processes
Article
Investigation on the Performance Enhancement and Emission
Reduction of a Biodiesel Fueled Diesel Engine Based on an
Improved Entire Diesel Engine Simulation Model
Weigang Yu 1 , Zhiqing Zhang 2, *






Citation: Yu, W.; Zhang, Z.; Liu, B.
Investigation on the Performance
Enhancement and Emission
Reduction of a Biodiesel Fueled
Diesel Engine Based on an Improved
Entire Diesel Engine Simulation
Model. Processes 2021, 9, 104.
https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9010104
Received: 5 December 2020
Accepted: 31 December 2020
Published: 6 January 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu-
tral with regard to jurisdictional clai-
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li-
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
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tribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Processes 2021, 9, 104. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9010104
and Bo Liu 3
1 Hunan Valin Xiangtan Iron & Steel Co., Ltd., Xiangtan 411101, China; yuwg@mail.hnxg.com.cn
2 School of Mechanical and Transportation Engineering, Guangxi University of Science and Technology,
Liuzhou 545006, China
3 School of Electrical Engineering, Hunan Institute of Engineering, Xiangtan 411104, China; liubo@hnie.edu.cn
* Correspondence: zhangzhiqing@gxust.edu.cn
Abstract: In order to improve the efficiency of the diesel engine and reduce emissions, an improved
heat transfer model was developed in an AVL-BOOST environment which is a powerful and user-
friendly software for engine steady-state and transient performance analysis. The improved heat
transfer model considers the advantages of the Woschni1978 heat transfer model and Honhenberg
heat transfer model. In addition, a five-component biodiesel skeletal mechanism containing 475 re-
actions and 134 species was developed to simulate the fuel spray process and combustion process
since it contained methyl linolenate, methyl linoleate, methyl oleate, methyl stearate, and methyl
palmitate, which are a majority component in most biodiesel. Finally, the propulsion and load
characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with biodiesel fuel were investigated by the improved heat
transfer model in term of power, brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), soot and NOx emissions.
Similarly, the effects of the fuel injection rate on the diesel engine’s characteristic fueled with biodiesel
was studied. The result showed that the errors between experiment and simulation were less than
2%. Thus, the simulation model could predict the propulsion and load characteristics of the diesel
engine. The nozzle diameter, injection pressure, and injection advance angle are significant to the
injection system. Thus, it is very important to choose the injection rate reasonably.
Keywords: fuel injection rate; biodiesel fuel; diesel engine; fuel injection system; comprehensive
performance
1. Introduction
Due to the reliability and economy of diesel engine [1], the diesel engine has become
the main power source for mechanical equipment [2], such as the ship, construction
machinery [3], and heavy-duty trucks [4]. Particulate matter (PM) and NOx emission from
diesel engines pose a threat to the ecosystem and public health [5]. With the supplementary
provisions that have been implemented one after another [5] requires knowledge on how
to reduce NOx and PM emissions [6] and how to improve the characteristics of the diesel
engine [7]. In order to meet the requirements of regulations [8], it is necessary to develop
renewable energy to replace fossil fuels [9] and improve the system structure of existing
diesel engines so as to adapt the new fuel [10–12].
The diesel engine combustion is a physical and chemical process, which is complex
and changeable. In order to improve the efficiency of diesel engine and reduce the cost [13],
the numerical method has often been applied to select an alternative option [14] and im-
prove the design with limited resources [15]. The designer only chose the corresponding
model and input the diesel engine parameters [16], then the designer could make a prelimi-
nary demonstration of the model because the modeling and simulation software provides a
pre-design platform [17]. For instance, Lino and Maione developed the nonlinear injection
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes
Processes 2021, 9, 104 2 of 18

system model of a common rail diesel engine with AMESim software [18]. They found that
the model verified by experiment could accurately predict the good spray performance and
improved the combustion process of diesel engine. Lähde et al. had established an injection
system simulation model of an electronic control unit (ECU) pump and investigated the
effects of various structural parameters on the economy and emission characteristics of a
diesel engine [19]. The results showed that the injection rate had a great influence on the
emission and performance characteristics of a diesel engine. In addition, Fan et al. had
developed a finite element mode of a ECU pump’s high-speed solenoid valve and analyzed
the effects of various factors on the solenoid valve [20]. The result showed that the solenoid
valve delay was an important factor in the spray performance. A one-dimensional fuel
injection system model was proposed to discuss the influence of biodiesel on the perfor-
mance characteristic of a common rail diesel engine by Frosina et al. [21]. The simulation
results were in good agreement with the experimental results. The literatures concerning
the emission and performance characteristics of diesel engine are plentiful, which mainly
focuses on developing a model for the components of the fuel injection system, but the
mechanical injection system transformation for the electronically-controlled injection sys-
tem has received considerably less attention [22]. Therefore, the software provides a good
platform for the modeling of a diesel engine injection system, and it can effectively analyze
the spray performance, propulsion, and load characteristics of the diesel engine [23].
Typically, the zero-dimensional or double zone combustion models are developed
by the GT-Power or ALV-BOOST software and the influences of input parameters on
the comprehensive performance of the diesel engine are studied [24–26]. For instance,
Gupta et al. had developed simulation models by AVL-BOOST and neural network
software and investigated the relative contribution of operational parameters on emission
and performance characteristics of a common-rail diesel engine in term of such as torque,
soot, NOx , and brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) [27]. Similarly, some scholars
have established the simulation model of homogeneous charge compression ignition
diesel and biogas fuel by using AVL-BOOST software, which were verified by test results,
and analyzed the effects of a different fuel mixing ratio on the comprehensive characteristic
of diesel engines [28–30]. Other scholars carried out the modeling and made the analysis of
four main factors that could impact the performance and emission characteristics of a diesel
engine, including the first and second injection mass ratio, interval time, main injection start
time, and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) ratio [31–34]. The one-dimensional models are
simpler, faster, and include more detailed physical models [35]. In general, more advanced
models such as combustion, heat transfer, and pollutant formation processes should be
employed to simulate and improve the accuracy of the calculation [36]. However, the
biodiesel as a good alternative of petrochemical energy is non-toxic [37], biodegradable
and has significantly fewer emissions [38]. Thus, it is of great significance to study the
injection performance and emission performance of biodiesel [39].
In the paper, the combined weight coefficient is employed to develop an improved heat
transfer model, which is used to simulate the combustion and heat transfer processes of a
diesel engine fueled with biodiesel fuel in an AVL-BOOST environment. In addition, a five-
component biodiesel skeletal mechanism is also employed to predict the combustion
process of biodiesel fuel. Then, the AVL-BOOST model is validated by the experimental
results under different conditions. Moreover, the new developed model will be employed
to analyze the engine characteristic and the effects of the fuel injection rate on the engine
characteristic of diesel engine fueled with biodiesel fuel is investigated.

2. Methods and Model Validation

2.1. An Improved Entire Diesel Engine Simulation Model
(1) The combustion model
In order to improve the calculation accuracy, a quasi-dimensional MCC AVL combus-
tion model is used to predict the combustion process in the cylinder. The model considers
the influence of diffusion combustion and pre-mixing, and it can predict the emission
Processes 2021, 9, 104 3 of 18

characteristic of diesel engine accurately. The expression of heat release rate is expressed
as follow:
dQF dQMCC dQPMC
= + (1)
dϕ dϕ dϕ
where QF is the combustion heat release rate, QMCC is the total heat release rate of diffusion
combustion, QPMC is the total heat release rate of pre-mixed combustion, and ϕ is the crank
angle.
The total heat release rate of diffusion combustion is expressed as Equation (2):
  √
dQMCC QMCC CEGR k
= Ccomb · mF − · (wAir ) · CRate · √
3
(2)
dϕ Hu V

where QMCC is the total heat release rate of diffusion combustion, Ccomb is the Combustion
constant, mF is the evaporative fuel mass, Hu is the low calorific value of fuel oil, k is the
turbulent energy density, wAir is the effective air mass fraction, CEGR is the EGR influence
constant, and CRate is the mixing ratio constant.
The actual heat release rate of pre-mixed combustion is expressed as Equation (3):

1 dQ PMC 6.908 ϕ − ϕB ϕ − ϕ B ( m +1)

= · ( m + 1) · ( ) · exp[ − 6.908 · ( ) ] (3)
Q PMC dϕ ∆ϕC ∆ϕC ∆ϕC

where QPMC is the total heat release rate of pre-mixed combustion, ϕ is the crank angle,
∆ϕc is the pre-mixed combustion duration, ϕB is the start of combustion angle, and m is
the shape parameter.
(2) Combined heat transfer model
Heat transfer in a diesel cylinder is a very complicated process, in view of the heat
transfer calculation of a high-pressure cycle, the Woschni1978 heat transfer model is gener-
ally used. In the heat transfer process, it mainly considers the influence of the convection
heat transfer in the cylinder [32,33]. The Woschni model published in 1978 for the high-
pressure cycle is summarized as follows:
0.8
VTIVC
αw = 130Tc−0.2 p0.8
c D
−0.2
[C1 Cm + C2 ( pc − pc,o )] (4)
pIVC VIVC

where Tc is the cylinder temperature, pc is the cylinder pressure, D is the cylinder diameter,
C1 is the gas velocity coefficient, Cm is the mean velocity of piston, C2 is the model constant,
TIVC is the inlet valve closing cylinder volume, V is the actual cylinder volume, pIVC is the
inlet valve closing cylinder pressure, and pc,o is the inverted cylinder pressure.
The heat transfer coefficient of the Honhenberg heat transfer model is summarized
as follows:
αk = 130 · V −0.06 · p0.8 −0.4
c · Tc · (cm + 1.4)0.8 (5)
where pc is the cylinder pressure, Cm is the mean velocity of piston, and V is the actual
cylinder volume.
A single heat transfer model is likely to have some defects and cannot accurately
predict the heat transfer in the diesel engine’s cylinder. In order to improve the accuracy of
the calculation and make up for the lack of a single model, an optimization weighted array
model is developed to predict the heat transfer in a diesel cylinder based on the forecasting
theory of the optimization weighted array. The optimal weighting coefficients are derived
by the minimum variance method. Thus, the advantages of the two models are combined.
The improvement of combined model makes the model more accurate.
It is assumed that αi is the expected predictive value and the experimental observation
value is Xi (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ). The predicted value of the Woschni1978 heat transfer model
is αwi (i = 1, 2, . . . , n), the error between the model value and the test value is ewi (i = 1, 2,
. . . , n). The predicted value of the second model is αki (i = 1, 2, . . . , n), the error between
 forecasting theory of the optimization weighted array. The optimal weighting coefficients
are derived by the minimum variance method. Thus, the advantages of the two models
are combined. The improvement of combined model makes the model more accurate.
It is assumed that αi is the expected predictive value and the experimental observa-
Processes 2021, 9, 104
tion value is Xi (X1, X2, …, Xn). The predicted value of the Woschni1978 heat transfer model 4 of 18
is αwi (i = 1, 2, …, n), the error between the model value and the test value is ewi (i = 1, 2, …,
n). The predicted value of the second model is αki (i = 1, 2, …, n), the error between the
second model value and test value is eki (i = 1, 2, …, n). Respectively, the expected predic-
the
tivesecond
value ofmodel
αi andvalue
error and
ei(i =test
1, 2,value ekias
…, n)isare = 1, 2, . . . , n). Respectively, the expected
(i follow:
predictive value of αi and error ei (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) are as follow:
αi = w1αwi + w2αki (6)
where w1 is the weight coefficient α ofi = w1Woschni1978
the αwi + w2 αki heat transfer model and w2 is the (6)
weight coefficient of the Honhenberg heat transfer model.
where w1 is the weight coefficient of the Woschni1978 heat transfer model and w2 is the
weight coefficient of the Honhenberg heat
ei = wtransfer
1ewi + w2model.
eki (7)
where e1i, e2i, w1, and w2 are defined as: ei =ww1 + w2 = 1, e1i = Xi − αwi, e2i = Xi − αki.
1 ewi + w2 eki (7)
The minimum quadratic sum of the combined expected forecasting error is as fol-
lows: e1i , e2i , w1 , and w2 are defined as: w1 + w2 = 1, e1i = Xi − αwi , e2i = Xi − αki .
where
The minimum quadratic sum of the combined expected forecasting error is as follows:
 
min( ei2 ) = min[ w12 ewi2 + 2w1w2 (ewi eki ) + w22 eki2 ]   (8)
min(∑ ei ) = min
2
[w ∑ e + 2w21 w2 ∑ 2(ewi eki ) + w2 ∑ eki ]
2 2 2 2
(8)
w1 = [ eki2 − 1(ewi ekiwi )] / [ ewi +  eki − 2 (ewi eki )]
with and
w2 = [w
with
2
1 e=wi −  (ki
2
[∑ e2ewi−
2
)] /([e
eki ∑ 2
wi ewi +/
ki )] [∑eki2e−2wi2+∑(ewie2kieki− .
2
)] 2∑ (ewi eki )] and w2 = [∑ ewi − ∑ (ewi eki )]/
[∑ ewi + ∑ eki − 2∑ (ewi eki )].
It can be proved that min(∑ei2) ≤ min(∑eki2) and min(∑ei2) ≤ min(∑ewi2). Thus, the com-
It can be proved that min(∑ei2) ≤ min(∑eki2) and min(∑ei2) ≤ min(∑ewi2). Thus, the combined
bined heat transfer model is better than the single model prediction.
heat transfer model is better than the single model prediction.
(3) Simulation
(3) Simulation model model establishment
establishment of of an an entire
entire diesel
diesel engine
engine
In order
In order to to investigate
investigate the the steady
steady state state and and transient
transient state
state performance
performance characteristics
characteristics
of a diesel engine, the entire model of the diesel engine was developed in an AVL-BOOST
of a diesel engine, the entire model of the diesel engine was developed in an AVL-BOOST
environment. Figure
environment. Figure 11 showsshows the the layout
layout of of thethe entire
entire diesel
diesel engine.
engine. In
In addition,
addition, the
the main
main
parameters of the diesel engine are shown in Table 1. The air
parameters of the diesel engine are shown in Table 1. The air cooled by the air cooler enters cooled by the air cooler enters
the cylinder
the cylinder through
through the the airair intake
intake passage.
passage. After After aa combustion
combustion process,
process, thethe exhaust
exhaust gases
gases
are discharged
are discharged and and flow
flow into into the
the turbine
turbine inlet.inlet. TheThe turbine
turbine drives
drives the
the turbo-compressor,
turbo-compressor,
which delivers the compressed
which delivers the compressed air to the cooler. air to the cooler.

PL1
3

MP3
MP4 MP5 MP6 MP7
4 5 6 7

C1 C2 C3 C4
CO1

MP8 MP10 MP11

SB1 MP9
1 MP1 10
MP2 MP13
8 13 11
2

SB2 J2
14 12 MP12
9
TC1 J1
MP14

1. Simulation model of an entire

Figure 1. entire diesel
diesel engine.
engine.

Table 1. Main parameters of a diesel engine.

Parameter Unit Value

Cylinder diameter mm 190
Number of cylinders - 4
Rate speed r/min 1000
Peak pressure MPa 12
Rated power kW 220
Mean effective pressure MPa 1.109
Compression ratio - 14
Processes 2021, 9, 104 5 of 18

2.2. Model Validation

The instantaneous injection rate (IFR) and the fuel injection pressure can be obtained
by the oil pump testing device (6PSDW300). The IFR system is composed of the electronic
control part and mechanical part. Moreover, the IFR was measured by the EFS8427 mea-
surement units of the French EFS company. The main experiment steps can be expressed
as follows:
Step 1: Preparation work. Check the oil pump testing device, fill the low-pressure oil
tank with fuel, and install the electronic unit pump in the mechanical part. The electronic
control part is supplied by a single-phase current and connected to the computer through
the Ethernet by a specific software as a user interface.
Step 2: Set the relevant operating parameters of the oil pump test bed. To start, motor
drive oil pump operation and transport oil from the low-pressure oil tank to the high-
pressure common rail pipe. Fuel that is injected from the fuel injector will be collected in a
constant static pressure fuel collection chamber.
The main parameters of the fuel injection system (FIS) of the ECU pump are shown
in Table 2. In the experimental process, the injection pressure and fuel supply pressure
were measured by the pressure sensor installed in the mechanical part, and the original
parameters such as the fuel injection rate and fuel injection mass were provided to the IFR
control system.

Table 2. Main parameters of the fuel injection system (FIS) of the electronic control unit (ECU) pump.

Title Parameter Value

Plunger diameter (mm) 13
Plunger
Cam profile velocity (mm/CaA) 0.46
Opening pressure (MPa) 19
maximum needle lift (mm) 0.4
Injector Flow (mL/(30 sec*100 bar)) 1500
Nozzle number 8
Nozzle diameter (mm) 0.26
Length (mm) 900
High pressure oil pipe
internal diameter (mm) 2
rod diameter (mm) 6.98
maximum rod lift (mm) 0.21
Solenoid valve
Solenoid valve residue air gap (mm) 0.12
mass of moving parts (g) 14.5

Rapeseed is widely planted in south China and nearly half of the edible oil is rapeseed
oil. Thus, the diesel engine fueled with rapeseed oil methyl ester (RME) is employed to carry
out the experiment in this work. In our previous work, the RME could be obtained by the
transesterification method [40]. Moreover, the biodiesel transesterification was carried out
by alkali catalysis about 1.2 h in the experimental reactor. The transesterification conducted
1:6 oil molars to a methanol ratio with 1%wt/wt potassium hydroxide as the alkaline
catalyst. The detailed process can be obtained in [40] in our previous work. The physical
properties of biodiesel are shown in Table 3. The detailed biodiesel information could be
obtained from the previously published works [40–42] of our team.
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18

Processes 2021, 9, 104 6 of 18

physical properties of biodiesel are shown in Table 3. The detailed biodiesel information
could be obtained from the previously published works [40–42] of our team.

Table 3.
Table 3. Physical
Physical properties
properties of
of fuel.
fuel.

Item Rapeseed Oil Methyl Ester

Item Rapeseed Oil Methyl Ester
Oxygen content(%m/m) 10.7
Oxygenatcontent(%m/m)
Viscosity 40 °C (mm·s−2) 10.7 4.56
Viscosity at ◦ C (mm·s−2 )
40(−) 4.56
Cetane number 53.88
Cetane number (−) 53.88
Lower calorific value (MJ/kg) 39.53
Lower calorific value (MJ/kg) 39.53
Density at 15 °C◦(kg·m−3) −3 882
Density at 15 C (kg·m ) 882
Saturation
Saturation (%)
(%) 4.45 4.45
Methyl
Methyllinoleate
linoleate 22.27 22.27
Methyl
Methyllinolenate
linolenate 8.11 8.11
Methyl
Methylstearate
stearate 0.87 0.87
Methl
Methl oleate
oleate 65.18 65.18
Methyl
Methyl palmitate
palmitate 3.57 3.57

In
In order
order to
to validate
validatethe thesimulation
simulationresult,
result,the experiment
the experimentwas carried
was outout
carried on the ex-
on the
perimental
experimentalbench
benchof aofdiesel engine.
a diesel TheThe
engine. Horiba
HoribaMEXA-1600
MEXA-1600was was
usedused
for measuring gen-
for measuring
erated
generated x with
NONO x a
with1%a error,
1% while
error, whilethe AVL
the AVL Dismoke-4000
Dismoke-4000 was
was employed
employed for
for measuring
measuring
generated
generated soot.
soot. FCMM-2
FCMM-2 was used for
was used for measuring
measuring BFSC.BFSC. DEWE-2010CA
DEWE-2010CA was was employed
employed
for monitoring the combustion of a diesel engine. In addition, an ECU control
monitoring the combustion of a diesel engine. In addition, an ECU control system system was
employed for controlling the electronically-controlled diesel engine. EFS-IFR600
was employed for controlling the electronically-controlled diesel engine. EFS-IFR600 was was em-
ployed
employedforfor
measuring
measuring thethe
fuel
fuelinjection
injectionrate
ratewith
withaa0.5%
0.5%measuring
measuring error.
error. A hydraulic
hydraulic
dynamometer was used for measuring the diesel engine load. Moreover, Moreover, the temperature,
flow, and
and pressure
pressure were
were measured
measured by by suitable
suitable sensors.
sensors. The
The schematics
schematics of
of experimental
experimental
device are shown in Figure 2.

ECU
Hydraulic
dynamometer
Flowmeter 1
Sensors Diesel engine
Valve 1

Pressure gauge Valve 2 Smoke

Combustion analyzer
analyzer Gas analyzer

Data acquisition
Data acquisition card
card

PC display 2
PC display 1

Figure 2. Schematics of experimental device.

The typical
The typical biodiesels are mainly
biodiesels are mainly composed
composed by by five
five components,
components, methyl
methyl linolenate,
linolenate,
methyl linoleate, methyl oleate, methyl stearate, and methyl palmitate. Thus, aa multi--
methyl linoleate, methyl oleate, methyl stearate, and methyl palmitate. Thus, multi–
component biodiesel skeletal mechanism, which was made up of the above five compo-
nents, was employed to investigate the combustion process of biodiesel fuel consisting of
134 species and 475 reactions in the AVL-BOOST simulation environment. The detailed
information can be obtained from the previously published works [40–42] of our team.
 Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 18

component biodiesel skeletal mechanism, which was made up of the above five compo-
Processes 2021, 9, 104 nents, was employed to investigate the combustion process of biodiesel fuel consisting of
7 of 18
134 species and 475 reactions in the AVL-BOOST simulation environment. The detailed
information can be obtained from the previously published works [40–42] of our team.
The combustion model is effective for considering the influence of the jet kinetic en-
ergyThe
andcombustion model is effective for considering the influence of the jet kinetic
fuel injection rate on the instantaneous heat release and can accurately predict
energy and fuel injection rate on the instantaneous heat release and can accurately predict
the formations of nitrogen oxides and soot. Thus, the combustion in the cylinder is fitted
the formations of nitrogen oxides and soot. Thus, the combustion in the cylinder is fitted
with an AVL MCC combustion model. The AVL MCC combustion model is as follows:
with an AVL MCC combustion model. The AVL MCC combustion model is as follows:
√ k
dQ dQ = C ⋅ ( M −Q Q ) ⋅ exp(C ⋅k ) ) (9)
= C Mod · ( MF −F ·√
) · exp(CRate Rate (9)
dϕ dϕ Mod LCV
LCV 3 3
VV
whereCCMod
where is the
Mod is the model
model constant;
constant; CCRate
Rate is the mixing
is the mixing rate
rate constant;
constant; and
and LCV
LCV isisthe
thelow
low
calorific value of fuel
calorific value of fuel oil. oil.
TheChen–Flynn
The Chen–Flynnmodel modelisisused
usedto tocalculate
calculatethetheloss
losspressure
pressuredue duetotothe
thefriction
frictionand
and
the loss
the loss pressure is is aafunction
functionofofpiston
piston speed
speedandandpeak
peak pressure in the
pressure in AVL-BOOST
the AVL-BOOST sim-
ulation environment.
simulation environment. In addition,
In addition,the the
combined
combined heatheat
transfer model,
transfer Woschni1978
model, Woschni1978heat
heat transfer
transfer model,model,
and and Honhenberg
Honhenberg heatheat transfer
transfer modelmodel are employed
are employed to simulate
to simulate the
the heat
heat transfer
transfer processprocess
in thein the cylinder,
cylinder, respectively.
respectively. In orderIn to order to the
validate validate
combinedthe combined
model, the
model,
experimentthe experiment
was carried wasoutcarried out and comparisons
and comparisons of the heatoftransfer
the heatcoefficient
transfer coefficient
are shown arein
shown in Figure 3 at a 100% load. It can be found that a predicted
Figure 3 at a 100% load. It can be found that a predicted result of the combined model isresult of the combined
model is in agreement
in agreement with thewith the experimental
experimental results. results.
Through Through a contrast
a contrast experiment
experiment and
and correc-
correction, the predicted
tion, the predicted result result
of the of the combined
combined modelmodel
had the had the maximum
maximum error oferror
2.1%,ofbut
2.1%,
the
but the predicted
predicted result ofresult of the Woschni1978
the Woschni1978 heat transfer
heat transfer modelmodelhad ahad a maximum
maximum error error of
of 3.2%.
3.2%. Thus, the combined model can better predict the performance
Thus, the combined model can better predict the performance characteristic of the diesel characteristic of the
diesel
engine. engine.

3000 2
1
Heat transfer coefficient(W/(m .K))

3 1-Woschni1978 Model
2500 2-Experiment
2

4 3-Combination Model
2000
4-Hohenberg Model
1500

1000

500

0
120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Crank angle(°CA)

Figure3.3.Heat
Figure Heattransfer
transfercoefficient.
coefficient.

In
Inthe
thepaper,
paper,the effects
the effectsof of
thethe
length of aofhigh-pressure
length a high-pressure oil pipe, nozzle
oil pipe, diameter,
nozzle and
diameter,
plunger diameter on the injection pressure and injection duration angle
and plunger diameter on the injection pressure and injection duration angle were consid- were considered.
More
ered.specifically, the length
More specifically, theoflength
a high-pressure oil pipe (850
of a high-pressure and 900
oil pipe (850mm), nozzle
and 900 diameter
mm), nozzle
(0.24, 0.26, and 0.28 mm), and plunger diameter (13.5, 14 and 14.5
diameter (0.24, 0.26, and 0.28 mm), and plunger diameter (13.5, 14 and 14.5mm) were em-mm) were employed to
investigate the injectionthe
ployed to investigate characteristics. In the experimental
injection characteristics. process, theprocess,
In the experimental engine speed was
the engine
1000 rpm and the fuel injection mass remains constant. If the injection
speed was 1000 rpm and the fuel injection mass remains constant. If the injection pressure pressure is greater
than 100 MPa ◦
is greater thanand
100theMPainjection
and theduration
injectionangle is less
duration thanis35
angle less, the case
than 35°,will
the be selected.
case will be
Thus, the five cases selected are shown in Table 4. The engine characteristic
selected. Thus, the five cases selected are shown in Table 4. The engine characteristic of diesel engineof
fueled
diesel with
engineRME is investigated
fueled with RME in is terms of power,
investigated in BSFC,
terms ofNOpower,
x , and soot
BSFC,emissions.
NOx, and soot
emissions.
Processes 2021, 9, 104 8 of 18

Table 4. Work cases.

High
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Injector Injection 8 of 18
Pressure Plunger Injection
Cases Nozzle Duration
Oil Pipe Diameter/mm Pressure/MPa
Diameter/mm Angle/◦
Length/mm
Case 1 Table
850 4. Work cases.0.24 14.0 33.4 100.944
Case 2 850 0.24 14.5 32.9 108.377
High Pressure Oil Injector Nozzle Plunger Injection Duration Injection
Case 3 850
Cases 0.26 14.5 32.5 100.700
Pipe Length/mm Diameter/mm Diameter/mm Angle/° Pressure/MPa
Case 4 900 0.24 14.0 33.6 100.604
Case 1 850 0.24 14.0 33.4 100.944
Case 5 900 0.24 14.5 33.1 108.267
Case 2 850 0.24 14.5 32.9 108.377
Case 3 850 0.26 14.5 32.5 100.700
3. Results and Discussion
Case 4 900 0.24 14.0 33.6 100.604
Case 5 900 0.24 14.5 33.1 108.267
The experiments were carried out on four cylinders four-stroke. The load and speed
of each test point3.are shown in Table 5. In order to avoid cross-contamination, the diesel
Results and Discussion
engine fueled with RME operated for 25 min. In addition, in order to ensure the steady
The experiments were carried out on four cylinders four-stroke. The load and speed
state measurement, the experimental results of each operating condition are recorded after
of each test point are shown in Table 5. In order to avoid cross-contamination, the diesel
running for 25 min. The experiments of each operating condition were carried out three
engine fueled with RME operated for 25 min. In addition, in order to ensure the steady
times and the recorded results averaged.
state measurement, In addition,
the experimental resultsthe injection
of each characteristic
operating of the
condition are recorded af-
diesel engine wasteralso studied.
running for 25 min. The experiments of each operating condition were carried out three
times and the recorded results averaged. In addition, the injection characteristic of the
Table 5. Test cycle diesel
for different
enginetest
waspoints.
also studied.

Test Cycle Item

Table 5. Test cycle for different test points. Value
Load Engine speed(rpm)
Test Cycle Item 1000 Value
characteristic Engine Load Engine speed(rpm)
100% 75% 50% 25%
1000 10%
Load characteristic
Engine speed(rpm) Engine
1000 911100% 799
Propulsion Load 75% 50%628 25% 10%
characteristic Engine Load Engine speed(rpm)
Propulsion 100% 75%1000 50%
911 79925% 628
characteristic Engine Load 100% 75% 50% 25%
3.1. Load Characteristic of Diesel Engine
3.1. Load Characteristic of Diesel Engine
The improved heat transfer model and Woschni 1978 model were used to investigate
The improved heat transfer model and Woschni 1978 model were used to investigate
the load characteristic of a diesel engine fueled with RME. The load characteristic is
the load characteristic of a diesel engine fueled with RME. The load characteristic is dis-
discussed in the part in terms of torque, BSFC, temperature behind the intercooler, NOx ,
cussed in the part in terms of torque, BSFC, temperature behind the intercooler, NOx, and
and exhaust temperature. The simulation
exhaust temperature. results ofresults
The simulation torque,of BFSC,
torque,temperature behind
BFSC, temperature the the in-
behind
intercooler, NOx ,tercooler,
and exhaust temperature are compared with experimental data as shown
NOx, and exhaust temperature are compared with experimental data as shown
in Figure 4. in Figure 4.

400
2000 1-Experiment (a) 1-Experiment
2-Combination simulation (b)
2-Combination simulation
3-Woschni1978 350 3-Woschni1978
Torque(N.m)

BSFC(g/(kW.h))

1500
1 2
300
1000
2
1
250 3
500
3
200
50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200 250
Power(kW) Power(kW)

Figure 4. Cont.
Processes 2021, 9, 104 9 of 18
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9

45

Temperature of behind the intercooler(K)

22 (d)
(c) Experiment
Experiment
Combination simulation 20 Combination simulation
44 Woschni1978
Woschni1978 1

NOx(g/(kW.h))
2
18

3
43 16

14

42 12

10
50 100 150 200
41 Power(kW)
0 50 100 150 200 250
Power(kW)

500
1-Experiment
(e)
2-Combination simulation
450 3-Woschni1978
Exhaust temperature(K)

400
2
350
3
300

250 1

200
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Pow er(kW)

Figure 4. Load characteristics of an electronically-controlled diesel engine. (a) Torque; (b) BSFC;
Figure
(c) Temperature of behind the4.inter-cooler;
Load characteristics
(d) NOxof; (e)
an electronically-controlled
Exhaust temperature diesel engine. (a) Torque; (b) BSFC
Temperature of behind the inter-cooler; (d) NOx; (e) Exhaust temperature
Figure 4a shows that torque and power are proportional with the same factor and all
Figure 4a shows that torque and power are proportional with the same factor and
the points are on the same line. In addition, torque increased with the increase of power.
the points are on the same line. In addition, torque increased with the increase of pow
The results also show Thethat the torque
results also showcanthat
be the
calculated
torque canaccurately
be calculatedby numerical
accurately by modes.
numerical mo
More specifically, theMore
maximum different between experimental result and
specifically, the maximum different between experimental result predicted result
and predicted
calculated by the Woschni1978
sult calculated model
by theis Woschni1978
4.8% and themodel maximumis 4.8% difference
and the maximumbetween the
difference betw
experimental result and predicted result
the experimental resultcalculated
and predictedby the improved
result calculatedmodel
by thereached
improved 3.6%.model reac
Thus, the improved combination
3.6%. Thus, the model couldcombination
improved better predict thecould
model torque of the
better diesel
predict theengine.
torque of the di
Figure 4b shows thatengine.
the BSFC Figure 4b shows
firstly that the
decreases BSFC
and thenfirstly decreases
increases with andthethen increases
increase of with the
power. In addition, crease
the BSFCof power. In addition,
reaches the minimumthe BSFCvalue
reaches atthe
75%minimum
enginevalue
load.atAs 75%the engine load
operating point at 75% the engine
operating point
load at 75%
is the engine
design load is the
operating design
point, theoperating point, the
BSFC reached theBSFC reac
minimum value at 75% theengine
minimum value
load. at 75% the
Actually, engine load. Actually,
predicted results of thethe
predicted
improved results
model of the impro
model has a better accuracy when compared with the Woschni 1978 model. More spe
has a better accuracy when compared with the Woschni 1978 model. More specifically,
cally, the calculated BSFC is very similar and the maximum difference between the ex
the calculated BSFC is very similar and the maximum difference between the experiment
iment and improved model is 2.8%. In addition, the maximum difference between
and improved modelexperiment
is 2.8%. In and
addition, the maximum difference between the experiment
Woschni 1978 model is 3.5%. Thus, the BSFC can be better predicted
and Woschni 1978 model is 3.5%. Thus,
the improved combination the BSFC
model. can be better predicted by the improved
combination model. In addition, Figure 4c shows that the temperature of behind the inter-cooler incre
In addition, Figure
with4ctheshows that
increase ofthe temperature
the engine power.of behind
More the inter-cooler
specifically, the maximum increases
difference betw
with the increase of the
theengine power.result
experimental More andspecifically, the maximum
predicted result calculated bydifference betweenmodel is 3
the Woschni1978
the experimental result andmaximum
and the predicted result calculated
difference between theby the Woschni1978
experimental result andmodelpredicted is result ca
lated by the improved model reached 2.6%. Figure
3.8% and the maximum difference between the experimental result and predicted result 4d shows that the NO x emission fir
decreases, increases, and finally decreases with
calculated by the improved model reached 2.6%. Figure 4d shows that the NOx emission the increased engine power. The N
emission increases with the increasing power, but the increase
firstly decreases, increases, and finally decreases with the increased engine power. The NOx of power is slower than
NOx emission. Thus, the NOx emission per unit power increases. When the load is hig
emission increases with the increasing power, but the increase of power is slower than
than 75%, the NOx emission deceases. It is due to the fact that the combustion is dete
the NOx emission. Thus, the NOx emission per unit power increases. When the load is
higher than 75%, the NOx emission deceases. It is due to the fact that the combustion is
deteriorated by the increase of fuel. In addition, it can also be found that the improved
combination model can better predict NOx emission. Figure 4e shows that the exhaust
temperature increases with the increase of the engine power. This is due to the increased
engine load caused by the increased of fuel injection mass. It can also be found that the
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

rated by the increase of fuel. In addition, it can also be found that the improved combina-
Processes 2021, 9, 104 10 of 18
tion model can better predict NOx emission. Figure 4e shows that the exhaust temperature
increases with the increase of the engine power. This is due to the increased engine load
caused by the increased of fuel injection mass. It can also be found that the improved
model canmodel
improved better can
computed the temperature.
better computed More specifically,
the temperature. the maximum
More specifically, difference
the maximum
between the experiment and the improved model is slightly lower than
difference between the experiment and the improved model is slightly lower than the the maximum
difference between
maximum differencethe experiment
between and Woschni
the experiment and1978 model.
Woschni 1978 model.
As mentioned,
As mentioned,the theWoschni
Woschni 1978
1978 model
model andand improved
improved modelmodel can better
can also also better pre-
predicted
dicted
the loadthe load characteristic
characteristic of dieselofengine.
diesel engine.
However,However, the improved
the improved model ismodel is more ac-
more accurate in
curate in prediction. It is due to the fact that the improved model combines the
prediction. It is due to the fact that the improved model combines the advantages of the advantages
of the
two two models.
models.

3.2. Propulsion Characteristic of Diesel Engine

In order to
to further
further study
study the
the propulsion
propulsion characteristics
characteristics of of electronically-controlled
electronically-controlled
diesel engine, the improved heat transfer model and Woschni 1978 1978 model
model areare employed
employed
to investigate the propulsion characteristic of the diesel
diesel engine fuel with RME. The
engine fuel with RME. The diesel
diesel
engine
engine was
was operated
operated at at different
different engine
engine loads
loads of
of 25%,
25%, 50%,
50%, 75%,
75%, and
and 100%,
100%, corresponding
corresponding
to
to 628
628 rpm,
rpm, 799
799rpm,
rpm,909909rpm,
rpm,and
and1000
1000rpm
rpmengine
enginespeed.
speed.The propulsion
The propulsioncharacteristic is
characteristic
discussed in part in terms of torque, BSFC, power, NO , and exhaust temperature.
is discussed in part in terms of torque, BSFC, power, NOx, and exhaust temperature. The
x The sim-
ulation results
simulation of torque,
results BFSC,
of torque, BFSC,temperature
temperature behind
behind the
theintercooler,
intercooler,NONO x ,x,and
and exhaust
exhaust
temperature are compared with experimental results as shown
temperature are compared with experimental results as shown in Figure 5. in Figure 5.

230
1-Experiment
2000 1-Experiment 228 2-Combination simulation (b)
(a) 3-Woschni1978
2-Combination simulation 226
1800
3-Woschni1978 224 2

BFSC(g/(kW⋅ h))
3
Torque(N ⋅m)

1600 222
220
1400 1
218

1200 216
1
214
1000 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050
2 Speed(r/min)
800 3

600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050
Speed(r/min)

220 16
1-Experiment 1-Experiment
(d)
200 (c) 2-Combination simulation 2-Combination simulation
15
3-Woschni1978 3-Woschni1978
180
14
NOx(g/(kW.h))

160
BSFC(g/(kW⋅h))

140 13
1
120
12 2
100 1
11
3
80
60 3
2 10
600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100
40
Speed(r/min)
600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050
Speed(r/min)

Figure 5. Cont.
Processes 2021, 9, 104 11 of 18
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18

500 (e)
1-Experiment
2-Combination simulation

Exhaust temperature(K)
450 3-Woschni1978

400

350 2
1
300 3

250
600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050
Speed(r/min)

Figure5.5.Propulsion
Figure Propulsioncharacteristic
characteristicofofananelectronically-controlled
electronically-controlled diesel
diesel engine.
engine. (a)(a) Torque;
Torque; (b)(b)
BSFC;
BSFC; (c) Temperature of behind the inter-cooler; (d) NO x; (e) Exhaust temperature
(c) Temperature of behind the inter-cooler; (d) NOx ; (e) Exhaust temperature

Figure5a5ashows
Figure shows thatthat
thethe
torquetorque increases
increases with with the increase
the increase of engineof engine
speed. Thespeed. The
torque
torque can be calculated accurately by the numerical
can be calculated accurately by the numerical modes. More specifically, the maximum modes. More specifically, the maxi-
mum difference
difference between between the experimental
the experimental result and result and predicted
predicted result by result by the Woschni1978
the Woschni1978 model
ismodel
4.5% and is 4.5% and the maximum
the maximum differencedifference
between the between the experimental
experimental result and
result and predicted pre-
result
bydicted result bymodel
the improved the improved
reached 3.7%. model reached
Thus, 3.7%. Thus,
the improved the improved
combination model combination
could better
model could
predict the torquebetterofpredict the torque
the diesel engine.ofFigure
the diesel engine.that
5b shows Figure
the 5bBSFCshows thatdecreases
firstly the BSFC
firstly
and then decreases
increasesand with then
theincreases
increase of with
the the
engineincrease
speed. of Between
the engine 799speed.
rpm and Between
910 rpm, 799
the
rpm BFSCand is 910lower
rpm,thanthe the
BFSC other operating
is lower thanpoints.
the other Theoperating
BSFC reachedpoints. theThe
minimum
BSFC reachedvalue
at 75%
the engine load.
minimum value Itat is dueengine
75% to theload.
fact that
It is the
dueoperating
to the factpoint
that theis the design point
operating operatingis the
point.
designTherefore,
operatingthe efficiency
point. Therefore,is relatively large. In
the efficiency addition, it
is relatively can also
large. be foundit that
In addition, the
can also
improved
be found that model thecan better predict
improved model can the BSFC
better and predictthe the
maximum
BSFC and difference
the maximumbetween the
differ-
improved
ence between model theand experiment
improved model is slightly lower than
and experiment is the maximum
slightly lower difference between
than the maximum
the experiment and Woschni 1978 model.
difference between the experiment and Woschni 1978 model.
In
Inaddition,
addition,Figure
Figure5c 5cshows
showsthat thatthe
theengine
enginepowerpowerand andexhaust
exhausttemperature
temperatureincreaseincrease
with
with the increase of
the increase of the
theengine
enginespeed.speed. It isItdue
is dueto theto increased
the increasedengine engine load caused
load caused by the
by the increased
increased of the
of the fuel fuel injection
injection mass. 5d
mass. Figure Figure
shows 5dthat
showsthe that
NOx the NOx emission
emission firstly in-
firstly
creasesincreases
and thenand then decreases
decreases with theengine
with the increased increased engine
speed. speed.
It is due to theIthigher
is duecylinder
to the
higher cylinder temperature caused by fuel injection mass.
temperature caused by fuel injection mass. When the speed is higher than 799 rpm, When the speed is higher than
the
799 rpm, the effects of a high cylinder temperature would
effects of a high cylinder temperature would be dominated by the impact of decreased be dominated by the impact of
decreased oxygen content. Thus, the NO emission per unit
oxygen content. Thus, the NOx emissionx per unit power decreases. It can also be found power decreases. It can also
be found
that that the improved
the improved combination combination
model could model could
better betterthe
predict predict the NOx emission.
NOx emission. Figure 5e
Figure 5e shows that the exhaust temperature increases
shows that the exhaust temperature increases with the increase of the engine speed with the increase of the engine
due
speed
to thedue to the increased
increased fuel injection
fuel injection mass. It mass.
can also It can
be also
found be that
found thethat the improved
improved modelmodel could
could
betterbetter
compute compute temperature.
temperature. MoreMore specifically,
specifically, the maximum
the maximum difference
difference between
between thethe
ex-
experiment and improved model is slightly lower than
periment and improved model is slightly lower than the maximum difference between the maximum difference between
the experiment and Woschni 1978 model.
the experiment and Woschni 1978 model.
As mentioned, the Woschni 1978 model and improved model also can better predicted
As mentioned, the Woschni 1978 model and improved model also can better pre-
the propulsion characteristic of the diesel engine. However, the improved model is more
dicted the propulsion characteristic of the diesel engine. However, the improved model is
accurate in prediction. It is also due to the fact that the advantages of the two models are
more accurate in prediction. It is also due to the fact that the advantages of the two models
combined.
are combined.
3.3. Fuel Inject Rate
3.3. Fuel Inject Rate
The precise measurement and calibration of the fuel inject rate is essential to an
Theofprecise
analysis measurement
the formation of mixedand gas
calibration of the fuelprocesses
and combustion inject rateinis an
essential
enginetocylinder.
an anal-
ysismain
The of thetypical
formation of mixed
parameters, gasasand
such combustion
injection processes
pressure, fuel massin an
perengine cylinder.
cycle, and The
injection
main typical
duration, parameters,
should such as
be considered. Ininjection
the orderpressure,
to improve fuel mass
the per cycle,the
combustion, and injection du-
high-pressure
ration,
oil pipe,should
injectorbe considered.
nozzle, plunger Indiameter,
the orderinjection
to improve the combustion,
duration the high-pressure
angle, and injection pressure
should be considered in the paper. As for the five cases shown in Table 4, injection
oil pipe, injector nozzle, plunger diameter, injection duration angle, and pressure
the fuel injection
should be considered in the paper. As for the five cases shown in Table 4, the
rates are shown in Figure 6. It can be found that the effect of the length of a high-pressure fuel injection
rates
oil areonshown
pipe in Figure
the injection 6. is
rate It can be found and
insignificant thatthe
the injection
effect of the lengthdecreases
pressure of a high-pressure
with the
oil pipe on the injection rate is insignificant and the injection pressure decreases with the
Processes 2021, 9, 104 12 of 18
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18

increase
increase of
of the
the length
length ofof aa high-pressure
high-pressure oil oil pipe,
pipe, as
as shown
shown in
in Table
Table4.4. ItIt is
is due
due to
to the
the
increased resistances caused by the increased length of the high-pressure
increased resistances caused by the increased length of the high-pressure pipe. In addi- pipe. In addition,
Figure 7 shows
tion, Figure that thethat
7 shows fuelthe
injection rate andrate
fuel injection injection pressure increases
and injection pressure with the increased
increases with the
diameter of the plunger when the fuel injection mass keeps constant.
increased diameter of the plunger when the fuel injection mass keeps constant. The The injection duration
injec-
angle decreases
tion duration withdecreases
angle the increased
with ofthethe plunger’s
increased of diameter. With
the plunger’s the increased
diameter. of the
With the in-
injector
creased nozzle diameter,
of the injector the injection
nozzle diameter,pressure, injection
the injection duration
pressure, angle,duration
injection and injection
angle,
rate
and decrease. The decrease.
injection rate nozzle diameter and diameter
The nozzle diameter of andthediameter
plunger of
arethe
significant
plunger are to the fuel
signifi-
injection rate.
cant to the fuel injection rate.

25
2 3 1-Case 1
20 2-Case 2
Injection rate(mm3/deg)

3-Case 3
5 4-Case 4
15 1 4 5-Case 5

10

Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

0
-20 -15 -1 0 -5 0 5 10 15
Crank angle(° CA)
by the impact
Figure 6. Fuel of increased
Fuel injection
injection negative
rate with
with work.
ca onstant
onstant Thus,
fuel the proper
injection mass. injection advance angle is very
Figure 6. rate ca fuel injection mass.
important.
3.3.1.
13 Injection Advance Angle
0.75 (b)
(a)
The injection advance angle 1 - C aseis1 very important. In1-order Case 1
to study the3 effects of an in-
0.70 2-Case 2
2-Case 2
jection
12 advance angle on a diesel engine, five cases are3-Case simulated
3 by using
4 the combined
3 - Case 3 0.65 1
NOx (g/(kW⋅ K))

heat transfer model at a different injection advance angle, respectively. Figure 7a shows
Soot (g/(kW⋅h))

4-Case 4 4-Case 4
0.60 5-Case 5
that
11 the NOx increases with 5-Case the increase
5 of the injection advance angle and Figure 7b
1 2 0.55 5
shows that the soot 5 emission decreases with the increase of the injection advance angle.
When
10
the fuel injection advance angle increases,0.50 the combustion duration and in-cylinder
3 0.45
temperature 4 increase. Thus, the NOx emission increases. However,
2 the increase of the fuel
injection advance angle is favorable for the oxidation 0.40
9 -30 -28 -26 -24 -22 -20 -18 -16it can
of soot. In addition, be -10
-14 -12 found
-28
that a higher -24
injection -20
pressure -1 6 can improve
-1 2 the combustion Injection
of a advance
diesel angle (deg)
engine and reduce
In jec ti o n a d v ance angle (d e g)
the soot emission, but the NOx emission will increase. A large nozzle diameter can reduce
(c) 2 24
the 222
injection duration, 1-Casebut
1 it is not favorable for fuel atomization. 2
Thus, Case 5 3 has the
1 -Case 1 (d)
lowest soot emission.2-Case 2 2 22 2 -Case 2
2 3
3-Case 3
Figure 7c shows
220 that BSFC firstly decreases and then
3-Case 3 increases when the injection 1
BSFC(g/(kW⋅h))

4-Case 4
advance angle reduces. BSFCs 4 is the minimum value 4 -Case
when 4 the injection advance angle is
Power(kW)

5-Case 5 1 2 20
5 -Case 5 3
−20 218°CA. It is due to the fact that lots of negative work is produced when4 the injection
advance angle is more than −20 °CA. The greater 2 18 the injection advance angle, the more
216
negative work there is. In addition, 5
if the injection advance angle is too small, the fuel
cannot burn quickly near the top dead center. Thus, 2 16 the BSFC also increase. It also can be
214
found-30that -28 fuel
-26 injection
-24 -22 -20 pressure-18 -16 -14 and -12 nozzle
-10 diameter
-32 -30 have-28 great
-26 -2 4effects
-22 -20 on -18BSFC.
-16 -1 4A -12
large
Injection advance angle(deg)
Injection advance angle( deg)
nozzle diameter and low injection pressure is not favorable for fuel atomization. Thus,
Case 37.has
Figure Thetheeffectshighestof theBSFC.injection Figure
advance 7d angle
shows onthat the power firstly
the performance increases
of a diesel engine.and (a) NOthen
x;
Figure
decreases 7. The effects
when the ofinjection
the injection advanceadvance angle angle on the performance
reduces. The different of injection
a diesel engine.
advance (a) NO x;
angle
(b) Soot; (c) BSFC; (d) Power.
(b) Soot; (c) BSFC; (d) Power.
will result in fluctuation of engine power due to the negative work and combustion. The
3.3.1. Injectionadvance
big injection Advance Angle
angle is beneficial to improving the combustion. Nevertheless, by
3.3.2. Characteristic Analysis
furtherTheincreasing
injection advance the injection angle advance
is veryangle, the improving
important. In ordereffect to study would thebe dominated
effects of an
The advance
injection improved angleheaton transfer
a diesel model
engine, is used to investigate
five cases are simulated the effect
by usingof a thefuelcombined
injection
rate on a diesel engine fueled with rapeseed oil methyl ester (RME) in terms of cylinder
pressure, heat release rate, soot, NOx, and cylinder temperature. In the experiment, the
engine speed is at 1000rpm and the fuel injection mass remains constant. The effects of the
injection rate on the diesel engine are shown in Figure 8.
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

Processes 2021, 9, 104 13 of 18

by the impact of increased negative work. Thus, the proper injection advance angle is very
important.
heat transfer model at a different injection advance angle, respectively. Figure 7a shows
that13 the NOx increases (a)
with the increase of the 0.75 injection advance (b) angle and Figure 7b
-C ase 1 1- Case 1
shows that the soot emission 1decreases with the0.70
increase 2-Case 2
of the injection 3advance angle.
2-Case 2 4
When
12 the fuel injection advance angle
3 - Case 3
increases, the
0.65
combustion
3 -Case 3 duration and in-cylinder
1

NOx (g/(kW⋅ K))

Soot (g/(kW⋅h))
temperature increase. Thus, the NO4x emission increases.
4-Case 4-Case 4
However, the increase of the fuel
0.60 5-Case 5
injection
11 5-Case 5
advance angle is favorable for the oxidation of soot. In addition, it can be found
1 2 0.55 5
that a higher injection 5 pressure can improve the combustion of a diesel engine and reduce
0.50
the10soot emission, but the NOx emission will increase. A large nozzle diameter can reduce
3
the injection 4 duration, but it is not favorable for0.45 fuel atomization. 2 Thus, Case 3 has the
0.40
lowest
9
soot emission. -30 -28 -26 -24 -22 -20 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10
Figure-28 -24
7cInshows -20
that BSFC-1 6 -1 2
firstly decreases and then Injection
increasesadvance angle
when (deg) the injection
jec ti o n a d v ance angle (d e g)
advance angle reduces. BSFCs is the minimum value when the injection advance angle
◦ (c) 2 24
is −20 222 CA. It is due 1to -Casethe
1 fact that lots of negative work is produced 2
when 5the injection
1 -Case 1
advance angle is more 2-Case 2
than −20 3◦ CA. The greater the injection
2 22 2 -Case 2
(d)
advance angle, the more
2 3-Case 3
negative
220 work there is. In addition, if the injection advance 3-Case 3 angle is too small, the1fuel
BSFC(g/(kW⋅h))

4-Case 4
cannot burn quickly 5-Case near5 the4 top dead center. Thus, 4 -Case
the 4BSFC also increase. It also can

Power(kW)
1 2 20
5 -Case 5 3 4
218
be found that fuel injection pressure and nozzle diameter have great effects on BSFC.
A large nozzle diameter and low injection pressure 2 18 is not favorable for fuel atomization.
Thus,216Case 3 has the highest BSFC. Figure 7d shows that the power firstly increases
5
and then decreases when the injection advance2 16 angle reduces. The different injection
214
advance -30 angle
-28 -26 will
-24 -22 result -20 in
-18 fluctuation
-16 -14 -12 -10 of engine -32 power due to the negative work and
-30 -28 -26 -2 4 -22 -20 -18 -16 -1 4 -12
Injection advance angle(deg)
combustion. The big injection advance angle is beneficial toInjection improving the( deg)
advance angle combustion.
Nevertheless, by further increasing the injection advance angle, the improving effect would
Figure
be 7. The effects
dominated by theofimpact the injection advancenegative
of increased angle on work.
the performance
Thus, the of a diesel
proper engine. advance
injection (a) NOx;
(b) Soot;
angle (c) BSFC;
is very (d) Power.
important.

3.3.2.
3.3.2. Characteristic Analysis
The
The improved
improvedheat heattransfer
transfermodel
model is is
used to investigate
used the the
to investigate effect of a of
effect fuel injection
a fuel rate
injection
on
ratea diesel engineengine
on a diesel fueledfueled
with rapeseed oil methyl
with rapeseed oil ester
methyl(RME)
esterin(RME)
terms of
in cylinder
terms ofpressure,
cylinder
heat release
pressure, rate,release
heat soot, NO x , and
rate, soot,cylinder
NOx, and temperature. In the experiment,
cylinder temperature. In thethe engine speed
experiment, the
is at 1000rpm
engine speed and
is at the fuel injection
1000rpm and the mass remains mass
fuel injection constant. The constant.
remains effects of the
Theinjection
effects ofrate
the
on the diesel engine are shown in Figure 8.
injection rate on the diesel engine are shown in Figure 8.

11 800
(a) 1 -Case 1 (b)
10 4 700
1-Case 1 1 5
2 3 2-Case 2
9 2-Case 2 600 4
Heat release rate(J/deg)

1 3-Case 3 2
8 5
3-Case 3
500 4-Case 4
7 4-Case 4
Pressure(MPa)

400
5-Case 5
6 5-Case 5 3
5 300

4 200
3 100
2
0
1
160 180 200 220 240
0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Crank angle(°CA)
Crank angle(°CA)
0.0020 0.008
1
NOx generation rate(kg/s)

(c) 5 (d) 2
3 5
1 -Case 1
2 1 -Case 1
0.006 3
Soot generation rate(kg/s)

0.0015 2 -Case 2 2-Case 2

3 -Case 3 1 4
4 -Case 4 3-Case 3
0.004
0.0010 5 -Case 5 4-Case 4
4 5-Case 5
0.002
0.0005
0.000
0.0000
160 180 200 220
Crank angle(°CA)
160 170 180 190 200
Crank angle(°CA )

Figure 8. Cont.
Processes 2021, 9, 104 14 of 18
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18

2200
2000 1-Case 1
(e) 2 4
1 3
1800 2-Case 2
5

Cylinder Temperature(K)
3-Case 3
1600
4-Case 4
1400
5-Case 5
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Crank angle(°CA)

Figure
Figure 8. 8.
TheThe effects
effects of the
of the injection
injection raterate
on aon a diesel
diesel engine.
engine. (a) Pressure;
(a) Pressure; (b) Heat
(b) Heat release
release rate; rate; (c)
(c) Soot
Soot generation rate; (d) NO generation rate; (e) Cylinder
generation rate; (d) NOx generation rate; (e) Cylinder temperature
x temperature

AsAs shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 8a, 8a,
the the cylinder
cylinder pressure
pressure of caseof case 2 ishighest.
2 is the the highest.
It is dueIt istoduethe to
factthe
factthe
that that theatomization
fuel fuel atomization and cylinder
and cylinder combustion
combustion is improvedis improved
by theby the fuel
high highinjection
fuel injec-
pressure. In addition,
tion pressure. with thewith
In addition, fuel injection pressure delayed,
the fuel injection pressurethe maximum
delayed, peak pressure
the maximum peak
corresponding to the lower,to
pressure corresponding andthethe time and
lower, to reach the peak
the time pressure
to reach also has
the peak a certain
pressure delay.
also has a
Ascertain
showndelay.in FigureAs shown8b, theinfuel injection
Figure 8b, theratefuelis injection
larger and theisheat
rate largerrelease
and the rateheat is larger
release
at rate
an early stageatdue
is larger to thestage
an early larger due injector
to thenozzle
larger diameter.
injector nozzle The smaller
diameter. the The
fuel smaller
injectionthe
pressure, the greater
fuel injection pressure,the fuel
the injection
greater the map,fuelthe longer the
injection map, delay of heatthe
the longer release
delay rate.
of heat re-
As shown
lease rate. in Figure 8c, the soot generation rate of case 3 is the first to reach the
peak. The injectorinnozzle
As shown Figurediameter
8c, the soot is larger so that
generation theofinjection
rate case 3 ispressure
the first to becomes
reach the lower.
peak.
Finally, the fuel
The injector atomization
nozzle diameterbecomes
is largerworse.
so that theTherefore,
injectionthe soot ofbecomes
pressure case 3 generates
lower. Finally,the
most, followed
the fuel by casebecomes
atomization 1 and case worse.4. As shown inthe
Therefore, Figure
soot 8d, the NO
of case x generation
3 generates the most,rate isfol-
the minimum in case 4 and the NO generation rate is the
lowed by case 1 and case 4. As shown in Figure 8d, the NOx generation rate is the mini-
x maximum in case 3. The high
cylinder
mum in temperature
case 4 and is thetheNOimportant parameter, resulting in NOx generation.
x generation rate is the maximum in case 3. The high In thecylinder
early
stage, a large amount of fuel is injected into the cylinder
temperature is the important parameter, resulting in NOx generation. In the early stage, in case 3. In addition, the fuel a
injection pressure is low so that the fuel atomization is relatively
large amount of fuel is injected into the cylinder in case 3. In addition, the fuel injection bad. It is easy to form the
local high temperature area in case 3.
pressure is low so that the fuel atomization is relatively Thus, the NO x generation rate is the maximum
bad. It is easy to form the local in
case
high3. It can be found
temperature that
area inthe
case curve
3. Thus,of NO thex generation
NOx generation is delayed
rate iswith
the the decreaseinofcase
maximum the 3.
fuel injection rate, the NO x generation value in turn reaches
It can be found that the curve of NOx generation is delayed with the decrease of the fuel the maximum value.
As shown
injection rate,in theFigure 8e, due to the
NOx generation valuehighin fuel
turn injection
reaches the pressure
maximum and fine
value.atomization,
the peak in-cylinder temperature is the highest in case 2, followed
As shown in Figure 8e, due to the high fuel injection pressure and fine atomization, by case 5. The faster the
fuel pressure is built, the faster the temperature will reach the maximum value. In other
the peak in-cylinder temperature is the highest in case 2, followed by case 5. The faster the
words, with the delay of building pressure time, the peak in-cylinder temperature is also
fuel pressure is built, the faster the temperature will reach the maximum value. In other
delayed. The fuel injection pressure and atomization effect of the fuel have the most
words, with the delay of building pressure time, the peak in-cylinder temperature is also
efficient influence on the cylinder temperature.
delayed. The fuel injection pressure and atomization effect of the fuel have the most effi-
Figure 9 shows comparisons of the simulation and experiment results. It can be
cient influence on the cylinder temperature.
found that the error between the experiment’s result and simulation result is less than 2%.
Figure 9 shows comparisons of the simulation and experiment results. It can be found
Thus, the simulation model can accurately forecast the trend of the engine characteristic.
that the error between the experiment’s result and simulation result is less than 2%. Thus,
The BFSC and soot emission are the minimum and the effective power is the maximum
the simulation model can accurately forecast the trend of the engine characteristic.
in case 5. More specifically, compared with case 4, the NOx emission of case 5 is more than
The BFSC and soot emission are the minimum and the effective power is the maxi-
0.94%, but the soot emission of case 5 decreased by 5% and the BFSC of case 5 decreased by
mum in case 5. More specifically, compared with case 4, the NOx emission of case 5 is
0.42% in case 5. In addition, it can be found that the economy is worse in case 3. The NOx
more than
emission is the0.94%,
leastbut the soot
in case 4. Theemission of case
efficiency power5 decreased
and torque by 5%
are and the BFSC
relatively large, of and
case 5
thedecreased
BFSC and bysoot
0.42% in caseare
emission 5. Intheaddition,
least in caseit can 5. be found that
Compared thecase
with economy
3, the is worse in
effective
case 3. The NO x emission is the least in case 4. The efficiency power and torque are rela-
power and effective torque of case 5 increased by 1.02% and 1.023% respectively, the soot
tively large,
emission of case and the BFSC and
5 decreased by 7.4%,soot emission are the oxides
but the nitrogen least inofcasecase5.5Compared
only increased with bycase
3, the effective power and effective torque of case 5 increased
1.1%. Based on the overall consideration of various factors, case 5 is the most reasonable. by 1.02% and 1.023% respec-
tively, the
Therefore, it soot
is veryemission
important of case 5 decreased
to choose by 7.4%,
the injection butreasonably.
rate the nitrogen Theoxides of case
big inject 5 only
nozzle
is increased
not beneficial by 1.1%.
for fuelBased on the overall
atomization consideration
and more of various factors, case 5 is the most
soot is produced.
reasonable. Therefore, it is very important to choose the injection rate reasonably. The big
inject nozzle is not beneficial for fuel atomization and more soot is produced.
Processes 2021, 9, 104 15 of 18
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 18

230 225
Simulation Simulation
(a) (b)
225 Experiment Experiment
220

220

BSFC(g/(kW.h))
Power(kW)
215
215
210
210

205 205

200 200
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5
13 0.7
Simulation Simulation
12
(c) (d)
Experiment Experiment
0.6
11

Soot(g/(kW.h))
NOx(g/(kW.h))

10
0.5
9

8 0.4

6 0.3
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5

Figure 9. Comparison ofof the

thesimulation
simulationresults
resultswith
withconstant
constantfuel
fuelinjection
injection mass.
mass. (a)(a) Power;
Power; (b)(b)
BSCF;
BSCF; (c)(d)
(c) NOx; NOx; (d) Soot.
Soot.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
With the
With thedevelopment
developmentin in thethe
energy crisiscrisis
energy [43–48] and environmental
[43–48] problems
and environmental [10,49–
problems
57], the effective
[10,49–57], control
the effective of energy
control saving
of energy and and
saving the reduction of emissions
the reduction in engines
of emissions in engines is
a primary area of focus for scholars. In this work, an improved heat transfer
is a primary area of focus for scholars. In this work, an improved heat transfer model in a model in
a cylinderwas
cylinder wasdeveloped
developedininthe theAVL-BOOST
AVL-BOOST environment.
environment. The The corresponding
corresponding entirety
entirety
model was performed by an AVL-BOOST coupled a five–component skeletal
model was performed by an AVL-BOOST coupled a five–component skeletal chemical
chemical
mechanism consisting
mechanism consisting of
of 475
475 reactions
reactions and
and 134
134 species,
species, which
which was
was then
then validated
validated byby the
the
experiment under different load conditions. Finally, the propulsion and load characteristics
experiment under different load conditions. Finally, the propulsion and load characteris-
of a diesel engine fueled with biodiesel were simulated by the improved heat transfer
tics of a diesel engine fueled with biodiesel were simulated by the improved heat transfer
model. In addition, the effect of the fuel injection rate on the characteristics of a diesel
model. In addition, the effect of the fuel injection rate on the characteristics of a diesel
engine fueled with RME was investigated in term of power, BSFC, soot, and NOx emission.
engine fueled with RME was investigated in term of power, BSFC, soot, and NO x emis-
The main conclusions are as follows:
sion. The main conclusions are as follows:
(1) Compared with the Woschni 1978 model, the improved model was more accurate
(1) Compared withThe
in prediction. the maximum
Woschni 1978 model,between
difference the improved model wasand
the experiment more accurate
Woschni in
1978
model wasThe
prediction. reduced.
maximumIt is due to the fact
difference that the the
between advantages of the
experiment twoWoschni
and models were
1978
combined by the improved model;
model was reduced. It is due to the fact that the advantages of the two models were
(2) The effective torque, exhaust temperature, and the temperature behind the inter-
combined by the improved
cooler increased model; of engine power. In addition, the torque, power,
with the increase
and exhaust temperature increased with the increase of engine speed;
(2) The effective torque, exhaust temperature, and the temperature behind the intercooler
(3) The big injection advance angle was beneficial to improving the combustion. Never-
increased
theless, bywith the increasing
further increase oftheengine power.
injection In addition,
advance angle, thethe torque, effect
improving power, and
would
be dominated
exhaust by theincreased
temperature impact ofwithincreased negative
the increase of work;
engine speed;
(4) Compared with case 3, the effective power and effective torque of case 5 increased by
(3) The bigand
1.02% injection
1.023% advance angle soot
respectively, was emission
beneficialdecreased
to improving the combustion.
by 7.4%, but nitrogen Never-
oxides
only increased by 1.1% in case 5. Based on an overall consideration of
theless, by further increasing the injection advance angle, the improving effect would various factors,
case 5 is the most reasonable.
be dominated by the impact of increased negative work;
Processes 2021, 9, 104 16 of 18

Author Contributions: W.Y.: Conceptualization, methodology, resources, project administration,

writing—original draft preparation; Z.Z.: software, formal analysis, investigation, writing—review
and editing, supervision; B.L.: project administration, writing—review and editing. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work is supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Guangxi under the research
grant 2018GXNSFAA281267 and 2018GXNSFAA294072, the Guangxi Young and middle-aged college
Teachers Basic Research Ability Promotion Project under the research grant 2020KY39008.
Data Availability Statement: All data used to support the findings of this study are included within
the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests regarding the
publication of this paper.

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