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FOREWORD
The design Standard for structural steelwork, BS 5950-1, is used in the design
calculations for the majority of constructional steelwork in the United Kingdom.
Structural engineers are very familiar with the 1990 issue of this Code and have used it
routinely to design safe and efficient structures in a fast and cost-effective manner.
BS 5950-1 has been amended recently and there has been genuine concern within the
industry that unfamiliarity with the revised code could result in poor productivity,
increased costs and design errors, seriously damaging the competitiveness of the
construction industry. BS 5950-1:2000, as the revised code is known, came into effect
on 15 August 2001.
This publication was written by Dr Martin Heywood of The Steel Construction Institute,
with contributions to the worked examples from the late Mr Paul Salter,
Mr Abdul Malik, Mr David Brown and Mr Charles King.
Funding for the preparation of this guide was gratefully received from the Department of
the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR) and Corus.
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Contents
Page No.
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Scope of this publication 1
1.3 Summary of the changes 1
5 CONTINUOUS STRUCTURES 35
5.1 Column bases 35
5.2 Frame stability 35
5.3 Portal frames 37
5.4 Multi-storey frames 39
6 CONNECTIONS 42
6.1 Bolted connections 42
6.2 Pin connections 47
6.3 Welded connections 48
7 REFERENCES 51
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WORKED EXAMPLES 53
Sway stability 55
Choosing a steel sub-grade 57
Restrained beam 59
Unrestrained beam 63
Plate grider 67
Web bearing and buckling 71
Compression member 75
Axial load and bending 77
Baseplate 83
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SUMMARY
BS 5950 Structural use of steelwork in building, Part 1: Code of practice for design -
Rolled and welded sections has undergone major amendment. Almost every Clause of
this widely used Standard has changed in some way; some of the changes are technical in
nature, others are editorial and do not alter the recommendations for building design.
The revised Standard, referred to as BS 5950-1:2000, became effective on 15 August
2001.
The major amendments to BS 5950-1 include revised rules for checking the stability of
frames, changes to the method for selecting an appropriate steel sub-grade and the
introduction of the effective-area method for class 4 slender sections. On the subject of
member design, the greatest change relates to lateral-torsional buckling, where the
n-factor method has been removed. Changes have also been made to the Clauses on
shear buckling, stiffener design, tension members, compression members, combined axial
load and bending, and the design of column bases. Elsewhere, important changes have
been made to the rules relating to the in-plane stability of portal frames, prying forces
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La norme BS 5950 Usage structural des constructions en acier dans les bâtiments,
Partie 1: Code de pratique pour le dimensionnement - Sections laminées et soudées, a
subi d’importantes modifications. Pratiquement tous les articles de cette norme, fort
utilisée en pratique, ont subi des modifications; certaines ont un simple caractère
éditorial mais d’autres, par contre, apportent des modifications techniques importantes.
La norme révisée, référence BS 5950-1:2000, est devenue d’application le 15 août 2001.
Le but de cette publication est de faciliter la transition vers la nouvelle norme en guidant
les utilisateurs à travers les modifications majeures. Une courte description de chaque
changement important est donnée; des exemples simples illustrent les procédures de
dimensionnement révisées.
D’autre part, des modifications ont aussi été apportées aux règles relatives à la stabilité
dans leur plan des portiques, aux forces de levier et à la résistance transversale des
soudures d’angles.
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Das Ziel dieser Publikation ist es, den Übergang zu BS 5950-1:2000 zu erleichtern,
indem der Ingenieur durch die wichtigsten Änderungen geführt wird. Eine kurze
Beschreibung jeder wichtigen Änderung ist enthalten, und einfache Berechnungsbeispiele
illustrieren die überarbeiteten Berechnungsverfahren.
Die wichtigen Änderungen in BS 5950-1 beinhalten überarbeitete Regeln zur Prüfung der
Stabilität von Tragwerken, Änderungen zur Auswahl einer geeigneten Stahlgüte und die
Einführung der Methode der wirksamen Fläche bei schlanken Querschnitten der Klasse 4.
Bezüglich der Bauteilberechnung ergibt sich die größte Änderung beim Biegedrillknicken,
hier wurde die n-Faktor Methode gestrichen. Änderungen gibt es auch bei folgenden
Themen: Schubbeulen, Berechnung von Steifen, Zug- und Druckglieder, Normalkraft und
Biegung, Stützenfüße. An anderer Stelle wurden wichtige Änderungen vorgenommen beim
Stabilitätsverhalten in Tragwerksebene von Portalrahmen, bei Stützkräften und bei der
Festigkeit von Kehlnähten in Querrichtung.
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I principali emendamenti alla BS 5950-1 includono una revisione delle regole di verifica
della stabilità dei telai, del metodo di selezione dell’idonea classe di acciaio e
l’introduzione del metodo dell’area efficace per le sezioni snelle della classe 4. Per
quanto concerne la progettazione degli elementi, le maggiori variazioni si riferiscono
instabilità flesso-torsionale, ove è stato eliminato il metodo del fattore-n. Sono state
apportate modifiche anche ai punti relativi all’imbozzamento da taglio, alla progettazione
degli irrigidimenti, agli elementi tesi ed a quelli compressi, alla combinazione di azione
assiale e flettente e al progetto delle basi delle colonne. In altre parti, sostanziali
modifiche sono state effettuate alle regole riguardanti la stabilità nel piano dei portali, le
forze di contatto e la resistenza trasversale delle saldature a cordone d’angolo.
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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Since its introduction in 1985, BS 5950 Structural use of steelwork in building,
has gradually (although not completely) replaced BS 449 in the design office
and is now the established Standard for the design of steel-framed buildings in
the UK and several other countries. Part 1 of BS 5950 (referred to here as
BS 5950-1) is the Code of practice for design using rolled and welded sections.
It gives recommendations for the safe design of general building structures,
including the specification of the appropriate steel sub-grade, the classification
of sections, design for stability, the design of members subject to bending,
tension and compression, stiffener design and the design of column bases and
connections.
been replaced with full-width pages, giving the impression that this is a
completely new document. This impression is reinforced by the renumbering of
many of the Clauses and the extensive re-drafting of much of the text.
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One of the most important changes is the extension of the scope of BS 5950-1 to
include cold formed structural hollow sections. The Steel Construction Institute
first recommended that BS 5950-1 could be used for design using cold formed
structural hollow sections in Advisory Desk article AD185[3] and offered advice
on how such sections could be designed using a Standard written principally for
hot rolled steel. These recommendations have now been incorporated into
BS 5950-1. However, designers must note that the inclusion of cold formed
structural hollow sections in BS 5950-1 does not mean that they can be used in
direct substitution for a similar-sized hot finished member, because there are
important differences between the two types of section in terms of section
properties and residual stresses. Designers wishing to substitute cold formed for
hot finished structural hollow sections must redesign the members using the
appropriate strut curves, d/t limits (for section classification) and section
properties. Other types of cold formed section should still be designed
according to BS 5950-5[4].
Within Section 2, important changes have been made to the rules for checking
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the stability of all types of framed structure, including braced frames. All of
the stability rules, apart from those for portal frames, can now be found in
Clause 2.4.2, reducing the risk of the common misconception that only
continuous frames need be checked. In fact, most of the changes to this Clause
have been made to clarify the intent of the Standard and the technical
recommendations are largely unchanged. The rules for brittle fracture have also
been amended, resulting in a revised method for calculating the maximum
allowable thickness of steel. Compared with BS 5950–1:1990, the new
Standard includes a greater variety of details and temperatures (down to –45°C).
Other changes to Section 2 include a few new load factors and changes to the
rules for structural integrity and disproportionate collapse.
In Section 3, numerous minor changes have been made to the limiting width-to-
thickness ratios used in the classification of cross sections, although the general
principle remains unchanged. By far the greatest change to Section 3 of
BS 5950-1 relates to the treatment of class 4 slender sections. BS 5950-1:2000
recommends the use of the effective-area method, in which the reduction in
capacity due to local buckling is allowed for by the use of effective section
properties, as an alternative to the conservative approach of reducing the
assumed design strength. Section 3 of BS 5950-1:2000 also introduces the
effective plastic modulus, Seff, which may be used instead of Z for class 3 semi-
compact sections (the use of Z is over-conservative in many cases).
Section 4, which deals with the design of structural members, has undergone
many significant changes, particularly in relation to members subject to
bending. The rules governing the design of both restrained and unrestrained
beams have been modified, although most of the changes will only affect the
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design of class 3 semi-compact and class 4 slender beams. The only significant
change relevant to the design of Universal Beams under pure bending (which
are usually class 1 plastic or class 2 compact) is the removal of the n-factor
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method for lateral-torsional buckling. Changes have been made to the methods
for checking the shear buckling of plate girder webs in Sub-section 4.4 and the
design of bearing and buckling stiffeners in Sub-section 4.5. The design of
tension members has also been amended, but the rules for compression
members are unchanged, unless the section is class 4 slender. Other
amendments to Section 4 include new interaction equations for the buckling of
members subject to combined compression and bending, and a new method for
designing column bases.
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In addition, the load combinations that the designer must consider are now given
explicitly in the Code. Previously, these combinations were listed in Table 2
along with their ãf values, but there was no compulsion to consider any or all of
them (although it was assumed that competent designers would know that they
had to consider all load combinations to determine the worst case for their
buildings).
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2.2 Stability
Clause 2.4.2
The requirements for stability, which were previously contained in several
Clauses in different Sections of the Code, have been brought together into
Clause 2.4.2 in BS 5950-1:2000. The basic requirements have not changed, but
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the entire Clause has been rewritten to clarify which checks are required and to
distinguish between the various modes of failure that are covered by the term
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“stability limit state”. There have also been several technical changes to the
methods of analysis.
The notional horizontal forces are not externally applied loads in the way that
the dead, imposed and wind loads are, but are a convenient means of taking into
account the effects of imperfections, such as columns being out of plumb, on
the performance of a structure. In reality, such imperfections exist in all
structures, causing lateral forces to be induced in the structure under the action
of gravity loads. For this reason, the notional horizontal forces must always be
applied simultaneously with the gravity loads. In BS 5950-1:1990, the notional
horizontal forces are taken as the greater of either 1% of the factored dead load
or 0.5% of the dead plus imposed vertical loads. In BS 5950-1:2000, the 1%
of factored dead load has been removed (except as a minimum wind load, see
above) and the notional horizontal force is always 0.5% of the dead plus
imposed vertical loads.
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The final check in this Clause relates to the sway stiffness of the structure and
in particular whether it is safe for the second-order (P-delta) effects to be
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For clad structures in which the stiffening effect of the cladding has been
neglected in the analysis, if ëcr 10, it is safe to assume that the second-order
effects are small enough to be ignored and the frame may be classed as “non-
sway”.
If ëcr<10, the frame is classed as “sway sensitive” and the second-order effects
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should be taken into account. Provided that ëcr 4, this may be achieved by
multiplying the sway effects by the amplification factor kamp, given by
λ cr
kamp = but kamp 1.0
1.15λ cr − 1.5
Unclad frames, or clad frames where the stiffening effect of the cladding is
taken into account, are always classed as “sway sensitive”, irrespective of the
value of ëcr. For these structures, the amplification factor kamp is given by
λ cr
kamp =
λ cr − 1
If λcr < 4, for either type of frame, the P-delta effects cannot be allowed for
adequately by the use of the amplification factor kamp and a second-order
analysis should be carried out. This rule is new to BS 5950-1:2000.
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2.4.4.3 to calculate the required Charpy impact value at the minimum service
temperature for a particular thickness, yield strength and value of K.
Although the use of Table 4 in BS 5950-1:1990 had the advantage of being very
simple, it was limited to a minimum temperature of –15°C and to the two
values of K given in Table 3. The method in Sub-clause 2.4.4.3 could be used
for any temperature (because it simply involved specifying a Charpy value at the
required temperature), but was still limited to the values of K in Table 3.
Table 3 has also been expanded and now accommodates seven types of detail
and three levels of tensile stress. The result is a wide variety of K values,
compared with the two values in BS 5950-1:1990.
this Clause. The temperature T27J referred to in these equations is the test
temperature for which a minimum Charpy impact value of 27 Joules is specified
in the appropriate product standard, or the equivalent value given in Table 7.
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Firstly, there has been a relaxation in the tying force to be resisted when the tie
is a primary beam. The two equations for the tying force presented in
BS 5950-1:1990 (for internal and edge ties) are unchanged in BS 5950-1:2000,
but there is now an additional sentence which states that, in the absence of other
loading, the “General tying” condition may be assumed to be satisfied if the
member and its end connections are capable of resisting a tensile force equal to
its end reaction under factored loads (but not less than 75 kN). In the case of a
primary beam supporting secondary beams, the end reactions of the primary
beam under factored loads could be as little as half the tying force given by the
equation for internal ties.
In BS 5950-1:1990, where any of the five conditions was not met, the building
had to be checked at each storey to see whether any individual column, or beam
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BS EN 10025 – S275
In this example, the first term is the product standard, the “S” stands for
structural and 275 means a minimum yield strength of 275 N/mm2 (for thickness
not exceeding 16 mm).
As a result of this change, reference is made to steel grades S275, S355 and
S460 throughout BS 5950-1:2000, in place of the old BS 4360 grades 43, 50
and 55.
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As before, the design strength py depends not only on the grade of steel but also
on the thickness. Values of py are given in Table 9 (formerly Table 6) for three
common grades of structural steel and a range of thicknesses. This Table has
been expanded and now includes design strengths for 150 mm thick S275 and
S355 steel and two new thicknesses of S460 steel.
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It is important to recognise that this dependence on the level of axial load might
result in a section changing its classification as the axial load changes. For
example, consider the web of an I section with d/t = 79ε. When there is no
axial compression, the web is class 1 plastic (d/t < 80ε), but if there is a
compressive force equal to 20% of the squash load of the web (i.e. r1 = 0.2),
the section becomes class 3 semi-compact. For this reason, it is essential to
reclassify the web whenever there is a change to the axial load.
As a conservative alternative to the use of these ratios, the limit of 40ε, for
I sections, H sections, hot rolled rectangular hollow sections and box sections,
or 35ε, for cold formed rectangular hollow sections, may be used.
This Clause contains equations for Seff for I or H sections with equal flanges,
rectangular hollow sections and circular hollow sections. Two values of Seff are
given for each case. The first applies when the web is the critical element (i.e.
more slender) and the second applies when the flange is critical. Designers
wishing to use the new approach for I or H sections with unequal flanges,
subject to bending in the plane of the web, should refer to Annex H.3.
A slender section is one in which the stress at the extreme compression fibre
cannot reach the design strength due to local buckling. Consequently, whenever
such sections are subjected to axial compression, bending or a combination of
the two, the effect of local buckling on the capacity of the section needs to be
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The analysis of doubly symmetric cross sections with class 4 slender elements is
considered in Clause 3.6.2. The effective area, Aeff, of such sections should be
determined from the effective cross sections shown in Figure 8a. The effective
section modulus, Zeff, should be obtained from Figure 8b, for sections whose
webs are not slender under pure bending (i.e. only the flanges are slender), and
from Figure 9, if the web is slender under pure bending.
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The effective widths obtained from Clause 3.6.2 may also be used for class 4
slender singly symmetric and asymmetric cross sections, provided that account
is taken of the additional moments induced in the member due to the shift in the
centroid of the effective cross section compared with that of the gross cross
section. A method for calculating these moments is described in Clause 3.6.3.
Hot rolled equal-leg angles may be treated as asymmetric sections and analysed
using the method presented in Clause 3.6.3 or, alternatively, their effective
section properties Aeff and Zeff may be obtained from the simple but conservative
formulae given in Clause 3.6.4.
Formulae for the effective section properties of circular hollow sections are
given in Clause 3.6.6.
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Clause 4.2.5
Clauses 4.2.5 and 4.2.6 of BS 5950-1:1990, which deal with moment capacity
for the low shear and high shear cases respectively, have been merged so that
all of the expressions for moment capacity are now contained in a single Clause.
Several significant changes have been made and two new Sub-clauses have been
added covering notched ends and bolt holes.
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The moment capacity of class 4 slender sections with low shear was given in
BS 5950-1:1990 by
Mc = pyZ
where py is the reduced design strength obtained using the appropriate reduction
factor from Table 8.
The high shear case (i.e. Fv > 0.6Pv) has also been revised. In BS 5950-1:
1990, the moment capacity was given as follows:
For sections with equal flanges, Sv is the plastic modulus of the shear area Av.
For sections with unequal flanges, Sv is the plastic modulus of the gross section
less the plastic modulus of that part of the section remaining after the deduction
of the shear area.
For semi-compact and slender cross sections, the moment capacity was the same
as in the low shear case, i.e.
Mc = pyZ
using a reduced py for slender sections. This was clearly wrong, as it neglected
the effects of high shear completely for class 3 and class 4 sections.
In BS 5950-1:2000, this error has been corrected and the new equations are as
follows:
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Note: Although the moment capacity equation for class 1 plastic and class 2
compact sections is unchanged, the expression for ρ is different in BS 5950-1:
2000.
Firstly, a new symbol LLT, standing for segment length, has been introduced to
distinguish this dimension from the member length L. The segment length is
the length between restraints, whether these are intermediate restraints or
supports.
Secondly, several new restraint conditions have been added to the Table,
allowing designers to model their structures more accurately. These are
“compression flange fully restrained against rotation on plan” and “compression
flange partially restrained against rotation on plan”. Note that the effective
lengths of a beam with lateral and torsional restraint at one end and both flanges
partially restrained against rotation on plan at the other end have been reduced
to 0.8LLT and 0.95LLT for the normal and destabilising loading conditions
respectively.
torsionally at both ends (i.e. cases c4 and d4 in Table 14), an effective length of
1.0L is given for the normal loading condition, where L is the length of the
relevant segment between adjacent lateral restraints. However, for the
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Secondly, the rules for determining the effective length of cantilevers without
intermediate restraints are unchanged (i.e. LE obtained from Table 14), apart
from the case where the cantilever has a moment applied to its tip. BS 5950-1:
1990 deals with such moments by treating the cantilever as a beam, as for
cantilevers with intermediate restraints. In BS 5950-1:2000, the effective length
is obtained from Table 14 then increased by either 30% or 0.3L, whichever is
greater. The effective length values in Table 14 of BS 5950-1:2000 are
unchanged from those given in Table 10 of BS 5950-1:1990, except that a new
category of restraint has been added.
Finally, the new Clause 4.3.5 contains a new Sub-clause on the subject of
beams with double curvature bending. This Sub-clause has been added to
emphasise that special consideration needs to be given to beams that have both
hogging and sagging regions. Design rules are given for beams with
intermediate lateral restraints to each flange, beams with intermediate lateral
restraints to the compression flange in the sagging region only and beams
directly supporting a concrete or composite floor or roof slab.
Clause 4.3.6
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Clause 4.3.6 contains the design rules, tables and equations needed to calculate
the buckling resistance moment Mb of unrestrained beams susceptible to lateral-
torsional buckling. Although the general method is unchanged from that in
BS 5950-1:1990, there have been a number of significant changes to the
individual steps in the procedure. Overall, this Clause has undergone a major
technical amendment.
The Clause begins by listing the situations in which there is no need to check
for lateral-torsional buckling. These are:
• bending about the minor axis
• circular hollow sections, square rectangular hollow sections or circular or
square solid bars
• rectangular hollow sections when LE/ry does not exceed the limiting value
from Table 15
• I, H, channel or box sections when λLT λL0.
The first of these cases was not listed explicitly in BS 5950-1:1990, but this is
not a technical change, because lateral-torsional buckling occurs about the minor
axis as a result of major axis bending. The second and third cases were noted
in BS 5950-1:1990, but the table of limiting slenderness values for rectangular
hollow sections has been extended to include 12 values of D/B, compared with
the four values given in Table 38 in Appendix B.2.6 of BS 5950-1:1990. In the
final case, ëL0 is the limiting slenderness obtained from the last row of Table 16
or Table 17. The inclusion of the ëL0 values in these tables is new to
BS 5950-1:2000, although a formula for ëL0 was included in Appendix B.2.5 of
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BS 5950-1:1990.
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Except for hot rolled angles, which are considered in Clause 4.3.8, the buckling
resistance moment Mb may be obtained either using the conservative method
described in Clause 4.3.7 or from the expressions below.
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The term pb in these equations is the bending strength and is obtained from
Table 16 for rolled sections and Table 17 for welded sections, for given values
of design strength py and equivalent slenderness ëLT. These tables are equivalent
to Table 11 and Table 12 in BS 5950-1:1990 and have been amended to include
new columns corresponding to different values of py and a new row containing
values of the limiting slenderness λL0. In all other respects, these tables are
unchanged.
Designers familiar with BS 5950-1:1990 will recall that there used to be two
approaches to analysing lateral-torsional buckling, one using the slenderness
correction factor n (for loading between lateral restraints), the other using the
equivalent uniform moment factor m (for cases with end moments only). In
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BS 5950-1:2000, there is a major change in that the n factor method has been
removed from this Clause, leaving the latter method to be used for all cases (n
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The slenderness ratio, v, for sections with two plain flanges, may be obtained
from Table 19 for various values of ë/x and ç where x is the torsional index of
the section and ç is given by
I yc
ç =
I yc + I yt
where Iyc and Iyt are the minor axis second moments of area of the compression
flange and tension flange respectively.
As an alternative to Table 19, the slenderness ratio v may be obtained from the
equations in Sub-clause 4.3.6.7. In BS 5950-1:1990, similar expressions could
be found in Appendix B.2.5.
The buckling parameter u and torsional index x may be obtained from the
formulae in Annex B.2.3 (B.2.5 in BS 5950-1:1990) or from published tables of
Created on 30 March 2011
section properties. Alternatively, for rolled I and H sections with equal flanges,
the following conservative approximations may be used:
u = 0.9 and x = D/T
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Sub-clause 4.3.6.8 has not been affected by the recent amendments, other than
the change in Sub-clause number.
Note:
1. Slight changes have been made to the values of mLT for segments with
end moments only, compared with those in BS 5950-1:1990.
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Clause 4.3.7
Clause 4.3.7 gives a simple but conservative alternative approach to the method
presented in Clause 4.3.6 for determining the buckling resistance moment of a
plain rolled I, H or channel section with equal flanges. There have been two
changes to this method compared with BS 5950-1:1990.
Table 20 are unchanged, so for all class 1 and class 2 sections, for which
βw = 1, there will be no change at all to pb, or indeed Mb.
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Clause 4.3.8
Clause 4.3.8, which deals with the buckling resistance moment for single
angles, has been revised resulting in a new basic method and a significant
change to the existing simplified method.
This simple approach has been shown to be non-conservative for some cases
(for low L / rvv) and has been replaced in BS 5950-1:2000 by two alternative
methods.
applicable to equal and unequal angles and involves resolving the applied
moments into their components about the principal axes u-u and v-v. The
buckling resistance moment should then be obtained using an equivalent
slenderness λLT obtained from Annex B.2.9.
moment and axial load are assumed to be resisted by the whole section and the
web is designed for shear and longitudinal stresses, using the method in H.3.
The third method was a combination of the first two.
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The methods presented in BS 5950-1:2000 are similar, except that there is now
an additional option for low shear. Where the applied shear is no greater than
60% of the simple shear buckling resistance obtained from Sub-clause 4.4.5.2,
it is acceptable to obtain the moment capacity using the rules given in
Clause 4.2.5. Where the applied shear exceeds 60% of the simple shear
buckling resistance, the moment capacity should be obtained either by assuming
that all of the moment is resisted by the flanges or by using the rules in H.3 to
design the web for the applied shear plus any moment beyond the “flanges
only” moment capacity. These two high shear methods are essentially the same
as methods a and c in BS 5950-1:1990.
Clause 4.4.5
Clause 4.4.5, which considers the shear buckling of plate girder webs, has been
rewritten for clarity and replaces the over-conservative simple method with the
one used in BS 449. This is a major technical change.
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
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While these two methods may appear to be identical, apart from the choice of
symbols, they give different results because the values of qw in Table 21 of
BS 5950-1:2000 are not the same as the values of qcr in Table 21 of BS 5950-1:
1990.
In the more exact method, the difference between the two versions of
BS 5950-1 is more apparent.
If the flanges are not fully stressed, Vb is taken as the sum of the simple shear
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buckling resistance, Vw, and the flange-dependent shear buckling resistance, Vf,
i.e.
Vb = Vw + Vf
where Vf is given by
(
Pv d / a )
(
1 − f / p
f yf ) 2
Vf =
1 + 0.15 ( M pw / M pf )
where:
ff is the mean longitudinal stress in the smaller flange due to moment
and/or axial force
Mpf is the plastic moment capacity of the smaller flange about its own
equal area axis perpendicular to the plane of the web
Mpw is the plastic moment capacity of the web about its own equal area axis
perpendicular to the plane of the web
Pv is the shear capacity from Clause 4.2.3
pyf is the design strength of the flange
pyw is the design strength of the web.
Generally:
Vb = qb dt
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
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where:
qb is the basic shear strength obtained from Table 22
qf is the flange-dependent shear strength factor from Table 23
Kf is a factor given by
M pf
Kf = 1 − f
4 M pw p yf
(The f term here has the same meaning as ff defined above.)
Note that the basic shear strength qb used in the design of stiffened panels, using
tension field action, is higher than the critical shear strength qcr used when
designing panels without tension field action, giving a higher value of Vb, even
when the flanges are fully stressed. By contrast, in BS 5950-1:2000, both
methods use qw and therefore yield exactly the same result in the case of fully
stressed flanges.
The tension field action induced in the plate girder web produces a horizontal
anchor force, Hq, at the end of the girder, as shown in Figure 4.1.
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Hq
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
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Note that the provisions dealing with the design of the end anchorage, which
used to be in Clause 4.4.5, have been moved to Annex H.4 in BS 5950-1:2000.
In BS 5950-1:1990, the stiff bearing length b1 (i.e. the length that cannot
deform appreciably in bending) was calculated by taking the angle of load
dispersion through the steel to be 45° (see Figure 8 of BS 5950-1:1990).
BS 5950-1:2000 also assumes a load dispersion of 45°, but there is no longer a
need to analyse the geometry of the section, because b1 may be obtained directly
from the formulae given in Figure 13.
Clause 4.5.2
The provisions in BS 5950-1 relating to the bearing capacity of an unstiffened
web have been revised.
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
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where be is the distance to the end of the member from the end of the stiff
bearing.
k is given by:
Where the applied load or reaction exceeds the bearing capacity of the
unstiffened web, bearing stiffeners should be provided. These should be
designed to carry the applied force minus the bearing capacity of the unstiffened
web. This requirement is unchanged from BS 5950-1:1990.
publication.
Clause 4.5.3
The provisions in BS 5950-1 relating to the buckling resistance of an unstiffened
web and the design of load-carrying stiffeners have been revised.
If the loaded flange is effectively restrained against rotation relative to the web
and against lateral movement relative to the other flange, Px, is given by:
When ae ≥ 0.7d:
Created on 30 March 2011
25εt
Px = Pbw
(b1 + nk ) d
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
Discuss me ...
where:
ae is the distance from the applied load or reaction to the end of the
member
d is the depth of the web
Pbw is the bearing capacity of the unstiffened web obtained from
Clause 4.5.2
n is a dispersion factor obtained from Clause 4.5.2
k is taken as follows:
– for a rolled I or H section:
k = T+r
– for a welded I or H section:
k = T
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If one or both of the restraint conditions given above is not met, a reduced
buckling resistance must be used given by
0.7 d
Pxy = Px
LE
0.8 Fx
A>
p ys
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
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where:
A is the area of the stiffener in contact with the flange
Fx is the applied load
pys is the design strength of the stiffener.
As a result of the reduction in the effective width of the web from 20t to 15t,
this bearing check has been removed from BS 5950-1:2000. This is a key
change because, in most practical cases, the size of the stiffeners was governed
by this rule. There is still a requirement to check the bearing capacity, as
BS 5950-1:2000 states that load-carrying stiffeners should also be checked as
bearing stiffeners. However, this requirement is not as onerous as the previous
80% rule, because bearing stiffeners are only designed to carry the external load
minus the bearing capacity of the unstiffened web, not the full external load.
Clause 4.5.4
Clause 4.5.4 (formerly Clause 4.5.7) has been expanded to provide greater
detail on the design of tension stiffeners. Two cases are presented for which
tension stiffeners are provided and a separate method of design is given for each
case.
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If the applied load or reaction exceeds the tension capacity of the unstiffened
web at its connection to the flange, the tension stiffener should be designed to
carry that portion of the load which exceeds the tension capacity of the
unstiffened web. If, on the other hand, tension stiffeners are needed because
the applied load or reaction exceeds the tension capacity of the unstiffened
flange, the proportion of the load assumed to be carried by the stiffener should
be consistent with the design of the flange. This latter case was not considered
in BS 5950-1:1990.
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
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Pt = py(Ae – 0.5a2)
and for welded connections by
Pt = py(Ag – 0.3a2)
in which Ae is the sum of the effective net areas ae (see Clause 3.4.3), Ag is the
gross area of the cross section and
a2 = Ag – a1
where a1 is the gross area of the connected element.
The reason for this change is that the formulation in BS 5950-1:1990 is non-
conservative for grade S460 steel. The 3a1 / (3a1 + a2) factor was derived from
tests on mild steel and allows for the effects of eccentricity and strain
hardening, assuming Us / Ys to be the same for all grades of steel. In
BS 5950-1: 2000, eccentricity and strain hardening are considered separately, by
first calculating the effective area in Clause 3.4.3 (multiplying the net area by
Ke) then using the formulae in this Clause to allow for eccentricity.
Consequently, compared with BS 5950-1:1990, there has been an increase in
capacity for S275, a small decrease for S355 and a significant decrease for
S460. For welded angles, there is a very small decrease in capacity for all
grades of steel.
Similarly, there are two new formulae for double angle, channel and T section
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members, where the components are connected to both sides of a gusset plate
and are interconnected by bolts or welds. In this case, the tension capacity for
bolted connections is given by
Pt = py(Ae – 0.25a2)
and for welded connections by
Pt = py(Ag – 0.15a2)
Note: If the components of the tie are both connected to the same side of the
gusset plate or are not interconnected as described above, the member should be
treated as if it were a single angle, channel or T section.
Clause 4.7.2
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Clause 4.7.4
The means by which the compression resistance of members with slender cross
sections is calculated have changed, resulting in the removal of the anomalies
leading to the over-conservative design of slender cross sections, such as
Universal Beams used as columns.
Pc = Ag pcs
where:
Ag is the gross cross-sectional area of the section
pcs is the reduced compressive strength based on the slenderness ë and the
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Clause 4.7.5
Changes have been made to Table 23 (formerly Table 25) regarding the choice
of strut curve for different types of section and to Table 24 (formerly Table 27)
from which the compressive strength pc is obtained.
The most significant change to this Clause is the inclusion of cold formed
structural hollow sections in BS 5950-1:2000, for which Table 24c should be
used for buckling about both axes. In addition, changes have been made to the
choice of strut curve for rolled I sections. In BS 5950-1:1990, the compressive
Created on 30 March 2011
strength pc of all rolled I sections about the major and minor buckling axes was
obtained from Table 24a and Table 24b respectively. In BS 5950-1:2000, the
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
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use of Table 24a and Table 24b is limited to sections with a maximum thickness
not exceeding 40 mm. Table 24b and Table 24c should be used for rolled I
sections with a maximum thickness greater than 40 mm. This change also
applies to rolled I sections with welded flange cover plates within the range
0.25 < U / B < 0.8 (see Figure 14 of BS 5950-1:2000).
The strut curves themselves are unchanged, although the range of design
strengths in Table 24 has been amended. Compressive strengths pc for py values
of 225 N/mm2, 305 N/mm2, 320 N/mm2, 340 N/mm2, 395 N/mm2, 415 N/mm2
and 450 N/mm2 have been deleted and replaced by values corresponding to
design strengths of 235 N/mm2, 315 N/mm2, 345 N/mm2, 400 N/mm2,
440 N/mm2 and 460 N/mm2. In addition, a few of the other pc values have
been revised slightly, although the majority is unchanged.
No technical changes have been made to the text of this Clause, but much of it
has been rewritten, with Figure 14 in BS 5950-1:2000 replacing Table 26 in
BS 5950-1:1990.
where:
F is the applied axial force
Ag is the gross cross-sectional area
pc is the compressive strength
m is the equivalent uniform moment factor
Mb is the buckling resistance moment
Mx is the applied moment about the major axis
My is the applied moment about the minor axis
py is the design strength
Created on 30 March 2011
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
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Alternatively, designers could opt for the more exact method by satisfying the
following relationship:
mM x mM y
+ ≤1
M ax M ay
in which Max and May are the maximum buckling moments about the major and
minor axes respectively in the presence of axial load.
Fc m M my My
+ LT LT + ≤1
Pcy Mb py Z y
compression resistance for buckling about the minor axis Pcy. However, in
the second equation, Pcy is always used, whether it is smaller than Pcx or
not.
2. In the second term of the second equation, MLT is used in place of Mx.
MLT is the maximum major axis moment in the segment length between
restraints against lateral-torsional buckling.
3. The equivalent uniform moment factor m used in BS 5950-1:1990 has
been replaced by mx, my and mLT. mLT is the equivalent uniform moment
factor for lateral-torsional buckling for the pattern of major axis moments
over the segment length LLT. It is obtained from Table 18. mx and my are
the equivalent uniform moment factors for flexural buckling about the
major and minor axis respectively. Both are new and are obtained from
Table 26 using the appropriate moment pattern between the relevant
flexural buckling restraints.
4. For cantilever columns and members in sway sensitive frames,
BS 5950-1:2000 includes the following special requirements:
a. If sway mode in-plane effective lengths are used, mx and my
should not be less than 0.85.
b. If amplified-sway moments are used, only the non-sway moment
should be multiplied by mx or my, compared with the total (sway +
non-sway) moment in BS 5950-1:1990.
The more exact approach has undergone an even more radical change, with the
original single equation being replaced by sixteen new ones, seven for I and H
Created on 30 March 2011
sections, nine for circular hollow sections, rectangular hollow sections and box
sections. Separate equations are given for members with moments about the
major axis only, members with moments about the minor axis only and
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
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members with moments about both axes. There are typically two or three
equations for each type of loading. For example, an I section member with
moments about both axes should be checked for major axis buckling, lateral-
torsional buckling and interactive buckling.
Note: In BS 5950-1:1990, the more exact method could, in theory, be used for
any type of section, whereas in BS 5950-1:2000, this method is clearly limited
to circular hollow sections, rectangular hollow sections, I sections, H sections
and box sections with equal flanges.
(a) For class 1 plastic, class 2 compact and class 3 semi-compact cross sections
Fc M My
+ x + ≤1
Ag p y M cx M cy
+ x + ≤1
Aeff p y M cx M cy
In BS 5950-1:1990, only the first of these two equations was given and the
reduced capacity of slender sections was taken into account by the use of a
reduced py.
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has since become the standard method of baseplate design in the UK. The
effective-area method has now been adopted by BS 5950-1:2000, but other
rational approaches are also permitted.
2c + T 2c + T
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The shaded areas in the figure represent the minimum size of the plate required
to keep the bearing pressure within the necessary limit. In practice, the overall
size of the plate can be made larger, for instance to utilise rounded dimensions
or to accommodate holding down bolts.
Limiting the moment in the baseplate to the elastic moment capacity, the
thickness of the plate is obtained using
tp = c(3w / pyp)0.5
where c is the largest perpendicular distance from the edge of the effective
portion of the baseplate to the face of the column.
This method is based on the assumption that the load is applied to the baseplate
from a concentric column. If this is not the case, the moment resulting from
the eccentricity of the axial load should be calculated and must not exceed pypZp,
where Zp is the elastic section modulus of the baseplate. This is a change from
BS 5950-1:1990, in which the maximum allowable moment in the baseplate was
1.2 pypZp.
There are three further technical changes relating to the design of baseplates.
Secondly, the rule limiting the design strength of the plate pyp to 270 N/mm2 has
been removed, allowing designers to take advantage of the stronger grades of
steel, such as S355, if they wish. Finally, in BS 5950-1:1990, the thickness of
the baseplate could not be less than the thickness of the column flange. This
limit has been removed from BS 5950-1:2000.
In addition to the changes described above, three new Sub-clauses have been
added to this Clause. Sub-clause 4.13.2.3 deals with applied moments and
states that if moments are applied to the baseplate by the column, the moments
in the baseplate should be calculated assuming a uniform pressure not exceeding
0.6fcu under the effective portion of the compression zone. This moment should
not exceed pypSp, where Sp is the plastic modulus of the baseplate.
Sub-clause 4.13.2.4 reminds designers that, where moments are applied to the
base of the column, holding down bolts need to be checked for tension.
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5 CONTINUOUS STRUCTURES
In both versions of BS 5950-1, where the column has a nominally rigid base,
the base stiffness is assumed to equal the column stiffness for the purposes of
elastic analysis. However, BS 5950-1:2000 states that the base may be treated
as rigid, when determining the deflections at the serviceability limit state.
BS 5950-1:2000 also considers plastic global analysis, stating that the base
moment capacity may be taken as any value between zero and the moment
capacity of the column, provided that the foundation is designed to resist a
moment equal to this assumed moment capacity. This new requirement
recognises the fact that in rigid-plastic analysis it is the capacity, not the
stiffness, that governs the design.
For elastic-plastic analysis, the assumed base stiffness should be consistent with
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the assumed moment capacity, but should not exceed the stiffness of the
column.
a separate check on the in-plane stability of the individual members. This has
always been the case, but was not made clear in BS 5950-1:1990. However, a
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
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separate member stability check is required for the internal columns of multi-
bay portals and the rafters of tied portals.
Two new Sub-clauses have been added: Sub-clause 5.2.3.6 limits the area of
bolt holes at or adjacent to a plastic hinge location; Sub-clause 5.2.3.8 simply
states that haunches should be proportioned to avoid plastic hinges forming
within their length.
Clause 5.3.1
Clause 5.3.5 of BS 5950-1:1990, which deals with the out-of-plane stability of
continuous frames, has been divided into Clauses 5.3.1, 5.3.2 and 5.3.3 in
BS 5950-1:2000. Clause 5.3.1 provides a general introduction to out-of-plane
stability.
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The most significant change to this Clause is that designers are now permitted to
check the resistance of a member or segment to out-of-plane buckling using the
forces and moments corresponding to the required load factor ër, instead of the
plastic load factor ëp, whenever ëp is greater than ër. This may be achieved
either by multiplying the moments and forces from plastic analysis by the ratio
ër / ëp or by determining the forces and moments at ër directly using elastic-
plastic analysis. Previously, some designers had used the reduced loads, while
others had argued that the collapse loads had to be used. BS 5950-1:2000 has
now clarified this matter.
Clause 5.3.3
Clause 5.3.3 considers the length of a segment adjacent to a plastic hinge and
has been extended to include a modification to the existing method to allow for
the moment gradient.
In BS 5950-1:2000, this approach is still valid. However, the designer now has
Created on 30 March 2011
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Note: This new method should only be used for uniform I section members with
equal flanges and D/B ≥ 1.2, in S275 or S355 steel where fc does not exceed
80 N/mm2.
Clause 5.5.4
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Clause 5.5.4, which considers the in-plane stability of portal frames, has
undergone several major technical changes.
The first major change to this Clause relates to the sway-check method in
Sub-clause 5.5.4.2. Research conducted during the drafting of BS 5950-1:2000
demonstrated that this method is only valid when the frame geometry lies within
certain limits. Consequently, in BS 5950-1:2000, the use of the sway-check
method is restricted to frames that satisfy the following conditions:
1. The span L does not exceed 5 times the mean height of the columns.
2. The height hr of the apex above the tops of the columns does not
exceed 0.25L.
3. If the rafter is asymmetric, hr satisfies (hr / sa)2 + (hr / sb)2 0.5 (see
Figure 18 in BS 5950-1:2000).
The sway-check method involves calculating the horizontal deflection at the top
of each column, δi, due to the application of the notional horizontal forces. In
the gravity load case, it can be assumed that it is safe to neglect the P-delta
effects altogether and take ër equal to 1, so long as äi does not exceed hi / 1000,
where hi is the height of that column. This is unchanged from BS 5950-1:1990.
However, BS 5950-1:2000 states that the use of the stiffening effects of the
cladding should be ignored when calculating the notional horizontal deflections
δi for the gravity load case.
Created on 30 March 2011
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load as the only imposed load. Thus, the application of this method is restricted
to frames that are not subject to loads from valley beams, crane gantries or
other concentrated loads (other than the standard purlin loads). This method, as
presented in BS 5950-1:2000, is almost identical to that in BS 5950-1:1990,
except that the formula for the effective span of the bay Lb has changed.
One major addition to this Clause is the extension of the sway-check method to
consider load cases including horizontal loading, separate from the gravity load
case. The P-delta effects can never be neglected under horizontal loading and
must always be taken into account when designing portal frames for load
combinations 2 and 3. Provided that the frame has satisfied the sway check for
the gravity load case, λr for the horizontal loading is given by:
λ sc
λr =
(λ sc − 1)
λsc is an approximation to the elastic critical buckling factor for the sway mode
and is obtained from
hi
λsc =
200δ i
where hi is the storey height and δi is the horizontal deflection at the top of each
column due to the application of the appropriate notional horizontal forces for
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As in the gravity case, provided that the frame is not subject to loads from
valley beams, crane gantries or other concentrated loads larger than the purlin
loads, there is a formula that may be used as an alternative to calculating δi. In
this case, the formula allows the direct calculation of ësc without the need to
perform an elastic analysis of the frame under the notional horizontal forces.
Note:
1. When calculating the deflections for the horizontal load cases, the sway
stiffness of the plan bracing and roof sheeting may be included.
However, it should be remembered that certain sheeting types offer very
little shear stiffness and the original sheeting may be replaced during the
life of the structure.
2. The sway-check method is not applicable when ësc < 5.0. In such
cases, second-order analysis must be used.
The method for checking the snap-through stability of portal frame rafters is
almost unchanged from BS 5950-1:1990, but designers should note that there has
been a minor, yet important, change to the formula as shown below.
Lb 22( 4 + L / h
I c 275
1990: ≤ 1 + tan 2 èr
D Ω ( Ω – 1) I r p yr
Lb 22( 4 + L / h 275
≤ 1 + I c tan 2 èr
Created on 30 March 2011
2000:
D 4 ( Ω – 1) Ir pyr
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Where the geometrical limitations for the sway-check method are not satisfied,
BS 5950-1:2000 provides an alternative means of allowing for the P-delta
effects, known as the “amplified-moments method”. This method, which is
applicable to all portal frames, requires the accurate calculation of the elastic
critical load factor ëcr (the approximate formula given in Clause 2.4.2 must not
be used for this purpose). In this case, ëcr should be taken as the lowest elastic
critical load factor for the bare frame, without any allowance for the stiffening
effects of the cladding, because the 0.9 factor (see below) already allows for
cladding stiffness and strain hardening.
Once the lowest value of ëcr has been obtained for the load case under
consideration, ër is determined as follows:
if ëcr ≥ 10: ër = 1.0
0.9 λ cr
if 10 > ëcr ≥ 4.6: ër =
λ cr – 1
This method is new to portal frame design in BS 5950-1:2000, but the same
method did exist in BS 5950-1:1990 for plastic design of multi-storey frames.
If ëcr < 4.6, the amplified-moments method must not be used and the in-plane
stability of the frame should be checked by second-order analysis. It is
recommended that such analysis be performed by computer software, but where
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such software is not available, hand calculation is possible and advice is given
in In-plane stability of portal frames to BS 5950-1:2000[10]. Where second-order
analysis is used, ër should be taken as 1.0. It is expected that second-order
analysis will usually be more economical than the amplified-moments method
and will often allow design of more slender frames than the sway-check method.
Tied portals cannot be treated in the same way as normal portal frames, because
they tend to have very high axial forces in their rafters. This is recognised in
BS 5950-1:2000 by the introduction of a new Sub-clause specifically for this
type of frame. This Sub-clause simply states that the in-plane stability of tied
portals should be checked by second-order analysis with ër taken as 1.0.
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When the effective-length method is used, BS 5950-1:2000 states that the beams
should be designed to remain elastic, which is a slightly different limit to “90%
of its reduced moment capacity” in Appendix E of BS 5950-1:1990.
If the elastic critical load factor ëcr is less than 10, the frame is classed as
“sway-sensitive” (see Clause 2.4.2) and the second-order sway effects should
either be determined directly by second-order analysis or taken into account by
modifying the first-order effects.
BS 5950-1:2000 contains a similar method, but there have been three significant
changes.
Firstly, there are now two alternative expressions for the amplification factor:
1. For clad structures where the stiffening effect of the cladding is not
taken into account:
λ cr
kamp = but kamp ≥ 1.0
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1.15λ cr − 1.5
2. For unclad frames or clad frames where the stiffening effect of the
cladding is taken into account:
λ cr
kamp =
λ cr − 1
Clause 5.7.3
Clause 5.7.3 presents a simple check for the stability of plastically designed
multi-storey frames that may be used as an alternative to the elastic methods
described in Sub-section 5.6 or second-order elastic-plastic analysis. This check
is identical to the method given in BS 5950-1:1990, but the following three
additional conditions have been placed on its use:
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If ëcr < 4.6 for clad structures in which the effect of the cladding is not taken
into account, or ëcr < 5.75 for unclad frames or clad structures in which the
effect of the cladding is taken into account, the simplified method cannot be
used and the frame stability must be checked either by elastic analysis or
second-order elastic-plastic analysis.
BS 5950-1:2000 does not propose the use of concrete casing of the steel frame
to increase the value of ëcr.
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6 CONNECTIONS
Fr Fr
Lt
Lv Lv
Lv
Lt Lt
Fr
Lv
Lt
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Fr
In each case, failure occurs in shear along the line of bolts parallel to the
applied force and, simultaneously, in tension along a perpendicular face. This
mode of failure results in a block of material, represented by the shaded area in
each example above, being torn out by the applied shear force, hence the name
block shear failure.
Clause 6.3.2
Clause 6.3.2 has undergone three significant changes: new values for the shear
strength of bolts, a new Sub-clause on packing and a new Sub-clause on kidney-
shaped slots.
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Tables: Table 30 for shear strength, Table 31 for bearing strength and Table 34
for tension strength.
A new Sub-clause, 6.3.2.2, has been added on the subject of steel packing.
This states that the total thickness of the packing tpa at a shear plane should not
exceed 4d / 3, where d is the nominal diameter of the bolts. In addition, the
number of plies should preferably not exceed four. For cases where the total
packing thickness exceeds d / 3, the full shear capacity (Ps = ps As) cannot be
used and a reduced shear capacity should be calculated using
9d
Ps = As
8d + 3t pa
The second new Sub-clause, 6.3.2.4, deals with kidney-shaped slots. It states
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that where a connection has two bolts, one in a standard clearance hole and one
in a kidney-shaped slot, the shear capacity of each bolt should be taken as
0.8Ps, i.e. 80% of the shear capacity for a standard clearance hole.
Clause 6.3.3
Clause 6.3.3 has been expanded to give improved guidance on the bearing
capacity of connections using non-preloaded bolts. In assessing the bearing
capacity of a connection, it is necessary to consider the bearing capacity of the
bolt and the bearing capacity of the connected parts. Both are considered in this
Clause, but only the latter has undergone a significant change.
Provided that the size of the holes does not exceed the dimensions given in
Table 33, the following values of kbs should be used:
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Where standard clearance holes are used, this change has no effect whatsoever
on the bearing capacity of the connected parts. However, for all other types of
holes, the bearing capacity has been reduced greatly compared with BS 5950-1:
1990 (a 30% reduction for oversized holes and short slotted holes and a 50%
reduction for long slotted holes and kidney-shaped slots). This is a very
significant change.
Note:
1. Some of the values of pbs given in Table 32 have been amended slightly
(although not for steel grades S275 and S355).
2. BS 5950-1:2000 gives standard hole dimensions for non-preloaded bolts
(Table 33) and preloaded bolts (Table 36). Previously, values were
only given for preloaded bolts (Table 35 in BS 5950-1:1990).
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The bearing capacity of the bolt, Pbb, is unchanged from BS 5950-1:1990 and is
given by
Pbb = dtp pbb
where pbb is the bearing strength of the bolt obtained from Table 31.
Although the formula is unchanged, the range of pbb values has been expanded
and now includes grade 10.9 and HSFG bolts, in addition to the usual
grades 4.6 and 8.8. There have also been a few minor changes to some of the
pbb values. Note that Ub is limited to 1000 N/mm2 in BS 5950-1:2000.
Clause 6.3.4
Clause 6.3.4 has been amended to allow the full tensile strength of the bolts to
be used in cases where prying is either avoided or allowed for explicitly in the
analysis. This is a major technical change.
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Ft + Q Ft + Q
Ft Ft
M1 M1 Q M1 M1 Q
M2 M2
In the first example, the connection is subject to single curvature bending and
there is no prying force. In this case, each bolt is designed for a tension force
equal to Ft, using a bolt tension capacity based on the tension strength pt from
Table 34. The method in BS 5950-1:1990 was clearly conservative in this case,
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as it made an allowance for prying even though there was none. The new
approach is less conservative, because it allows the use of the full tension
strengths from Table 34, instead of the reduced tension strengths in Table 32 of
BS 5950-1:1990.
Designers wishing to take advantage of the full tension capacity of the bolts
must calculate Q and design each bolt for the total tension Ftot. In this case,
although the tension capacity is greater than before, the tension in each bolt has
also increased. The overall effect will depend on the magnitude of the prying
force relative to the applied tension.
Simple method
In the simple method, the prying force is neglected and the bolt force is simply
taken as equal to Ft. However, in this case, the full tension capacity of the
bolts cannot be used and, instead, the connection must be designed so that Ft
does not exceed the nominal tension capacity of the bolt given by
Pnom = 0.8ptAt
Firstly, this method should only be used if the cross-centre spacing of the bolt
Created on 30 March 2011
holes, s, does not exceed 55% of the width of the flange or end-plate, as shown
in Figure 6.3.
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s ≤ 0.55B
Figure 6.3 Maximum cross-centres of bolt lines for the simple method
This is to ensure that the prying force is kept within the limits allowed for by the
use of 0.8pt in the calculation of the nominal tension capacity. A cross-centre
spacing greater than 0.55B may result in a prying force in excess of that allowed
for in the simplified method, making this method unsafe. In such circumstances,
the prying forces must be taken into account explicitly by using the more exact
method.
bending, the moment capacity of the connected part per unit width should be
based on the elastic capacity rather than the plastic capacity (i.e. the moment
capacity per unit width should be taken as pytp2/6, where tp is the thickness of the
connected part and py is its design strength).
Clause 6.4.3
BS 5950-1:1990 recommended that the slip factor ì should either be obtained
from tests as specified in BS 4604 or, in the case of general grade fasteners in
connections with untreated surfaces, ì could be taken as 0.45. This placed
designers in the awkward situation of not being able to calculate the slip
resistance in their connections without first conducting tests.
Clause 6.4.5
In BS 5950-1:1990, it was stated that all preloaded bolts subject to combined
shear and tension should satisfy the following relationship:
Fs F
+ 0.8 t ≤ 1
PsL Pt
where:
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Note that the tension force in these new expressions is Ftot, the total tension in
the bolt, not Ft, the applied tension. The difference is that Ftot includes the
effects of prying, which may be allowed for explicitly in BS 5950-1:2000 (see
Clause 6.3.4). By contrast, BS 5950-1:1990 allowed for prying implicitly, by
reducing the tension capacity of the bolts.
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In BS 5950-1:1990, the shear capacity of a pin was given as 0.6pypA, where pyp
is the design strength of the pin and A is its cross-sectional area. In BS 5950-1:
2000, the shear capacity remains as 0.6pypA if rotation is not required and the
pin is not intended to be removable. However, if rotation is required or if the
pin is intended to be removable, a new lower value of 0.5pypA should be used.
A similar change has been made to the moment capacity, which used to be
taken as 1.2pypZ, where Z is the elastic modulus of the pin. In BS 5950-1:
2000, the moment capacity may now be taken as 1.5 pypZ if rotation is not
Created on 30 March 2011
required and if the pin is not intended to be removable, but should be taken as
1.0 pypZ if rotation or the removal of the pin is required. This effectively
allows the plastic moment capacity of a pin to be developed if the pin does not
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rotate, but restricts bending to first yield if the pin does rotate or is intended to
be removable.
In addition, there has been a change relating to the assumptions on which the
bending calculations are based. According to BS 5950-1:2000, the moments on
the pin should be calculated on the basis that the connected parts form simple
supports. It should also be assumed that the reactions between the pin and the
connected parts are distributed uniformly along the length in contact on each
part. However, as an alternative, if the thickness of one or more of the
connected parts exceeds that needed to provide sufficient bearing capacity, it
may be assumed that the reactions are distributed over reduced contact lengths
adjacent to the interfaces, based upon the minimum thickness needed to provide
sufficient bearing capacity. This alternative did not exist in BS 5950-1:1990.
strength and a minimum tensile strength not less than those specified for the
parent material.
2. The sum of the throat sizes is not less than the connected plate
thickness.
3. The weld is principally subject to direct compression or tension.
In BS 5950-1:2000, this rule has been deleted, leaving designers to use the
design strengths given in Table 37. These values are significantly lower than
the design strengths of the parent material (pw = 220 N/mm2 for S275 and
pw = 250 N/mm2 for S355).
This reduction in capacity has been partly offset by the allowance in BS 5950-1:
2000 for the higher transverse strength of fillet welds (see Clause 6.8.7). For
the case of two plates connected at right angles by symmetrical fillet welds,
è = 45° and K = 1.25, resulting in the following transverse strengths:
S275: 1.25 × 220 = 275 N/mm2
S355: 1.25 × 250 = 312.5 N/mm2
Clearly, where S275 steel is used, the transverse strength is still equal to that of
the parent metal, but for S355 the strength is significantly lower.
Note that the design strengths given in Table 37 of BS 5950-1:2000 have been
amended slightly, compared with Table 36 of BS 5950-1:1990.
Clause 6.8.7
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Clause 6.8.7 has undergone a major amendment, resulting in a new method for
calculating the capacity of fillet welds subject to transverse forces.
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It has long been understood that the transverse strength of fillet welds is greater
than the longitudinal strength and this has been recognised in other codes, such
as BS 5400. However, this higher strength was not taken into account in
BS 5950-1:1990, in which the capacity of a fillet weld was simply taken to be
the product of the design strength pw and the throat size a, irrespective of the
direction of loading.
FL
FT FT
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FL
FT
FT
FT
a
Throat of θ
the weld
In the longitudinal direction, the capacity PL per unit length of the weld is given
by
PL = pwa
where the coefficient K depends on the angle è between the weld throat and the
direction of the transverse force that is transmitted by the weld. For the special
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case of two mutually perpendicular members, connected by two equal leg fillet
welds, with the applied force parallel to one leg, è = 45° and K = 1.25, giving
a 25% enhancement in strength.
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7 REFERENCES
BSI, 1998
10. KING, C.
In-plane stability of portal frames to BS 5950-1:2000 (SCI P292)
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51
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WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Sway stability 55
3. Restrained beam 59
4. Unrestrained beam 63
5. Plate girder 67
7. Compression member 75
9. Baseplate 83
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53
Created on 30 March 2011
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
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Introduction
Consider the braced frame shown below. An elastic analysis has been carried out
on the bare frame under a set of unit point loads and the resulting deflections are
shown in the figure below. Note that the building will be clad, although the stiffness
of the cladding was not taken into account in the elastic analysis of the frame.
Determine whether the frame is “non-sway” or “sway-sensitive”. If it is “sway-
sensitive”, what value of the amplification factor, kamp, must be applied to the
bracing forces to allow for second-order effects?
1 kN 1.07 mm
3.5 m
1 kN 0.84 mm
3.5 m
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1 kN 0.65 mm
3.5 m
1 kN 0.48 mm
3.8 m
Loading
Solution
For the gravity load case (load combination 1), the design load is given by
Note that the notional horizontal force is based on the factored load acting on the
whole floor and not just on one beam length
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Multiplying the set of unit load deflections by the notional horizontal force per floor
gives the following deflections at each floor level:
The lateral drift is the relative deflection between two adjacent storeys. By
inspection, the ground to first floor column is critical, with a lateral drift, δ, of
4.2 mm
Determine δcr
The lowest value of λcr is that for the lowest storey and is given by
h 3800
λ cr = = = 4.52 2.4.2.6
200δ 200 × 4.2
Because λcr < 10, the frame is “sway-sensitive”, but as λcr > 4, the second-order
effects may be allowed for by amplification of the first-order sway effects (i.e. there
is no need for a second-order analysis)
Calculate kamp
The frame is a clad frame in which the stiffness of the cladding was neglected.
Therefore, kamp is given by
λ cr 4.52
k amp = = = 1.22 2.4.2.7
1.15λ cr − 1.5 (1.15 × 4.52) − 1.5
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Introduction
An exposed steel structure is proposed. The steel is BS EN 10025 S355 and the
thickest element is 30 mm. The beams are welded to the column flanges and the
maximum tensile stress is 200 N/mm2. Choose an appropriate steel grade to avoid
brittle fracture
Solution
The basic requirement is that, throughout the component, the thickness should satisfy 2.4.4
the relationship:
t ≤ Kt1
Because the maximum thickness = 30 mm, the steel grade should be chosen such
that
t1 ≥ 30 / K
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For external conditions (–15°C), the only suitable grade of steel is Table 4
BS EN 10025 S355 K2 (t1 = 66 mm)
Finally, check that the maximum thickness in the component does not exceed the
limits for which the full Charpy impact value applies, as given in Table 6
57
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
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Introduction
A 533 × 210 × 101 UB in grade S355 steel is simply supported as shown below
and fully restrained along its length by a concrete floor slab. Check that the shear
capacity and the moment capacity are adequate for the factored loading shown,
which includes self-weight
225 kN
W = 25 kN/m
5m 5m
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A B C
Solution
25 × 10 2 225 × 10
Mx = + = 875 kNm
8 4
225
The shear at B = = 113 kN
2
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Limit for outstand element of compression flange for a class 1 section 3.5.2
Table 11
Limit for web with the neutral axis at mid depth for a class 1 section: 3.5.2
Table 11
d/t = 80ε = 71.2
Both the flange and web are class 1, therefore the cross section is class 1
Fvmax < Pv
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Check whether the shear is “high”, i.e. Fv > 0.6 Pv, or “low”, 4.2.5
i.e. Fv < 0.6 Pv, at the point of maximum moment
For low shear, the moment capacity for a class 1 section is given by
Mcx = py Sx 4.2.5.2
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Check limit to avoid irreversible deformation under serviceability limit state loads
Mx < Mcx
61
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
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Introduction
Consider the beam from Example 1 during construction, before the concrete floor
slab has been constructed. In this case, the beam is unrestrained except at the
location of the point load (B). Check the adequacy of the unrestrained beam
between A and B for the factored loading shown
225 kN
5m 5m
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A B C
Solution
225 × 10
Mx = + Moment due to self weight = 580 kNm
4
225
The shear at B = = 113 kN
2
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Limit for outstand element of compression flange for a class 1 section 3.5.2
Table 11
b/T = 9ε = 8.01 Table 11
Limit for web with the neutral axis at mid depth for a class 1 section
Both the flange and web are class 1, therefore the cross section is class 1
Fv = 113 kN
Fv < Pv
Mx = 575 kNm
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Mx < Mcx
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5000
λ = LE/ry = = 109
45.7
Table 19
v = 0.90
(vi) For py = 345 N/mm2 and λLT = 86, Table 16 gives 4.3.6.5
Table 16
pb = 170 N/mm2
(vii) For a class 1 section, the buckling resistance moment Mb is given by 4.3.6.4
Mb = pb Sx
M A= 0
MB = 580
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Therefore Mx ≤ Mb / mLT
The beam does therefore have adequate resistance to lateral-torsional buckling when
unrestrained
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Introduction
A plate girder consists of two 500 × 30 mm flange plates and a 1200 × 12 mm web
plate, both in S275 steel
1. Find the moment capacity, assuming that the moment is carried by the flanges
alone, and compare with the moment capacity based on the full section
3. Find the shear buckling resistance by the “more exact method”, assuming
ff = 0.1pyf
For this example, assume that the end post and stiffeners all have adequate capacity
Solution
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275 275
ε = = = 1.02
py 265
500 − 12
Flange b/T = / 30 = 8.13
2
From Table 11, the limit for a class 2 flange is 9ε. Therefore the flange is class 2 3.5.2
Table 11
1200
Web d/t = = 100
12
From Table 11, the limit for a class 3 web subject to bending only (i.e. neutral axis 3.5.2
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The web depth-to-thickness ratio d/t > 62ε, so the web must be assumed to be
susceptible to shear buckling. Consequently, the interaction of shear and moment
must be taken into account when calculating the moment capacity of the cross section
Because the flanges are not slender, the “flanges only” method may be used to obtain 4.4.4.2b
a conservative value of the moment capacity
Mc = pyf Af hs
where pyf is the design strength of the flanges, Af is the area of one flange and hs is
the distance between the centre of the flanges
Assuming that this was the maximum shear on the section at the end of the girder 4.4.4.2
and that, near the centre, the shear is reduced to less than 0.6 of this value, the
moment capacity can be recalculated based on the full section. As the web is
class 3, the elastic modulus is used to calculate
Mc = pyf Zx
500 × 30 3 12 × 1200 3
Ix = 2 + 500 × 30 × 615 2 +
12 12
1500
a/d = = 1.25
1200
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d/t = 100
py = 275 N/mm2
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For these values of a/d, d/t and py, Table 21 gives 4.4.5.2
Table 21
qw = 139 N/mm2
Calculate the shear buckling resistance using the more exact method
The “more exact method” permits the shear buckling resistance of the web to be
increased above that given by the simplified method, for cases where the moment is
low, i.e. towards the end of the girder
Assume that in the end panel, the moment is not greater than 10% of the moment
capacity and that ff / pyf = 0.1
Using the “more exact method”, the shear buckling resistance is given by
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Vb = Vw + Vf but Vb ≤ Pv
The first step is to calculate the plastic moment capacity of the (smaller) flange about 4.4.5.3
its own equal area axis perpendicular to the plane of the web
Spf = BT 2 / 4
500 × 30 2
= = 112.5 × 103 mm3
4
12 × 1200 2
Spw = td 2 / 4 = = 4320 × 103 mm3
4
= 2380 kN
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( ) (
P v d / a 1 − f f / p yf
) 2
Vf =
[ 1 + 0.15 ( M pw / M pf )]
2380 (1.2 / 1.5 ) 1 − ( 0.1 ) 2
= = 270 kN
[ 1 + 0.15 (1190 / 29.8 ) ]
and the total shear buckling resistance is given by
Vb = Vw + Vf
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Introduction
The same 533 × 210 × 101 UB used in Examples 3 and 4 is subjected to an applied
point load, as shown below. Check that the bearing capacity and buckling resistance
of the web are adequate at the location of the applied load and at the support
225 kN
152 x 152 x 23 UC
152.2
17.4 12.7
238 kN
be b1
ae
be = 50 mm
b1 = 100 mm
Solution
= 302.7 mm
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Pbw = 1130 kN
Fx = 225 kN
Fx < Pbw
Therefore the bearing resistance of the web is adequate without the need for a
bearing stiffener
25εt
Px = Pbw
(b1 + nk ) d
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275 275
ε = = = 0.89
py 345
25 × 0.89 × 10.8
Px = × 1130
(302.7 ) × 476.5
= 714 kN
Fx < Px
Therefore the buckling resistance of the web is adequate without the need for a
buckling stiffener
At the support
n = 2 + 0.6 be / k but ≤ 5
be = 50 mm
0.6 × 50
n = 2 + = 3.0
30.1
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Fx = 238 kN
Fx < Pbw
ae = 50 + 50 = 100 mm
a e + 0.7 d 25εt
Px = Pbw
1.4 d (b1 + nk ) d
Fx < Px
73
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P304: Guide to the major amendments in BS 5950-1:2000
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Introduction
A 356 × 368 × 129 UC in grade S275 steel is pin-ended about the x-x and y-y axes
as shown below. Check that the compression resistance is adequate for the factored
loading shown, which includes self-weight. The cross section is classified as not
slender
2500 kN
356 x 368 x 129 UC
6m
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Solution
T = 17.5 mm
Ag = 164 cm2
rx = 15.6 cm
ry = 9.43 cm
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For buckling about the x-x axis, use strut curve b Table 23
For buckling about the y-y axis, use strut curve c Table 23
L EX 6000
Slenderness λx = = = 38.5
rx 15.6 × 10
L EY 6000
λy = = = 63.6
ry 9.43 × 10
For λx = 38.5 and py = 265 N/mm2, pcx = 243 N/mm2 Table 24b
For λy = 63.6 and py = 265 N/mm2, pcy = 188 N/mm2 Table 24c
Fc < Pc
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Introduction
The top chord of a lattice girder supports purlins at A, B and C, as shown below,
resulting in a factored point load of 11.2 kN at each location. The member is a
150 × 150 × 5 rectangular hollow section in S275 steel and is continuous at A, B
and C. Check the adequacy of the top chord by considering its section capacity and
buckling resistance, according to the requirements in Clause 4.8.3
1.8 m 1.8 m
A B C
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Loading
5.04 B 5.04
A C
5.04
Solution
b = d = 135 mm
t = 5 mm
d/t = 27.0
t < 16 mm
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3.5.2
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64ε
The limitation for a class 1 web = Table 12
1 + 0.6 r1
Fc 598 × 10 3
r1 = ≤1 r1 = = 1.6
2d t p y 2 × 135 × 5 × 275
64å 64 × 1
Limit = = = 40
1 + 0.6r1 1 + 0.6 × 1.0
Both the flange and the web are class 1, therefore the cross section is class 1
The first step is to evaluate the in-plane slenderness of the member given by
L Ex
λx =
rx
In the plane of the girder, there is no restraint at B and the effective length is given 4.7.3
by Table 22
LEx = 0.85L
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3.06 × 10 3
λx = = 51.9
5.9 × 10
Out of plane, the purlin at B provides restraint to the top chord and the effective
length is given by
1.8 × 10 3
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λy = = 30.5
5.9 × 10
Fc < Pc
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AD 28.7 × 10 2 × 150
Av = = = 1435 mm2
D + B 150 + 150
= 237 kN
Fv < Pv
Check whether the shear is “high”, i.e. Fv > 0.6 Pv, or “low”, i.e. Fv < 0.6 Pv, at 4.2.5
the point of maximum moment
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For low shear, the moment capacity for a class 1 section is given by 4.2.5
Mc = pySx
Mx < Mcx
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598 × 10 3 5.04 0
+ + = 0.76 + 0.117 + 0 = 0.88, < 1
28.7 × 10 2 × 275 42.9 M cy
Fc m M my My
+ x x + ≤ 1 and
Pc py z x py z y
Fc m M my My
+ LT LT + ≤1
Pcy Mb py z y
5.04 0 0 5.04
M1 M2 M4 M5
5.04
M3
For square rectangular hollow sections, such as the member in this example, there is 4.3.6.1
no need to consider lateral-torsional buckling and Mb is given by
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mLT is determined between restraints on the y-y axis, i.e. A and B (or B and C) 4.3.6.6
Table 18
M = 5.04, βM = –5.04, therefore β = -1 and mLT = 0.44
In both cases, the values are less than 1, indicating that the top chord is adequate
under these loading conditions, according to the simplified method
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Introduction
A 254 × 254 × 73 Universal Column carries a factored axial load of 1500 kN. The
proposed baseplate is 500 × 500 mm in S275 steel, on C30 concrete with stronger
bedding material. Determine the thickness of the baseplate
Solution
D = 254 mm
B = 254 mm
T = 14.2 mm
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The effective area of the baseplate can be approximated to the following quadratic
equation:
where c is the distance from the column to the edge of the effective area, as shown
below
2c + T
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Check that there is no overlap between the effective areas associated with the two
flanges
Finally, the overall size of the effective area is checked to ensure that it fits on the
base
This is less than the baseplate size of 500 mm and is therefore acceptable
0.5 0.5
3 × 0.6 × f cu 3 × 0.6 × 30
tp = c = 44.6 = 19.8 mm
p yp 275
Recalculating,
0.5
3 × 0.6 × 30
tp = 44.6 = 20.1 mm
265
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