38
Coagulation and filtration
Caroline S. Fitzpatrick and John Gregory
Department of Civil Engineering, University College London, WC1E 6BT, UK
1 INTRODUCTION
Physical separation of particles, including
microbes, from water can be achieved by a
few basic processes: sedimentation (including
centrifugation), flotation and various forms of
filtration. All particle separation processes
depend greatly on particle size, and different
techniques are appropriate for different size
ranges.
The diagram in Fig. 38.1 shows examples of
various particles, including microbes, over a
wide range of size, together with appropriate
separation techniques. The conventional
boundary between colloidal and suspended
particles is shown at 1 mm, but this is a rather
arbitrary distinction. The most common pro-
cesses used in water and wastewater treatment
are gravity sedimentation, flotation (usually
dissolved air flotation, DAF) and filtration
through beds of granular media, such as sand
(depth filtration). All of these become more
effective for larger particles. Removal of par-
ticles of a few micrometres or less is quite
difficult by these processes.
By using membranes with suitable pore
dimensions it is possible, in principle, to
remove particles and dissolved impurities of
any size. Depending on the type of membrane
used, and the applied pressure, the processes
of microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration
and hyperfiltration (or reverse osmosis) are
possible. These are absolute filtration tech-
niques, in that all particles and molecules
above a certain cut-off size are removed, unless
failure occurs.
Depth filtration, through beds of granular
filter media, is a very widely-used technique in
The Handbook of Water and Wastewater Microbiology
ISBN 0-12-470100-0
practice. In very many cases the particles to be
removed are considerably smaller than the
effective pore size, so that simple straining is
not the operative mechanism. Instead, removal
occurs by particle capture on the surfaces of filter
grains, or of existing deposits of particles.
Depth filtration is not an absolute separation
method since some particles may avoid capture
and penetrate right through the bed.
Since conventional separation techniques
are not especially effective for particles of
colloidal dimensions (including bacteria and
viruses), it is necessary to increase their size in
some way. The only practical method is to
cause particles to aggregate, forming larger
units. The aggregation process may be known
variously as agglomeration, coagulation or floccu-
lation, depending on the field of application
and on the supposed mechanism. In water and
wastewater treatment, the terms ‘coagulation’
and ‘flocculation’ are in common use and the
distinction will be explained later.
In general, aggregates can be separated
much more readily than the original particles.
Sedimentation rates, for instance, can be
increased many fold. In a typical water treat-
ment sequence, a coagulation/flocculation
process is followed by some form of sedimen-
tation, which removes most of the particulate
impurities. The water then passes through a
granular filter, where the remaining particles
are nearly all removed. Effective coagulation is
vital to the success of such a procedure.
In membrane filtration, the separated par-
ticles can build up on the membrane, forming a
filter cake, which may play a large part in the
removal of further particles. Small particles,
especially those in the colloidal size range, give
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