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WEEK NO. 13

Title Biodiversity and Healthy Society

Topic Letter Specific Issues in Science, Technology and Society

Duration 3 hours

Introduction This chapter covers the biodiversity and its link to ecosystem. Biodiversity plays an important role in
ecosystem providing services essential for people and the healthy society. Thus, it is necessary for the
complete human race to understand its components and how to help protect the diversity of life that exists
on earth.

Objectives At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to;
1. determine the interrelatedness of society, environment, and health;
2. identify human-caused species loss as one of the major current threats to biodiversity;
3. define biodiversity hotspots and explain where most of the world's biodiversity hotspots are
located

Activity 1. View and download photos of endangered species on the Internet and discuss the reasons why
these animals/plants are threatened and why they should be protected.
2. Using the paint application (or any other apps) in your computer or mobile devices, create a
picture art showing a threatened biodiversity.

Discussion A. What is biodiversity?

Biodiversity is the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and
other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity
within species, between species, and of ecosystems. Biodiversity forms the foundation of the vast array
of ecosystem services that critically contribute to human well-being. Biodiversity is important in human-
managed as well as natural ecosystems. Decisions humans make that influence biodiversity affect the
well-being of themselves and others.

Environmentalists might define biodiversity as the total of all plant and animal life of the planet, and the
planet itself – the air, water and land that supports animal and plant life. This diversity of living creatures
forms a support system which has been used by each civilization for its growth and development. The rich
biodiversity has been instrumental in providing humanity with food security, health care and industrial
goods that has led to high standard of living in the modern world. Ironically it has also produced the
modern consumerist society which is adversely affecting the diversity of biological resources upon which
it is based. The diversity of life on earth is so rich that if we use it sustainably, we can go on developing
new products for generations. For this reason, we must realize the importance of biodiversity as an
important resource.

Biological variety can be observed at three levels

• The genetic variability within a species
• The species variability within a community
• The organization of species in an area into distinctive plant and animal communities.

The genetic diversity: Every individual in a species differs widely from other individuals in its genetic
makeup due to large number of combinations possible in the genes. This genetic variability is essential
for healthy breeding population of a species. The reduction of genetic diversity will result in in-breeding in
species. This leads to genetic anomalies and eventually extinction of that particular species. The variety
of nature’s bounty can be exploited if we breed domestic plant and animal varieties with their wild varieties
to make them more productive and disease – resistant. Modern biotechnology also manipulates genes to
develop better types of seeds, medicines and other industrial raw materials.
The species diversity: Every natural and man-made ecosystem is made up of a variety of animal and plant
species. Some ecosystems such as tropical rainforests are very rich in the number of species as compared
to other ecosystems such as the desert ecosystem. At present the scientists have been able to identify
1.8 million species on the Earth. However, this may only be a fraction of what really exists.
The ecosystem diversity: There are a large variety of different ecosystems on the Earth.
Distinctive ecosystems include natural landscapes like forests, grasslands, deserts, mountains etc. as
well as aquatic ecosystems like rivers, lakes and seas. Each of these also has man-modified areas such
as farmlands, grazing lands, urban lands etc. Any ecosystem that is overused or misused loses its
productivity and gets degraded.

B. What is the importance of Biodiversity?

The importance of biodiversity to human health

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Health is our most basic human right. For most people, it

does not just mean freedom from illness, but a state of
overall social, emotional, physical, spiritual and cultural
welfare. Being well, and having the capacity to look after
our health and that of our family or community, depends
upon a range of factors, including our economic status
and ultimately on our environment. Health is therefore
one of the most important indicators of sustainable
development.

Biodiversity is the foundation for human health.

By securing the life-sustaining goods and services which biodiversity provides to us, the conservation and
sustainable use of biodiversity can provide significant benefits to our health. In contrast, the continuing
loss of biodiversity on a global scale represents a direct threat to our health and well-being. Without a
global environment that is healthy and capable of supporting a diversity of life, no human population can
exist. The reports of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change have highlighted how human well-being is affected by the state of the global environment and the
sustainability of ecosystems. However, the enormous range of benefits which biodiversity provides to our
health and well-being is largely underappreciated and unrecognized within the health community, and
fails to inform critical decisions on global and regional health strategies. At the same time, the wider social
and public health importance of biodiversity is not always understood by those concerned with biodiversity
conservation

Biodiversity supports food security, dietary health, livelihood sustainability

Genetic diversity in food systems provides the foundation of crop development and food security, and
promotes resistance and resilience to environmental stresses including pests and diseases of crops and
livestock. Diets based on a diversity of food species promote health, and can help to protect against
disease by addressing the problem of micronutrient and vitamin deficiencies. Loss of agricultural
biodiversity can therefore threaten health, livelihood sustainability and our future security of food and
nutrition.

Biodiversity provides important resources for medical research

Studies of wildlife anatomy, physiology and biochemistry can lead to important developments in human
medicine. Examples of species of interest to medical science include bears (for insights into osteoporosis,
cardio-vascular disorders, renal disease and diabetes), sharks (osmoregulation and immunology),
cetaceans (respiration and treatments for divers suffering from decompression sickness) and horse-shoe
crabs (optometry / ophthalmology and molecular cell biology).

Biodiversity provides important resources for traditional and modern medicine

Biodiversity loss can impact on community traditions and

livelihoods centers on traditional medicinal practices that
utilize wild animals and plants, particularly for indigenous
and local communities. Millions of people depend upon
traditional medicines for their primary health care.
Modern drugs derived from wild species include inter alia
pain killers (e.g. Zinconitide from cone snail toxin), cardiac
drugs (e.g. Lanoxin from Digitalis plants), anti-cancer
drugs (e.g. Taxol from Taxus trees and Hycamtin from
Camptotheca trees) and treatments for diabetes
(including Exanitide from Heloderma lizards). Many other
potentially important species are yet to be investigated or
discovered.

Biodiversity plays a role in the regulation and control of infectious diseases

Biodiversity loss and ecosystem change can increase the risk of

emergence or spread of infectious diseases in animals, plants
and humans, including economically important livestock
diseases, zoonotic outbreaks and global pandemics. In recent
years outbreaks of SARS, Ebola, Marburg, Hantavirus pulmonary
syndrome, avian influenza and malaria have been attributed to
human impacts on biodiversity, the wildlife trade or
unsustainable land use change. Without a greater
understanding of disease ecology, there is also a risk that
programs to tackle infectious diseases may impact negatively
on biodiversity, through use of biocides and other chemicals and
wildlife culls.

Biodiversity has social, cultural and spiritual importance within communities

Ecosystem change can result in disconnection of populations from open spaces or the wider countryside,
with negative implications for physical and mental well-being and loss of “sense of place”. This has been
linked to an increased prevalence of ‘diseases of affluence’ (diabetes, obesity, cardio-pulmonary illness)
and psychological disorders in many communities. Conversely, access to ‘greenspace’ (natural and

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artificial) are associated with better health outcomes, shorter hospital visits and reduced convalescence
time for patients than purely urban environments. An awareness of environmental values and respect for
other species has been associated with reduced propensity towards anti-social behavior in children and
young adults.

Conservation of biodiversity is essential for climate change adaptation

Climate change will have a range of significant impacts on human health, many of which are directly
associated with climate impacts on ecosystems. For example, changes in the ecology of pathogens, or in
the populations or distribution of disease vectors such as mosquitoes, could lead to changes in disease
patterns and increase the risk of outbreaks. Loss of ecosystem services also places communities at
greater risk from other climate impacts, such as extreme weather events, drought and crop failure.

C. The five primary values of biodiversity

The first category has already been mentioned – economic. The natural world provides humans with raw
materials for direct consumption and production, and from which to make money. We harvest fish and
timber, for example, and make from them food and goods with utilitarian value in the marketplace. This
category expresses the material use of nature by humans for direct benefit. These benefits – and the
economic value system that lies behind them – are held especially dear by many whose livelihoods bring
them close to the natural world, such as farmers, fishers, timber workers, bee-keepers, and so on.
A second value system comprises ecological life-support. Biodiversity provides humans with the healthy,
functioning ecosystems that make up the Earth, without which our societies could not exist. Nature
delivers to us a supply of oxygen, clean water, pollination of plants, pest control, and so on. As
understanding and evidence about the interconnectedness of the natural and human worlds has grown
over the past century, many have come to believe that protection of the web of life is vital to our own
interests, and biodiversity is a convenient expression of that value system. In fact, the concept of
‘ecosystem services’ – the multitude of resources and processes that are supplied by biodiversity to
human beings – grows out of this value. Such a value system is shared by almost all human beings in at
least some degree.
The natural world’s opportunities for human recreation comprise the third set of values. The benefits of
rejuvenation for those who hold to these values may be obtained from a tough bushwalk in Tasmania, a
relaxed experience of bird-watching in the back paddock, or jogging beside a river in an urban setting.
Tourism frequently gains commercial benefit from biodiversity as a result of international perceptions that
in Australia these values are unusually prominent.
Many Australians from all walks of life respond to them.
Next, biodiversity provides cultural values via the expression of identity or through spirituality or an
aesthetic appreciation. The celebration in our National Anthem that ‘our land abounds in nature’s gifts of
beauty rich and rare’ reflects an attachment to biodiversity that is a widely shared aspect of Australian
culture. Virtually every Australian who returns from overseas has experienced a satisfying re-exposure to
the odor of gum leaves. Indigenous peoples in Australia express cultural values especially strongly and in
an unusually intimate fashion, through totemic connections to animals and plants that are believed also
to be ancestral beings. Spiritual values are a subset of such connections, an opportunity to explore
questions about the meaning of the universe through contemplation of biodiversity. The splendor of nature
also provides aesthetic values simply through the appreciation of the non-human world. Obviously enough,
artists are frequently the major bearers of this value system and, like most nations, we have a long
tradition of exhilarating practitioners, such as Hans Hansen, Fred Williams and Emily Kame Kngwarreye.
Yet aesthetic values are also appreciated more broadly across society, and often by direct individual
absorption in a natural context as well as by reflection in art galleries or in the words of poems and songs.
Finally, education makes up another aspect of cultural values, providing the basis for discussion about
how to live sustainably on planet Earth.
Fifth is a scientific value system, which calls attention to the worth of systematic ecological data in helping
us to understand the natural world, its origins, and the place of the human species within it. Scientists are
likely to highlight the excitement of uncovering genetic diversity, for example, or cataloguing the strange
creatures of the deep-sea trenches, or understanding how vegetation patterns are influenced by fire.
While economic benefit may well accrue from scientific understanding, the motivation of the scientific
value system is primarily intellectual. All of the authors of the present book share this value system.

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Lastly, for completeness there is a negative value system, a stance towards biodiversity characterized by
fear or hostility. Settler Australians were prone to the expression of such ant values, which persist today
in relation to some animals (an understandable fear of crocodiles or of influenza viruses). Negative views
are not confined to Australia, of course, because apprehension about spiders and snakes, for example, is
common to many cultures. And it is also true that virtually no one feels compelled to defend the right of
the malarial parasite to continued existence, or argues in favor of the Hendra viruses, even though
biodiversity encompasses life in all of its variety. Negative values are likely to be held in some small part
by many people, therefore, although their significance in Australia declined throughout the 20th century
and narrowed to specific targets.

D. Threats to Biodiversity
1. Climate Change
Climate change refers to the long term and irreversible change that occurs in the Earth’s climate.
This increase in the temperature of the atmosphere has major effects on the environment such
as the seasons, rising of the sea levels, and glacial retreats.
The biodiversity of organisms is affected regarding their population, distribution, level of the
ecosystem, and even the individuals’ morphology and function. Because of the increase in
temperature, organisms have already adapted by expanding their ranges in latitudes. Because
of this behavior, many species population have declined. Aside from this, many animals have
exhibited changes in the timings of their physiological functions. These include the birds and
insects migrating and mating earlier than usual, which then result in some failure in breeding
and production of young. Regarding ecosystems, studies revealed that climate change has
brought the expansion of many desert ecosystems and thus have effects on the function and
services that the ecosystem can provide.
For humans, the rapidly increasing rate in climate change imposes great threats for human
security as the natural resources are becoming more and more limited. At present, global
warming and climate change already have irreversible impacts on biodiversity. And these effects,
if not mitigated, can lead to more significant threats in the future.
2. Habitat Loss and Degradation
Habitat loss refers to changes in the environment that result to the rendering of a specific habitat
to be functionally valuable. The habitat can no longer accommodate and support the life of the
organism’s present, thereby declining their population. Habitat loss may either be caused by
natural events like natural calamities and geological events or anthropogenic activities like
deforestation and man-induced climate change. In the process of habitat degradation, the
organisms that were once living in a particular area or region are displaced and are forced to
relocate; thus, resulting in biodiversity reduction.
Indeed, man-made efforts are the prime reasons for habitat loss. At present, the practice of
clearing out ecosystems for agriculture conversion and industrial expansion continues to
displace organisms of their natural habitat. Other activities include logging and mining
3. Pollution
Be it water, air, or land pollution, all forms of pollution appear to be a threat to all life forms on
Earth. However, it plays a major threat to biodiversity when it comes to the nutrient loading of
the element’s nitrogen and phosphorus.
In Europe, atmospheric nitrogen is the only pollutant that has not decreased in concentration
since the implementation of legislation. Its mere presence poses huge challenges to the
conservation measures intended to natural habitats and species living there.
Furthermore, the presence of nitrogen compounds in water systems can cause eutrophication
(excessive plant and algal growth). The presence and accumulation of phosphorus in water
systems can alter the way food webs function. Excessive phosphorus, like nitrogen can result to
the uncontrolled growth of planktonic algae; thus, increasing organic matter deposition in the
seabed. Another form of pollution that can damage and kill living organisms is acid rain. Acid
rain, as its name suggests, is rain that is composed of harmful acids (i.e., nitric and sulfuric acid).
This rain is usually a result of pollution coming from the excessive burning of fossil fuels.
Some types of pollution, like the depletion of the ozone layer, can be reversible. However, this
shall only happen when humans stop or limit the use of various chemicals that contribute to its
destruction.
4. Invasive Species
An exotic or unnatural species can be any kind of organism that has been introduced to a foreign
habitat. This introduction can cause major threats to the native species as they often become
subjected to great competition for resources, disease, and predation. When these species have
successfully colonized the area, they are already called “invasive” ones.
Next to habitat loss, invasive species are ranked as the second biggest threat to biodiversity.
The greatest threat that invasive species can bring is their capability to change an entire habitat.
These species are highly adaptable and can easily dominate a certain area. Because many
natural species survive only in a particular environment, they tend to be displaced, or worse,
perish. Some places have very low possibilities for the invasion of species. Usually, these places
include those with harsh environmental conditions like extreme temperatures and high salinity.
Most exotic species are brought to a certain place to replace or add something to the vegetation.
It is important to note that not all introduced species become invasive. Most of these attempts
have become successful.
5. Overexploitation
Overexploitation refers to the act of overharvesting species and natural resources at rates faster
than they can actually sustain themselves in the wild. Because of this, species population is put
into great risk of reduction.
Overharvesting, overfishing, and overhunting are some examples of overexploitation.

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Additionally, some species of living organisms find it hard to reproduce when their number is too
small. So as a population or ecosystem continues to suffer from low species diversity, the
probability of getting wiped out completely when a natural disaster or other forces increases.
If the act of overexploitation continues, it can ultimately bring extinction to many species, even
if they still exist in the wild.
6. Other Potential Threats
Aside from the five aforementioned threats, there are still a lot of drivers that may either directly
or indirectly contribute to the loss of biodiversity. One good example of this are the epidemics
and infectious diseases of wildlife such as Ebola virus disease, infectious bursal disease, and
flu. This phenomenon does not only affect wildlife but also human health as well. Aside from
this, human-induced activities which include economic, technological and scientific, cultural,
and demographic factors also have an impact on biodiversity. The desiccation of wetlands and
soils owing to the excessive pumping of water tables oftentimes contributes to the death of
organisms living in these environments. The overuse of natural parks and watershed as tourist
destinations and recreational spots also threatens biodiversity due to the fact that humans
cause too much noise and perturbations that disrupt the animals’ normal activities.
Clearly, human activities have the most significant impact on biodiversity loss. At present, our
planet continues to face these threats to biodiversity.

E. EARTH'S BIODIVERSITY HOT SPOTS

The areas that support natural ecosystems that are largely intact and where native species and
communities associated with these ecosystems are well represented are called biodiversity hotspots. The
concept was given in 1988 by Norman Myers of Oxford University. To qualify as biodiversity hotspot,
according to Myers, 2000 edition of hotspots, a region must meet two strict criteria: First, it must have at
least 1,500 species ofvascular plants as endemic (endemism). Secondly, it must contain 30% or less of
its original natural vegetation (loss of biodiversity). There are areas with a high diversity of locally endemic
species not found or found outside the hotspots. It is marked by human serious threat to biodiversity. In
other words, these are areas that cover both extraordinary biologically rich endemic plants and animals
and are highly threatened by human actions. Forest habitat is an example of Biodiversity hotspot as they
persistently face devastation and degradation due to illegal logging' pollution, and deforestation.

Philippines: A Biodiversity Hotspot

Philippines is the world’s second largest archipelago, located in the southeast region of Asia and
westernmost Pacific ocean. It is considered to be a mega – diversity country because of the exceptional
diversity in ecosystems, species and genetic resources found within its 7,100 island territory.

Philippines is known to be a home to 52,177 described species of which 50% or more are believed to be
endemic. It is possible that the Philippines may practically have more biodiversity on a per unit basis.

Unfortunately, its species richness, high endemism and diversity are all at risk, qualifying it to be a
biodiversity hotspot. Threats come from habitat alteration and loss brought about by the destructive
resource use, development related activities and human population pressure. The overexploitation of
natural resources, reduced the forests to an alarming 24% from its original cover.

Synthesis Biodiversity is not only the sum of all ecosystems, species and genetic material. Rather, it represents
the variability within and among them. Biological diversity is often understood at three levels.
Species diversity refers to the variety of different species. Genetic diversity corresponds to the variety
of genes contained in plants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms. Ecosystem diversity refers to all
the different habitats that exist, like tropical or temperate forests, hot and cold deserts, wetlands,
rivers, mountains, coral reefs, etc.
Initially the loss of biodiversity could be defined as the extinction of species. Curiously the species
richness of a particular ecosystem may hardly change or may even increase because new -often
wide spread- species replace the original ones. It is therefore important not only to look at species,
but also at the abundance (the number of individuals) of species. Species extinction is just a last
step in a long degradation process.
Ecosystem services are the benefits provided by ecosystems. These include provisioning services
such as food, water, timber, fiber, and genetic resources; regulating services such as the regulation
of climate, floods, disease, and water quality as well as waste treatment; cultural services such as
recreation, aesthetic enjoyment, and spiritual fulfillment; and supporting services such as soil
formation, pollination, and nutrient cycling.

Evaluation l. Define biodiversity and give three types of biodiversity essential in preserving ecological systems and
functions.
2. How do humans benefit from biodiversity?

Enrichment

References Groombridge, B. and Jenkins, M.D. (2002) World Atlas of Biodiversity, Earth's living Resources in the 21st
Century, Berkeley: University of California Press.

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Groombridge, B. and Jenkins, M.D. (2002) World Atlas of Biodiversity, Earth's living Resources in the 21st
Century, Berkeley: University of California Press.
https://www.bioexplorer.net/threats-to-biodiversity.html/.
Bair, R. & Regenstein, J.M. (2015). Genetically modification and food quality: A down to earth analysis.
United Kingdom, UK: John & Wiley and Sons.
Rees, C. P. (2016). The Philippines: A natural history. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila Press. Zachos, F.E.
& Habel, J.C. (2014). Biodiversity hotspots: Distribution and protection of conservation priority areas. New
York, NY: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
(2016, May 22).Earth from above- biodiversity. [Questar Entertainment]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KVOPloS8VJk&t=93s
(2012, June 6). Earth focus episode 41- biodiversity and health. [Link TV]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B04Rag4bcBU\
(2017, March 30). Are GMOs good or bad? Genetic Engineering & our food. [Kurzgesagt - In a Nutshell].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7TmcXYp8xu4

INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY (STS)