EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURAL DESIGN

OF BUILDINGS

A. Borgohain,
Assam Engineering Institute,
Guwahati – 3

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN

(1) Simple, regular plans are preferable. Buildings with plans such as ‘H’, ‘T’ and ‘L’
shapes should be avoided or be subdivided into simple rectangular forms.

(2) Symmetry in plan should be provided where possible. The lack of symmetry may lead
to significant torsional response, the reliable prediction of which is often difficult.
Much damage due to earthquakes has been observed in buildings situated at street
corners, where structural symmetry is more difficult to achieve, than in those along
streets, where a simpler rectangular and symmetrical structural plan could be
constructed.
(3) An integrated foundation system should tie together all vertical structural elements in
both principal directions. Foundations resting partly on rock and partly on soil should
preferably be avoided.

(4) Lateral-force-resisting systems within one building, with significantly different

stiffness such as structural walls and frames, should be arranged in such a way that
there is symmetry in lateral stiffness at every level. Thereby we can minimize
undesirable torsional effects.

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EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURAL DESIGN
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 (5) Regularity should prevail in elevation in both the geometry and the variation of storey
stiffness.
(6) Additional reinforcement should be provided for and proper detailing should be
followed.
(7) Transverse walls should be arranged symmetrically and reliably joined to the
longitudinal walls.
(8) Exterior walls are not allowed to have larger openings, especially near the corners.
(9) If possible, foundations are to be installed at the same depth (end bearing piles are a
good choice).
(10) Reinforced concrete beams/bands are to be placed around the periphery of buildings
for better stiffness.

SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF R.C.C. STRUCTURES

(1) Moment Resistant Frame
An R.C.C. structure can resist wind and earthquake forces, which are lateral loads,
due to the moment resistant frame or a shear wall system. This is in addition to the vertical
loads, which are the dead loads due to the structural members and the live loads. In this
context, the following definitions are relevant:
 Space Frame: It is a three-dimensional structural system composed of
interconnected members, without shear or bearing walls, so as to function as a
complete unit with or without the aid of horizontal diaphragms or floor bracing
systems.
 Vertical Load Carrying Frame: It is a space frame designed to carry all the vertical
loads, the horizontal loads being resisted by shear walls.
 Moment Resistant Frame: It is a frame designed to carry all vertical and horizontal
loads, by developing bending moments in the members and at the joints.
 Moment Resistant Frame with Shear Walls: It is a space frame with moment
resistant joints and strengthened by shear walls to assist in carrying horizontal loads.

(2) Role of the floor diaphragm

 A prime requirement for the desirable interaction within a building of all lateral-force-
resisting vertical components of the structural system is an effective and relatively
rigid interaction of these components at suitable levels. This is achieved with floor
systems, which generally provide large in-plane stiffness, and act as a diaphragm.
Vertical elements contribute to the total lateral force resistance, in proportion to their
own stiffness. Therefore, a close to linear relationship between the horizontal
displacements of the various lateral-force-resisting vertical structural elements will
exist at every level. From rigid body translations and rotations, the relative
displacements can readily be derived.

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EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURAL DESIGN
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  The second function of a floor system, acting as a diaphragm, is to transmit inertia
forces generated by earthquake accelerations of the floor mass at a given level to all
horizontal-force-resisting elements.
 Diaphragms should be designed to respond elastically, as they are not suitable to
dissipate energy through the formation of plastic regions.

(3) Reduction of torsional effects

 To avoid excessive displacements in lateral-force-resisting components that are
located in adverse positions within the building plan, torsional effects should be
minimized.
 Structures having regularity in the horizontal and vertical plane are not much affected
by torsion. For irregular buildings, the emphasis should be to reduce the distance
between the centre of mass (CM) and the centre of rigidity (CR).
 The centre of mass (CM) is the point where the mass of an entire storey is assumed to
be concentrated. This is important because during an earthquake, it is this point
through which the acceleration-induced inertia forces will act. Buildings having
vertical irregularity will have different CMs at every level.
 The centre of rigidity (CR) is the point in a storey which is the resultant of the various
resisting elements in the storey when it is subjected to lateral loads due to an
earthquake.

(4) Vertical configurations

 It is desirable to have buildings with no abrupt changes in the vertical plane. A few
buildings with different vertical configurations are given below:

(5) Infill walls

 Though brick masonry infill walls are not considered as structural members, they
become very much part of the resisting system during an earthquake and contribute to
the stiffness of the structure. But at same time, the increased rigidity of the structure
as a whole may result in the shifting of the CR, resulting in more torsion. Besides,
stiffer structures also lead to lower natural periods and ultimately lead to increased
seismic forces.
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EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURAL DESIGN
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  The main problem with infill walls arise when the frames are partially filled up to a
certain height of the storey. This will cause the central and one side of the column to
stiffen, thus causing increasing stresses at the top of the column and top of infill. This
may cause the shear failure of the column if the column is not designed for higher
shear force.

STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES
(1) Stiffness
 This property relates loads or forces to the structural deformations.
Load
 Stiffness= k  Deformation
 However, in RCC and masonry structures, the relationship is not quite as simple. If
serviceability criteria are to be satisfied with a reasonable degree of confidence, the
extent of cracking in members and the contribution of concrete or masonry in tension
must be considered along with the section & element geometry and material
properties.

(2) Strength
 If a concrete or masonry structure is to be protected against damage during an
earthquake, inelastic deformation during its dynamic responses should be prevented.
This means that the structure must have adequate strength to resist internal actions
generated during the elastic dynamic response of a structure.
 Therefore, the appropriate technique for the evaluation of earthquake-induced actions
is elastic analysis, based on stiffness properties.
 These seismic actions, combined with those due to other loads on the structure (e.g.,
gravity), will lead to proportioning of structural members. Therefore, the designer can
provide desired strengths, in terms of resistance, to lateral strength.

(3) Ductility
 To minimize major damage and to ensure the survival of buildings with moderate
resistance with respect to lateral forces, structures must be capable of sustaining a
high proportion of their initial strength when a major earthquake imposes large
deformations. These deformations may act beyond the elastic limit.
 This ability of the structure or its components, and of the materials used to offer
resistance in the elastic domain of resistance, is called Ductility. It includes :
(a) the ability to contain large deformations, and
(b) a capacity to absorb large energy by hysteric behavior.
 For this reason it is the single most important property sought by the designer in
regions of high seismicity.
 But concrete and masonry are both brittle materials. Therefore the primary aim of the
detailing of composite structures consisting of concrete or masonry and steel is to
combine these materials in such a way as to produce ductile members, which are
capable of meeting the inelastic deformation demands imposed by severe earthquakes.

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EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURAL DESIGN
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APPLYING IS CODES ON EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING TO R.C.C. DESIGN
The earthquake resistant design criteria adopted by the codes are:
 Structures should be able to resist minor earthquakes without damage.
 Structures should be able to resist moderate earthquakes without structural damage,
but with some non-structural damage.
 Structures should be able to resist major earthquakes without collapse, but with some
structural and non-structural damage.
Purpose of Codes
Every country has felt the necessity of having guidelines for the design and
construction of man-made structures and buildings. National building codes have therefore
evolved out of this necessity. The codes present the collective wisdom and experience of
experts in every field, gained over the years. These codes are periodically revised to make
them relevant and also to incorporate the knowledge gained through research.
The basic functions of codes are:
 To ensure adequate structural safety by specifying certain essential minimum
requirements for design.
 To render the task of the designer relatively simple- sophisticated analysis is
converted to a simple formula or chart.
 To ensure a measure of consistency among different designers.
 To provide legal validity in protecting the structural designer from any liability due to
structural failures caused by inadequate supervision, faulty material and construction.

Indian Standard (I.S.) Codes

In India, the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has so far formulated over 17,000
standards which find utility in different fields. Standards are essential for safe design and
construction of buildings and play an important role at all stages of the construction of a
building. Basic sound structures are not possible without standards. The various standards
available to the building professional and also to the common people may be classified under
the following heads:

Indian Standards for Building and Construction

1. NATIONAL BUILDING CODE/ NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODE
2. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
3. FUNCTINAL REQUIREMENTS IN BUILDINGS
4. PLANNING, BYE-LAWS & DIMENSIONAL CO-ORDINATION
5. FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
6. HOUSING
7. CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
8. CEMENT AND CONCRETE
9. CEMENT MATRIX PRODUCTS
10. CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT
11. DOORS, WINDOWS AND SHUTTERS
12. FLOORING, WALL FINISHING AND ROOFING
13. SANITARY APPLIANCES AND WATER FITTINGS
14. WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION
15. WATER-PROOFING AND DAMP-PROOFING
16. PRE-FABRICATION
17. METHODS OF MEASUREMENT OF WORKS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
18. CONSTRUCTION PLANT AND MACHINERY
19. WROUGHT STEEL PRODUCTS, ALLOY STEELS AND LIGHT METALS
20. ELECTRICAL ACCESSORIES

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EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURAL DESIGN
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 21. THERMAL INSULATION MATERIALS
22. ARCHITECHTURAL PAINTS
23. SAFETY IN CONSTRUCTION
24. STRUCTURAL SAFETY
25. SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS/HANDBOOKS
26. EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

Basic Code for Reinforced Concrete Design

IS 456 :1978 (3rd Revision) & IS 456 :2000 (4th Revision) Code of Practice for
Plain and Reinforced Concrete

Handbooks for Reinforced Concrete Design

SP 16 : 1980 Design Aids for Reinforced Concrete to IS 456 :1978
SP 23 : 1982 Handbook on Concrete Mixes
SP 24 : 1983 Explanatory Handbook on Indian Standard Code of Practice
for Plain and Reinforced Concrete
SP 34 : 1980 Handbook on concrete Reinforcement and Detailing

Loading Standards
IS 875 (Parts 1-5 ) : 1987 Code of Practice for Design Loads (Other Than
Earthquake) for Buildings and Structures
(Part 1) : 1987 Dead loads- Unit weights of building material and
stored materials
(Part 2) : 1987 Imposed Loads
(Part 3) : 1987 Wind Loads
(Part 4) : 1987 Snow Loads
(Part 5) : 1987 Special Loads and Load combinations

Earthquake Engineering Codes & Handbooks

IS 4326 : 1993 Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction of Buildings
nd
(2 Revision) - Code of Practice (1st Revision : 1976)
IS 1893 : 1984 Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures
th
(4 Revision)
IS 1893 : 2002 Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures
th
(5 Revision) (Part I: General Provisions and Buildings)
SP 22 : 1983 Explanatory Handbook on Codes for Earthquake
Engineering (IS 1893 : 1975 -3rd Revision and
IS 4326 : 1976 -1st Revision )
IS 13920 : 1993 Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete structures subject
to seismic forces- Code of Practice
IS 13828 : 1993 Improving Earthquake Resistance of Low Strength
Masonry Buildings - Guidelines
IS 13827 : 1993 Improving Earthquake Resistance of Earthen Buildings –
- Guidelines
IS 13935 : 1993 Repair and Seismic Strengthening of Buildings- Guidelines

Handbook on Repair and Rehabilitation of Buildings

SP 25 : 1984 Handbook on Causes and Prevention of Cracks in Buildings

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DEFICIENCIES IN BUILDINGS IN GUJARAT:
 Majority of structures not designed for any lateral forces
 Missing RCC shear walls in multi storey buildings
 The structures were lacking in sufficient number of columns
 Use of floating columns leading to sudden discontinuity in stiffness

 Use of small width (150 mm) columns

 The open parking floor acting as soft storey

 Poor connection (inadequate rigid floor diaphragm action) of staircase and RCC lift
wall to the rest of the building

 Structural planning and design not as per good engineering practice such as:
o Use of long cantilever
o Beams cantilevering out from cantilever beams
o Walls resting directly on slab without any beams
o Slabs having ly/lx ratio<1.5 are also designed as one way slab

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EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURAL DESIGN
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 Staircase/inclined slabs designed to rest on floor and mid-landing slab without any
beams
 Columns designed for axial load only without any moments
 Ductile detailing missing
 Columns in partially infilled frames suffer damage due to short column effect

 No soil investigation carried out for assessing the strata and bearing capacity

 Structure having small and insufficient frames

 Irregular/complex shapes of buildings
 Re-entrant corners unattended
 Use of inferior quality material and bad construction quality
 As per Non Destructive Testing (NDT) reports, strength of concrete of earthquake
affected structures found to be substantially low.

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