lines 1 through 8 and Table 4. Thermal Mass Factors
multiply by the cooling factor for your geographic
Building Construction Factor
area, shown on the map on p. 499.
Light wood frame 1.00
Line 10. Multiply your average monthly spring or
fall kilowatt-hours (get these from your utility bills Solid masonry or wood frame 0.90
with exterior masonry veneer
or by calling your electric utility) by l.4. For the
Wood frame with masonry interior 0.80
average home the result should be about 600 kwhr/ walls, floors, or other mass
month. Earth-sheltered (underground) 0.50
Line 11. Enter the average number of people occu- walls and roof
pying the cooled space during the hot months.
Line 12. Add lines 9, 10, and 11, then multiply
the result by the mass factor from Table 4.

500 COOLING
Work Sheet for Sizing Air Conditioners
Source of Heat Gain Calculations Results

1. Roof over ventilated attic sq ft x 44 x shading factor / insulation factor =

2. Cathedral ceiling or roof sq ft x 48 x shading factor / insulation factor =

over unventilated attic

3. Exterior wall facing:

North sq ft x 18 x shading factor / insulation factor =

East sq ft x 28 x shading factor / insulation factor =

South sq ft x 24 x shading factor / insulation factor =

West sq ft x 28 x shading factor / insulation factor =

4. Interior walls facing sq ft x 12 / insulation factor =

unconditioned rooms

5. Floors over unconditioned sq ft x 20 x floor factor / insulation factor =

spaces

6. Infiltration: area of living space sq ft x air changes/hour x 1.6 =

7. Window conduction sq ft x 16 x glazing factor =

8. Window solar gain:

North sq ft x 16 x shading factor / glazing factor =

East, South, Southeast sq ft x 80 x shading factor / glazing factor =

West, Southwest, Northwest sq ft x 140 x shading factor / glazing factor =

Northeast sq ft x 50 x shading factor / glazing factor =

9. Sum of lines 1 – 8 x cooling factor from map on p. 499 =

10. Utility gain watts being consumed in space x 3.4 =

11. People gain number of people in space x 600 =

12. Peak cooling load, Btu/hour: sum of lines 9 – 11 x thermal mass factor =

Air Conditioning 501