2ND QUARTER Examples Write each expression in sigma notation.

1) 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = ∑6𝑖=2 𝑖 = ∑5𝑖=0 𝑖 + 1
CHAPTER 2 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 1 1 1 1 1
2) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ⋯ + 100 = ∑100
1
𝑖=1 𝑛
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3) 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 128 = ∑7𝑘=0 2𝑘
2.2 SIGMA NOTATION
4) −1 + 2 − 3 + 4 − 5 + ⋯ − 25 = ∑25 𝑘
𝑘=1(−1) (𝑘)
5) 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 = ∑4𝑖=1 3𝑖
Sigma Notation / Summation Notation
- a special notation denoting a “sum”
Exercises
- indicated by the Greek uppercase letter Σ (sigma)
Expand each summation and simplify if possible.
1) ∑6𝑘=3(𝑘 2 − 𝑘) = 68
Illustration 1
5 2) ∑3𝑖=1(𝑎𝑛+1 − 𝑎𝑛 ) = 𝑎4 − 𝑎1
𝑖 1 2 3 4 5
∑ 2𝑖 = 2(1) + 2(2) + 2(3) + 2(4) + 2(5) 3) ∑9𝑖=5 𝑥+𝑖 = 𝑥+1 + 𝑥+2 + 𝑥+3 + 𝑥+4 + 𝑥+5
364
𝑖=1
6 4) ∑3𝑖=−2 3−𝑖 = 27
𝑖 3 4 5 6
∑ = + + +
𝑖+1 3+1 4+1 5+1 6+1 Write each expression in sigma notation.
𝑖=3
1) 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + 5 − 6 + ⋯ − 10 = ∑10 𝑖=𝑘(−1)
𝑘+1
(𝑘)
Formal Definition 2) 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ⋯ + 101 = ∑𝑘=0(2𝑘 + 1)
50

A sigma notation is the expression 3) 1 + 22 + 33 + 44 + ⋯ + 1212 = ∑12 𝑖=1 𝑖

𝑖
𝑞

∑ 𝑓(𝑖) = 𝑓(𝑝) + 𝑓(𝑝 + 1) + 𝑓(𝑝 + 2) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑞), Properties of Sigma Notation

𝑖=𝑝
read as “summation of 𝑓(𝑖), 𝑖 from 𝑚 to 𝑛, where 𝑝 ≤ 𝑞.
Start with finding a formula for the sum of
𝑛
𝑓(𝑖) − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚/𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑𝑖 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ⋯+ 𝑛
𝑖 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑖=𝑖
𝑝 − 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡/𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 in terms of 𝑛.
𝑞 − 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡/𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
(Use the formula for the sum of arithmetic series)
Examples Expand each summation and simplify if possible.
1) ∑𝑖=2(2𝑖 + 3) = 27
4 𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
2) ∑5𝑖=0 2𝑖 = 63 ∑𝑖 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ⋯+ 𝑛 =
2
3) ∑5𝑘=−1(2 − 3𝑘) = −28 𝑖=𝑖
4) ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑥 𝑗 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯ + 𝑥 𝑛
5) ∑4𝑘=1(−1)𝑘+1 (𝑘) = −2
 𝑞 𝑞
(1) is called the verification step
𝐼) ∑ 𝑐 𝑓(𝑖) = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑓(𝑖) , 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (2) is called inductive hypothesis step
𝑖=𝑝 𝑖=𝑝
Illustration: ∑4𝑖=1 2(𝑖 + 1) = 28 Proving Summation Identities
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
𝑛(𝑛+1)
𝐼𝐼) ∑[𝑓(𝑖) + 𝑔(𝑖)] = ∑ 𝑓(𝑖) + ∑ 𝑔(𝑖) 1) 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛 = for all positive integers 𝑛
2
𝑛(𝑛+1)(𝑛+2)
𝑖=𝑝 𝑖=𝑝 𝑖=𝑝 2) 1 ⋅ 2 + 2 ⋅ 3 + 3 ⋅ 4 + ⋯ + 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) = for all 𝑛 ≥ 1
3
Illustration: ∑30
𝑖=1 4𝑖 −5 𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
𝑞 3) 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + 𝑛2 = 6
for all positive integers 𝑛
𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+7)
𝐼𝐼𝐼) ∑ 𝑐 = 𝑐(𝑞 − 𝑝 + 1) 4) 1 ⋅ 3 + 2 ⋅ 4 + 3 ⋅ 5 + ⋯ + 𝑛(𝑛 + 2) = for all 𝑛 ≥ 1
6
1 1 1 1 𝑛
𝑖=𝑝
5) + 2⋅3 + 3⋅4 + ⋯+ = for all 𝑛 ≥ 1
Illustration: ∑30
𝑖=5 5 = 5(30 − 5 + 1) = 130
1⋅2 𝑛(𝑛+1) 𝑛+1
𝑛(4𝑛2 −1)
𝑛
6) 12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1)2 = for all 𝑛 ≥ 1
3
𝐼𝑉) ∑ 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑛 (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝐼𝐼) 𝑛(𝑛+1) 2
𝑖=1 7) 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ + 𝑛3 = [ 2 ] for all 𝑛≥1
Illustration: ∑30
𝑖=1 5 = 5(30) = 150
Proving Divisibility Statements
8) 7𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 6 for every positive integer 𝑛
Examples Evaluate the following sum. 9) 4𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 3 for every positive integer 𝑛
1) ∑30𝑖=1(4𝑖 − 5) = 1710 10) 𝑛3 − 𝑛 + 3 is divisible by 3
2) ∑𝑘=1(2 − 3𝑘) = −3725
50
11) 𝑛3 + 3𝑛2 + 2𝑛 is divisible by 3
3) ∑𝑛𝑗=1(1 + 2𝑗) = 2𝑛 + 𝑛2
4) ∑120
𝑖=1 (4𝑖 − 15) = 27240 Seatwork/Assignment Prove using MI.
5) ∑50𝑖=1[(5𝑖 − 2)(𝑖 + 3)] = 230900 1) ∑𝑛𝑖=1(3𝑖 − 1) =
3𝑛2 +𝑛
2
2) 7𝑛 − 4𝑛 is divisible by 3 for every positive integer 𝑛
Seatwork/Assignment (Activity 2.2, 1-5, Page 73)
3) 72𝑛 − 3(5𝑛 ) + 2 is divisible by 12
4) 10𝑛 + 3(4𝑛+2 ) + 5 is divisible by 9

2.3 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

2.3 BINOMIAL THEOREM
The Principle of Mathematical Induction
There are two ways in expanding (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 , 𝑛 is a positive integer:
Let 𝑃(𝑛) be a property or statement about an integer 𝑛. Suppose that
Pascal’s Triangle and The Binomial Theorem
the following conditions can be proven.
(1) 𝑃(𝑛0 ) is true (that is, the statement is true when 𝑛 = 𝑛0 ).
(2) If 𝑃(𝑘) is true for 𝑘 ≥ 𝑛0 , then 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) is also true (that is, if the
statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘, then it is also true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1).
Then the statement 𝑃(𝑛) is true for all integers 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛0 .
Pascal’s Triangle Binomial Theorem
- applicable if 𝑛 is not too big - useful when 𝑛 is large
- if we want to determine all terms in the expansion - if we want to determine a specific term

Consider the ff powers of 𝑎 + 𝑏: Recall:

(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 + 𝑏1
Combination - number of arrangement of objects where order does not
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 matter
3 2 3
(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏
(𝑎 + 𝑏)4 = 𝑎4 + 4𝑎3 𝑏 + 6𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 4𝑎𝑏 3 + 𝑏 4 𝑛! (𝑛 factorial) – product of all positive numbers from 1 to 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏)5 = 𝑎5 + 5𝑎4 𝑏 + 10𝑎3 𝑏 2 + 10𝑎2 𝑏 3 + 5𝑎𝑏 4 + 𝑏 5 0! = 1 1! = 1 2! = 2 3! = 6 4! = 24

We list down the coefficients of each expansion in a triangular array: The combination of 𝑛 things taken 𝑟 at a time is
𝑛=1 1 1 𝑛 𝑛!
𝑛 𝐶𝑟 = 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑟) = ( ) =
𝑛=2 1 2 1 𝑟 (𝑛 − 𝑟)! 𝑟!
𝑛=3 1 3 3 1
Some properties of combination:
𝑛=4 1 4 6 4 1
1) (𝑛0) = (𝑛𝑛)
𝑛=5 1 5 10 10 5 1
2) (𝑛1) = (𝑛−1
𝑛
)
Some properties of the triangle 3) (1 ) = 𝑛
𝑛

𝑛(𝑛−1)
1) Each row begins and ends with 1. 4) (𝑛2) =
2
2) Each row has 𝑛 + 1 numbers.
3) The second and second to the last number of each row Examples Compute the given combinations.
corresponds to the row number. 1) (52) 10
4) There is symmetry of the numbers in each row. 2) (79) 36
5) Every middle number after first row is the sum of the two 3) (12 ) 66
numbers above it. 10
4) ( 5 )
20
15504

Examples Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand each expression.

1) (2𝑥 + 3)6 The Binomial Theorem
64𝑥 6 + 576𝑥 5 + 2160𝑥 4 + 4320𝑥 3 + 4860𝑥 2 + 2916𝑥 2 + 729 For any positive integer 𝑛,
𝑛
2) (5𝑥 − 2)5 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏) = ∑ ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑘 𝑏𝑘
𝑛
3125𝑥 5 − 6250𝑥 4 + 5000𝑥 3 − 2000𝑥 2 + 400𝑥 − 32 𝑘
𝑘=0
3) (2𝑥 − 3𝑦)5
32𝑥 5 − 240𝑥 4 𝑦 + 720𝑥 3 𝑦 2 − 1080𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 810𝑥𝑦 4 − 243𝑦 5
4) (𝑥 − 2𝑦)4 𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 𝑦 + 24𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 32𝑥𝑦 3 + 16𝑦 4
5) (2𝑎 − 𝑏 2 )3 8𝑎3 − 12𝑎2 𝑏2 + 6𝑎𝑏 4 − 𝑏 6
Examples Apply the Binomial Theorem in the different items.
1) Expand (𝑥 + 𝑦)6 .
𝑥 6 + 6𝑥 5 𝑦 + 15𝑥 4 𝑦 2 + 20𝑥 3 𝑦 3 + 20𝑥 2 𝑦 4 + 15𝑥𝑦 5 + 𝑦 6
2) Expand (2𝑎 − 𝑏 2 )5.
32𝑎5 − 80𝑎4 𝑏 2 + 80𝑎3 𝑏4 − 40𝑎2 𝑏6 + 10𝑎𝑏 8 − 𝑏10
20
3) Find the 17th term in the expansion of (𝑥 − √𝑦) .
4845𝑥 4 𝑦 8

Examples Activity 2.4 Page 83 (odd numbers)

1) Find the 12th term of the expansion (2 − 3𝑏)15.
3868890480𝑏11
3) Expand (2𝑝 − 5𝑞) 9

512𝑝9 − 11520𝑝8 𝑞 + 115200𝑝7 𝑞2 − 672000𝑝6 𝑞3

+ 2520000𝑝5 𝑞4 − 6300000𝑝4 𝑞5
+ 10500000𝑝3 𝑞6 − 11250000𝑝2 𝑞7
+ 7031250𝑝𝑞 8 − 1953125𝑞9
5) Solve for the middle term when (𝑥 − 7𝑦)10 is expanded.
−4235364𝑥 5 𝑦 5
7) What is the coefficient of the 11th term of the expansion
(2𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑧)13?
135104112𝑥 3 𝑦 3 𝑧 10
9) (3𝑧 − 𝑤)5 is equivalent to what when expanded?
243𝑧 5 − 405𝑧 4 𝑤 + 270𝑧 3 𝑤 2 − 90𝑧 2 𝑤 3 + 15𝑧𝑤 4 − 𝑤 5

Seatwork/Assignment Activity 2.4 Page 83 (even numbers)