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Gilcidoncha 2007
Gilcidoncha 2007
Gilcidoncha 2007
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee following review of
information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as
Mechanisms
presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to
correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any
position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Papers presented at When a fluid saturated porous medium is exposted to elastic
SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper
vibrations the following waves are dispersed into the medium:
for commercial purposes without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is
prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than
300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous ¾ Two longitudinal waves,compression shock and
acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O.
Box 833836, Richardson, Texas 75083-3836 U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435.
pressure
¾ A lateral shear wave
Abstract
Research related to weak elastic wave stimulation of oil The compressional shock wave is mostly attenuated in the
reservoirs started in the late 1950’s. Activity peaked in the proximity of the source. The pressure wave advances much
1970’s and 1980’s in the US and in the Soviet Union. further into the reservoir producing changes in the saturated
However in recent years there has been a resurgent interest fluid. Under the effecgt of such waves, due to inertial forces
and research. This interest derives form observations made in and differences in density, the saturated phases start to vibrate
some fields near areas affected by earthquakes and, even with respect to their centres and to the other phases.
heavy traffic, where changes in water level and oil production
have been observed. For example, some variations in oil Part of the elastic vibration produced at the pore surface is
production were noticed in Kern County during the Southern attenuated and lost in the medium due to several irreversible
California earthquake of July 1952. However, mechanism processes associated with shear and volumetric viscosity in the
associated with earthquakes are very complex and variations medium, e.g. conversion of vibrations are produced at the pore
in oil production or water level could be consequences not level due to micro-heterogeneity of both the porous medium
only of seismic vibrations, but also of rock fracturing and and the oil-water interface.
other effects associated with earthquakes.
The high frequency volumetric pulsations are accompanied by
Two different types of waves are usually distinguished: high hydrodynamic microflows about the dispersed phases, as well
power frequency (around 20 kHz) and low power frequency as driftage of the diffusive sublayers around them. This results
waves (e.g. 40 Hz). in loosing and thinning of the surface adsorbed layers around
the phases. Some authors believe that this is likely to be the
High power frequency waves have a local effect in the reason why reductions in interfactial tension and contact angle
reservoir and are mainly applied for wellbore stimulation. occur.
Their effects are limited to a region close to source due to
higher sound absorption in the porous medium at higher This technology is believed to have a number of enhancing
frequencies. effects on oil recovery through:
Low frequency acoustic waves effects can cover a larger ¾ Decreasing the cohesive and adhesive bonding
region and are consequently used for reservoir, rather than and capillary forces
well stimulation. They are generally applied by using surface ¾ Poroelastic motion giving rise to changes in pore
vibrators, but there are also example of downhole applications. volume
¾ Heating the oil, causing its viscosity to decrease
This paper is primarily focused on waves used for reservoir ¾ Release the trapped that could lead to an increase
stimulation, as opposed to well stimulation. It aimed at in oil mobility by changing rock wettability or to
understanding the main mechanisms associated with the an increase in gas recovery.
application of vibrational energy in porous media, and
assessing laboratory and field studies. Following these mechanisms are discussed in detail.
2 SPE 108643
Efficiency of displacement of oil by water with a clear dependence on water saturation. He observed that
when gas was present in the medium, the oil relative
One of the main areas of research associated with the permeability tended to decrease for any water saturation below
application of acoustic waves in a fluid saturated porous 40%, but increased if above 40%. They observed that a
medium are focused to the efficiency of displacement of oil by decrease of residual oil saturation to water from 50% to 20%
water. due to an increase of presence of gas in the medium by 10%.
As waterflood being one of the main recovery mechanisms High Frequency Wave Studies
in oil fields across the word, effects of application of acoustic
waters in potential sweep efficiency worth some further These studies were performed using frequency waves that
discussion. usually ranged from several hundreds of Hz to a few MHz.
Koutnetsov et al conducted some studies using core Changes in the mobility ratio
samples from the Elabuzhskiy oil field and sandpacks
prepared from quartz sand and bentonites. A frequency
varying from 100-200 Hz was used for these studies. They Duhon et al. performed laboratory studies at different
compared separation of oil and water under gravitational frequencies, ranging from 1 MHz to 5.5 MHz. That was to
forces only, i.e. differences in fluid density when vibrational investigate the role played by wave frequency in enhancing
forces were applied. They model was initially saturated by fluid percolation by acoustic stimulation. High frequency
water which was then displaced by kerosene given a residual waves are not likely to be attenuated much in laboratory scale
oil saturation of 50%. It was then placed vertically and models. However, that attenuation could be significant in field
separation of oil and water was then observed. It was applications. It was observed that the increase of oil rate was
concluded that gravitational separation of oil with water inversely proportional to the wave applied. A maximum
increased by 800-1000 times when vibro-energy was applied. recovery of original oil in place of 15% was obtained was
The authors observed this increase by comparison of the obtained when the lowest frequency wave was applied, i.e. 1
bottom and top oil/water ratio both with and without MHz.
vibrational forces. These observations imply a possible change
in the oil-water relative permeability curves under the effect of The most likely mechanism to explain results above are
an acoustic field. capillary effect mechanisms, i.e. increase in fluid percolation
due to high vibrations in the pore surface. There was no
Simkin et al. studied the effect of elastic vibrations on a evidency for increased degassing or temperature in the
piston like displacement of oil by water. Once the model was medium.
prepared, it was placed horizontally or set at various angles.
They found that under applications of an acoustic field an Changes in sample permeability
additional 10% oil was recovered. They also observed that oil
droplets grew intensively after two minutes of acoustic Cherskiy et al. conducted several analyses on a sample
vibrations, due to acoustically induced coalescence. saturated sample with fresh water. They observed that the
sample permeability increased by a factor of 82 under the
Increased degassing effects of an acoustic field. It was also claimed that although
the effects on the sample were seen immediately after the
Kouznetsov et al also observed the amount of free gas in beginning of the simulation, they finished soon after the
the medium increased under the application of an acoustic acoustic field was removed.
field. Some of their experiments also observed the
displacement of oil by carbonated and “gas-free” water under Changes in oil viscosity
the effects of vibrations. They observed that although oil
recovery was increased in both cases, the increase was even Sokolov et al and Gadiev et al performed studies to
greater when carbonated water was used. They observed that analyize the effect of acoustic waves in oil viscosity. They
the amount of gas present in the medium increased with time claimed that under application of vibro-energy, oil viscosity
due to a full degassing of water under the effects of the can be reduced by 20%. Sokolov et al. observed a sudden
acoustic vibration. change in oil viscosity after the start of stimulation, but it
gradually returned to its original value after a couple of hours.
It is noted that due to the tendency of gas to move to the
pore walls, the increased presence of gas in the medium would Decrease of oil viscosity observed from the experiments above
eventually change rock wettability, having an impact on the might be the result on increasing oil temperature by
relative permeability curves. dissipation of acoustic energy into heat in the medium.
As a general rule, the presence of gas in the medium will Fairbanks et al also conducted several experiments at
decrease the relative permeability to water. Kouznetsov et al. different temperatures using a 20Hz acoustic waves. Vibro-
also observed changes in oil relative permeability curves but
4 SPE 108643
energy was applied to stimulate a sandstone cores. An increase as gravitational segregation of oil and water,
in oil rate was observed, specially for experiments performed piston-like displacement and capillary dominated
at temperatures between 100 and 110 degrees C. This results displacements.
could be also the consequence of a reduction in oil viscosity ¾ Many analyses have also observed an increase in
due to an increase in temperature. oil rate due to relative permeability effects and
increase of degassing in the medium.
Changes in surface tension
Field Trials
Gadiev performed some studies to investigate changes in
the surface tension as a function of the wave frequency. He Most of the field trials with acoustic vibrations have been
used a wide range of wave frequencies, between 40 Hz and 15 conducted in onshore Russian oil fields, some producing only
kHz. He concluded that the surface tension decreased with a few tens of barrels a day. Kouznetsove et al. noted that the
frequency and time. A decrease of surface tension would lead range of frequency used for the studies conducted on these
to a decrease in capillary forces and therefore an increase in fields varies from 10 to 200 Hz. For some of the field trials
oil rate. described here, the wave frequency has been stated separately.
Mechanisms associated with those changes are unclear, but Abuzi Oil Field
some authors believe that might be due to dissipation of
energy in the medium. The first field trials with surface vibrators were performed
in the Abuzi oil field located in the Krasnodarskiy region of
Changes in the rate of segregation of oil by water Russia in 1987. The resevoir was located at a depth of 1500 m
with an average water saturation of 97%. Two 50 kW
Gadiev also conducted some studies on saturated, vibrators were placed at 50 m apart.
unconsolidated sandstones exposed to a wide range of medium
to high frequency waves. He concluded that the efficiency of The following results were obtained:
the displacement of oil by water increased with the application
of vibro-energy by 10-15%. He also observed that the ¾ The volume of gas samples at a depth of 1150-
displacement was about three times faster than without vibro- 2500 m (oil bearing formations) was increased by
energy excitation. 25-40 times, which suggests that increased
degassing of formation fluids under the effect of
Conclusions elastic waves might be the one of the mechanisms
involved.
The following notes are concluded from laboratory studies: ¾ Water cut was reduced by an average of 20-60%.
Some of the wells showed a maximum decrease
¾ These studies have been conducted within a range in water cut of 50%. This might be due to changes
of frequencies between a few Hz to several MHz. in rock wettability due to an increasing presence
A very high frequency wave cannot be provided of gas in the medium.
by the surface vibrators currently available in the ¾ The values of light adsorption coefficients for the
industry. oil samples decreased for the production wells in
¾ The laboratory studies do not give an indication the productive intervals (depth interval of 1150-
of the spatial distance covered by the wave 2500) which suggest that a capillary effect
applied for each study. mechanism might be involved.
¾ Several factors could influence the effects
produced by elastic waves such as application Changirstah Oil Field
time, frequency applied, material used and oil
temperature. Another field study was conducted in 1988 on the
¾ Some of the laboratory studies claim an additional Changirstah onshore oil field, in Kirgizstan. The reservoir area
recovery of oil is obtained when elastic vibration is approximately 14 km2 (4.5 km by 3.1 km). Average depth
have been applied on samples previously water of the oil-bearing formations is 410-570 m. The oil-bearing
flooded. formation is represented by relative homogeneous, fine-
Some of the laboratory analysis claim an increase in oil grained sandstones with thin layers of clay. Total thickness of
production rate due to a decrease in oil viscosity. It is still not the oil-bearing formation is 25 m, whereas the net to gross is
clear whether or not the decrease in oil viscosity is a direct approximately 25%. Porosity varies between 10% and 23%,
effect from vibro-energy or a secondary effect due to where permeability values range from 0.1 to 30 D and the
dissipation of energy in the medium. initial water saturation was 60%. At the time of the trials, the
¾ It has also been observed an increase in oil oil production rate was 0.5-1 tons-d, about three times less that
production rate under the effect of acoustic initial production rate. Before the start of the stimulation, 31%
vibrations for different type of displacements such
SPE 108643 5
of the original oil place had been already recovered with a Average properties for the tested reservoir are 18-35%
90% water-cut ratio. porosity are core permeabilities vary from 4mD to 5D.
Trials were conducted in two different areas in the These trials were conducted using a new system. The
Changirstah field. The first pilot was conducted in a small area vibrator was placed at the borehole located at the centre of the
(0.4 km2) and shallow depth (240-448 m) with a permeability tested area. The vibration energy was transmitted from the
of 200 mD. The second trial was performed in a larger area surface to the oil-bearing layer (1000 m depth) using a special
(2.25 km2), deeper depth (511-708 m), but similar waveguide which was lowered into the borehole. The wave
permeability, 150 mD. Current yearly in the first area was 800 energy was monitored in an area of 15 km2, the radius of
tons, I.e. 2% of the original oil in place. On the other hand, vibration was 2.2 km.
2540 tones, I.e. 7% of OOII, were being annually produced
from the second tested area. The trials were conducted in two stages. During the first
pilot which lasted two months, the intensity of the wave
Acoustic stimulation was applied combined with WAG in energy was monitored in a well located at a certain distance
the second trial. Vibrations were produced by using two from the source. The second pilot, whose duration was also
electromagnetic hammers separated 50 m each other and at an two months, was conducted to measure changes in the
average 200 m distance from the monitored producer wells. producer well located in the proximity of the source.
The surface vibrators provided 10 Hz waves.
The main results are summarized below:
The following results were noted:
¾ Most of the monitored wells, in the vicinity of the
¾ The application of acoustic stimulations in the source, were affected by the vibration energy
pilot area one provided 300 tons of additional oil giving an increase in oil recovery. Unfortunately,
during a period of 8 months, I.e. 0.8% of OOIIP. the distance from the monitored wells to the
¾ Area two produced 1000 tons of additional oil, source well is not reported.
I.e. 3% of OOIP, under the effect of an acoustic ¾ During the first phase, wave energy was
field. These effects lasted for 4 months. monitored in a well located at 850 m of the
¾ An increase of light components in both gas and borehole source. Monitoring showed that the
oil samples was observed. Increased degassing of seismic energy in the oil-bearing formation was
formation fluids could be one of the causes. The 200 times greater than before the stimulation.
authors did not note any increased in the produced ¾ It was also observed that the magnitude of the
GOR. seismic wave in the neighboring formation was
¾ The mean water cut was decreased by 20-25%. 1.5 to 2 times lower than the seismic wave energy
The increased presence of gas at the pore level in the oil-bearing formation.
could have reduced the water and oil relative ¾ A sudden increase in oil production was observed
permeability curves differentially. after the start of the second test. The effects lasted
for two years from the beginning of the
This trial was conducted using a waveguide to transmit the stimulation (note that the application lasted for
energy directly from the surface vibrators to the net pay. It was two months).
noted a loss of energy between 5 and 10% for 1 km depth. ¾ Although the produced water cut ratio decreased
at the beginning, an increased was observed later
Lopukhov et al. compared the monitored wave energy in on.
the oil-bearing formation with that in the neighboring
formations. They concluded that the acoustic noise level after The following conclusions are noted:
the stimulation was higher than the background noise before
the stimulation in al the formations. It was also observed that ¾ Most of the monitored wells were located in the
the increase in acoustic noise level in the oil-bearing vicinity of the well, however the distances from
formations was 1 to 3 times higher than that in the neighboring the source well were not provided. A relationship
formations. This illustrates the efficiency of the technique between distance from the source well and degree
used to transmit vibrational energy directly from the surface to of changes in oil rate could give a further
the target formations. indication on the area covered by acoustic
stimulation.
Jirnovskiy Oil Field ¾ A lower loss of energy in the medium is expected
by addressing the elastic wave directly to the
Field trials were carried out in the Jirnovskiy oil field, formation through a well borehole.
Russia, between 1991 and 1993. In contrast to the previous ¾ It is believed that the increase in the observed
mentioned field analyses, these studies were not performed on water cut was not directly due to the application
a high water saturation area. of elastic waves, but to a simple increase in water
6 SPE 108643
production once most of the oil in the pilot area m. It is noted that the effects of acoustics sound
had been already been produced. may be substantially attenuated with depth.
¾ An increase in light components or gas samples ¾ Not much information is give about the geology
was not reported. It seems that the increase in oil and formations in which this technique has been
production is likely to be due to capillary effects, applied.
I.e. reduction of the adherence of fluids to the ¾ Overall results show an increase oil cut and
pore surface. improved oil recovery. The oil production rate
change occurs suddenly after the start of the
Pavloskoe Oil Field stimulation.
¾ An increase of light components in oil and gas
Trials were also conducted in the Russian oil field samples was observed in one of the field trials.
Pavlovskoe. This onshore oil field is located in a Russian
region close to the Urals. The field trials results are consistent with some of the
results obtained from the laboratory studies, such as changes
Geological structure is an anticline fold and the target in oil/water relative permeabilities and increased degassing of
reservoir, located at 1440 m depth, mainly contains formation fluids. Other changes reported in the laboratory
sandstones. Average permeability in the tested area was 350 analyses, such as in oil viscosity, are not mentioned in the
mD. field trials.
At the time studies were conducted, October 1995, the The field trials discussed above have been conducted in a
average fluid and oil production was 43.7 and 7.4 tons/d, I.e. range of depths going from a shallow reservoir in the
an average 83% of water production. Changirstah oil field, I.e average 500 m, to a medium deep
reservoir in the Abuzin oil field, I.e. 1500 m and Pavloskoe oil
A waveguide was used to transmit the vibratory energy field, I.e 1440 m depth. For all of the field trials, except Abuzi,
form the surface to the oil-bearing formation, similar to that a waveguide was used to directly transmit the vibrational
used for two of the field trials previously cited: Jirnovskiy and energy from the surface to the oil-bearing formation in order
Changirstah. The role of this waveguide is to decrease the loss to reduce the loss of acoustic energy in the medium. However,
of acoustic energy in the medium. An electromagnetic not much information has been included on the attenuation of
hammer was placed at the bottom of the waveguide, with an waves with depth during these field trials.
operating frequency of 12 Hz. The vibro energy was applied
for a period of one month. Due to attenuation of waves with depth, the effectiveness
of this process could be severely affected by reservoir depth,
Unfortunately, few results from this field trial have been e.g. offshore oil fields.
published. The following results were observed:
References
¾ A high increase in oil production was observed
after the first cycle of vibration. 1. Beresnet, I.A. et al.: “Elastic-wave stimulation of oil
¾ A 5% decrease in water production was also production: a review of methods and results”, Geophysics,
observed. Vol. 59, 1994
2. Simkin et al.”Advanced vibroseismic technique for
Conclusions water flooded reservoir stimulation, mechanims and field test
results”, 6th European IOR Symposium, 1991
The following conclusions on field trials are noted: 3. Iassononov, P. et al.: “A model for enhanced fluid
percolation in porous media by application of low-frequency
¾ Application of vibro-acoustic stimulation have elastic waves”, Journal of Geophysical Researc, Vol. 108,
been mainly applied to onshore fields. 2003.
¾ In all field trials, the frequency of vibro-energy 4. Koutznetsov, O. et al.: “Improved oil recovery by
varies between 20-200 Hz. That is close to the application of vibro-energy to water flooded sandstones”,
range provided by waves during a seismic Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 19, 1997
processing (10-100 Hz). 5. Pan, Y. et al.: “Resonant behaviour of saturated porous
¾ Trials carried out in the Jirnovskiy oil field were media”, Journal of Geophysical Research.
conducted in a low water saturation are. That 6. Smeulders et al.”Waves in partially saturated porous
contrasts with one of the conclusions previously media”, Transport in Porous Media, Vol. 9, 1992.
reached by Beresnev et al that claimed that 7. Duhon, R. et al. “The effect of ultrasonic on the flow of
potential oil field applications should have water fluids in porous media”, SPE 1316, 1989.
saturation higher than 90%. 8. Dyblenko, V. et al.”Percolation phenomena and
¾ The effects of vibro-energy have been only tested processes in saturated porous medium under the vibro-wave
in medium-deep reservoirs, down to about 1500 action”, Bashkir Research and Design Institute of Oil, 1989.
SPE 108643 7