Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ottoman Hungarian Wars
Ottoman Hungarian Wars
Wars
1366-1566
Battle of Nándorfehérvár (now Belgrade, Serbia), Anachronistic Hungarian painting from the 19th century. In the
middle Giovanni da Capistrano with the cross in his hand.
Belligerents
Ottoman–Hungarian Wars
Campaign of Louis I (1) – Treviso – Campaign of Louis I (2) – Nicopolis – Doboj – Radkersburg – Golubac – Lower Danube War
– Smederevo – Szeben – Iron Gate – Niš – Zlatitsa - Várna – Kosovo – Nándorfehérvár (1456) – Jajce – Vaslui – Breadfield –
Krbava field – Otranto – Mohács (1526) – Campaign of 1527–28 – Little War (1530-52) – Kőszeg – Buda(1541) – Campaign of
1543 – Eger (1552) – Szigetvár – Eger (1596) – Keresztes – Saint Gotthard – Vienna (1683) – Buda (1686) – Mohács (1687) –
Slankamen – Zenta – Petrovaradin
see also:
Ottoman–Habsburg wars
The Ottoman-Hungarian War refers to a series of battles between the Ottoman Empire and the medieval Kingdom of Hungary.
Following the Byzantine civil war, the Ottoman capture of Gallipoli and the decisive Battle of Kosovo, the Ottoman Empire
seemed poised to conquer the whole of the Balkans. However, the Ottoman invasion of Serbia drove Hungary to war against the
Ottomans, with the former having interests in the Balkans and competing for the vassalship of the Balkan states of Serbia,
Bulgaria, Wallachia, and Moldavia. Initial Hungarian success culminated in the Crusade of Varna, though without significant
outside support the Hungarians were defeated. Nonetheless the Ottomans suffered more defeats at Belgrade, even after the
conquest of Constantinople. In particular was the infamous Vlad the Impaler who with limited Hungarian help resisted Ottoman
rule until the Ottomans were able to place his brother, a man less feared and less hated by the populace on the throne of Wallachia.
Ottoman success was once again halted at Moldavia due to Hungarian intervention but the Turks emerged triumphant at last when
Moldavia and then Belgrade fell to Bayezid II and Suleiman the Magnificent respectively. In 1526 the Ottomans crushed the
Hungarian army at Mohács with King Louis II of Hungary perishing along with 14,000 of his foot soldiers. Following this defeat,
the eastern region of the Kingdom of Hungary (mainly Transylvania) ceased as an independent power and served as an Ottoman
tributary state, constantly engaged in civil war with Royal Hungary. The war continued with the Habsburgs now asserting primacy
in the conflict with the Suleiman and his successors. The northern and western parts of Hungary managed to remain free from
Ottoman rule, but the Kingdom of Hungary, the most powerful state east of Vienna under Matthias I, was now divided and at
constant war with the Turks.
Background In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the
Balkans. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, and the Turkish victory at the Battle of
Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into the rest of
Europe. The Battle of Nicopolis is thought to be the first significant encounter between Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, where a
broad alliance of Christian monarchs and the Knights Hospitaller were defeated by a numerically superior Turkish army (the
Ottomans had also enlisted the support of their new vassal, the Serbian Despotate).
Balkan and Turkish wars of Louis the Great Louis I of Hungary (King: 1342-1382) In 1344 Wallachia and Moldavia became
Louis's vassal.[4] Louis with his ernomous 80.000 strong army repelled the Serbian Dušan's armies in vojvodine of Mačva and
principality of Travunia in 1349. when Czar Dusan broke into Bosnian territory he was defeated by Bosnian Stjepan II with the
assistance of King Louis' troops, and when Dušan made a second attempt he was decisively beaten by his luckier rival, King Louis
the Great himself, in 1354.[5] The two monarchs signed the peace agreement in 1355. His latter campaigns in the Balkans were
aimed not so much at conquest and subjugation as at drawing the Serbs, Bosnians, Wallachians and Bulgarians into the fold of the
Roman Catholic faith and at forming a united front against the looming Turkish menace. In 1366 John V Byzantine Emperor
visited Hungary to beg for help against Turks. It was relatively easy to subdue Balkanian Orthodox countries by arms, but to
convert them was a different matter. Despite Lajos' efforts, the peoples of the Balkans remained faithful to the Eastern Orthodox
Church and their attitude toward Hungary remained ambiguous. Louis annexed Moldavia in 1352 and established a vassal
principality there, before conquering Vidin in 1365. The rulers of Serbia, Walachia, Moldavia, and Bulgaria became his vassals.
They regarded powerful Hungary as a potential menace to their national identity. For this reason, Hungary could never regard the
Serbs and Wallachians as reliable allies in her subsequent wars against the Turks. The Ottoman Turks confronted the Balkan
vassal states ever more often. Louis defeated the Turks when Hungarian and Turkish troops clashed for the first time in history at
Nicapoli in 1366. The Hungarian Chapel in the Cathedral at Aachen was built to commemorate this victory. He defeated the
Turkish army in Wallachia in 1374. In the spring of 1365, Louis I headed a campaign against the Bulgarian Tsardom of Vidin and
its ruler Ivan Sratsimir. He seized the city of Vidin on 2 May 1365; the region was under Hungarian rule until 1369.[6]
Timur and the Ottoman Interregnum Despite these successes the Ottomans would have to start all over from near-scratch when
in 1402 Timur of the Chagatai Khanate captured the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid the Thunderbolt at Ankara, so named for the speed
of his crushing victories against his Christian opponents, most notably at Nicopolis.
Campaigns of Murad II, 1421 - 1451
The Ottoman Empire seemed to have collapsed after 1402 but Murad II, the successor to Mehmed I proved to be a man of far
greater ghazi skills then his peaceful predecessor whose appreciation of Byzantine assistance even made him go so far as to accept
the Byzantine Emperor as his suzerain. Such an arrangement was out of all proportion to the powers of the two Empires, and in
1422 Murad II demonstrated how much of a "suzerain" the Emperor was to the Sultan when Constantinople narrowly escaped an
Ottoman conquest With Byzantium neutralized and terrified in servitude as a vassal, Murad II began his holy war against his
Christian opponents, attacking Macedonia and capturing Thessalonika from the Venetians in 1430. Between 1435 and 1436 the
Ottomans made a show of strength in Albania but the country survived total knock out when the Kingdom of Hungary, whose
borders now neared those of the Ottoman realm intervened.
Campaigns of John Hunyadi
He received tempting offers from Pope Eugene IV, represented by the Legate Julian Cesarini, from Đurađ Branković, despot of
Serbia, and George Kastrioti, prince of Albania, to resume the war and realize his ideal of driving the Ottomans from Europe. All
the preparations had been made when Murad's envoys arrived in the royal camp at Szeged and offered a ten years' truce on
advantageous terms. Branković bribed Hunyadi -he gave him his vast estates in Hungary- to support the acceptance of the peace.
Cardinal Julian Cesarini found a traitorous solution. The king swore that he would never give up the crusade, so all future peace
and oath was automatically invalid. After this Hungary accepted the Sultan's offer and Hunyadi in Władysław's name swore on the
Gospels to observe them.
Battle of Varna Murad II was unable to stop Hunyadi from calling in reinforcements from Western Europe. Few knights came,
but those that did assisted in capturing Nis on November 3 1443, defeating another Turkish army as they crossed the Balkan
Mountains and then taking another victory on Christmas Day. Christmas or not, supplies for the Crusader army were low and
Hunyadi concluded a 10-year peace treaty with Murad II, presumably on his terms for it was triumphant Hungarian that entered
Buda in February of 1444. 10 years was the maximum time permitted by Islamic law for a treaty with an "infidel". Unfortunately
for the Hungarians, no such time limit existed in the minds of the Papal legate, for if it did it would have been a very small one -
Cardinal Cesarini incited the Hungarians to break the treaty and attack the Turks once more. It was a foolish move, for much of
the Crusader armies' strength had been reduced due to the loss (by defection) of Serbia, Albania and the Byzantine Empire.
Fanciful ideas had been discussed of Greeks making diversionary attacks in the Peloponnese. Even the recapture of Jerusalem was
entertained.
The Crusader army attacked across the Danube. Sultan Murad II, upon hearing of the Christian breach of the treaty is said to have
mounted the broken treaty on his standard and said the words, "Christ, if you are God as your followers claim, punish them for
their perfidy". Accounts vary as to how many troops were present but the Crusaders may have been 30,000 whilst the Ottomans
between two to three times larger. Nonetheless Hunyadi's successful defense wagons held the line until King Ladislas led a foolish
glory-motivated charge to his death against the Turkish lines. His head was mounted on a spear and all the defeated Christians
could see it, most likely before their death, for very few survived the battle. It was somewhat consoling for to the Hungarians that
John Hunyadi lived to fight and win another day.
After Varna The Hungarians recovered their strength after Varna and John Hunyadi was able lead another expedition down the
Danube. Turkish counter-attacks saw this "crusade" driven back. After Murad dealt with the Greeks at the Peloponesse and other
traitors who fought him at Varna, he turned his attention to Albania, whose leader was once one of many Ottoman hostages was
now a popular resistance leader. Hunyadi could not refuse an offer to fight the Turks and in 1448 an army of some 24,000
Hungarians marched south into Serbia. At the Second Battle of Kosovo Murad scored another victory against the Hungarians.
This time, Hunyadi had had enough and was unable to campaign against the Ottoman Sultan. Murad II passed on his powers to his
successor, Mehmed II. Thanks to such victories, the Ottoman forces were able to capture Constantinople in 1453 with only the
Italians able to offer minimal yet much-needed support.Battle of Belgrade (1456) Meanwhile, the Ottoman issue had again
become acute, and, after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, it seemed natural that Sultan Mehmed II was rallying his resources in
order to subjugate Hungary. His immediate objective was Nándorfehérvár (today Belgrade). Nándorfehérvár was a major castle-
fortress, and a gate keeper of south Hungary. The fall of this stronghold would have opened a clear way to the heart of Central-
Europe. Hunyadi arrived at the siege of Belgrade at the end of 1455, after settling differences with his domestic enemies. At his
own expense, he restocked the supplies and arms of the fortress, leaving in it a strong garrison under the command of his brother-
in-law Mihály Szilágyi and his own eldest son László Hunyadi. He proceeded to form a relief army, and assembled a fleet of two
hundred ships. His main ally was the Franciscan friar, Giovanni da Capistrano, whose fiery oratory drew a large crusade made up
mostly of peasants. Although relatively ill-armed (most were armed with farm equipment, such as scythes and pitchforks) they
flocked to Hunyadi and his small corps of seasoned mercenaries and cavalry. On July 14, 1456 the flotilla assembled by Hunyadi
destroyed the Ottoman fleet. On July 21, Szilágyi's forces in the fortress repulsed a fierce assault by the Rumelian army, and
Hunyadi pursued the retreating forces into their camp, taking advantage of the Turkish army's confused flight from the city. After
fierce but brief fighting, the camp was captured, and Mehmet raised the siege and returned to Constantinople. With his flight
began a 70 year period of relative peace on Hungary's southeastern border. However, plague broke out in Hunyadi's camp three
weeks after the lifting of the siege, and he died August 11. He was buried inside the (Roman Catholic) Cathedral of Alba Iulia
(Gyulafehérvár), next to his younger brother John. Sultan Mehmet II paid him tribute:"Although he was my enemy I feel grief
over his death, because the world has never seen such a man."
The Noon Bell Pope Callixtus III ordered the bells of every European church to be rung every day at noon, as a call for believers
to pray for the defenders of Belgrade. However, in many countries (like England and Spanish kingdoms), news of the victory
arrived before the order, and the ringing of the church bells at noon thus transformed into a commemoration of the victory. The
Popes didn't withdraw the order, and Catholic (and the older Protestant) churches still ring the noon bell in the Christian world to
this day.
Mehmed II (1451 - 1481) and fall of Constantinople Mehmed conquered Constantinople in 1453. (Main article: Fall of
Constantinople April 2, 1453 – May 29, 1453 ) With Constantinople under his belt and a great euphoria from the conquest,
Mehmet II began making preparations for his next campaign against Belgrade. The city was a triple-walled fortress but was poorly
manned. Nonetheless when Mehmed II tried to take the city, not only was he repulsed but a furious and suicidal counter-attack
launched by the inexperienced and fanatical civilians drove the Turks from the field. Even so the Ottomans were able to campaign
with greater success elsewhere. The Duchy of Athens, Trebizond and Albania was brought beneath the Sultan's boot in 1456,
1461 and 1468. Of equally great importance was the death of John Hunyadi to the Plague, depriving the Hungarians one of their
most heroic generals.
Turkish wars of Matthias Corvinus (1458-1490) Military actions of Matthias Corvinus and the Black Army[7] [8]
Matthias Corvinus was John Hunyadi's son. The 15 years old boy was crowned in Buda in 1458. In 1471 Matthias renewed the
Serbian Despotate in south Hungary under Vuk Grgurević for the protection of the borders against the Ottomans. In 1479 a huge
Ottoman army, on its return home from ravaging Transylvania, was annihilated at Szászváros (modern Orăştie, 13 October 1479)
in the so-called Battle of Breadfield. The following year Matthias recaptured Jajce, drove the Ottomans from northern Serbia and
instituted two new military banats, Jajce and Srebernik, out from reconquered Bosnian territory. In 1480, when a Ottoman fleet
seized Otranto in the Kingdom of Naples, at the earnest solicitation of the pope he sent the Hungarian general, Balázs Magyar, to
recover the fortress, which surrendered to him on 10 May 1481. Again in 1488, Matthias took Ancona under his protection for a
while, occupying it with a Hungarian garrison.
Wallachian and Moldavian wars Vlad the Impaler & war with Wallachia, 1456 - 1475 Mehmed II's post-Constantinople
troubles escalated further when the Balkan principality of Wallachia under Count Vlad Dracul rebelled against the Ottoman
Empire and declared the King of Hungary as his suzerain. The main drive for these actions was Vlad's return to his homeland after
being in exile, as a hostage of the Ottoman sultan. Five years after his return from exile, Vlad initiated war with the Turks when in
1461 he impaled the Turkish ambassadors demanding tribute from him and took the fortress of Giurgiu. Vlad then began leading a
bloody assault across the Danube to the Black sea, destroying as much of the ports as he could lay his hands on to prevent
Ottoman naval attacks. Ottoman attempts to subdue Vlad militarily proved a failure but his cruelty, which had given him the edge
of striking terror into the hearts of his enemies proved to be his undoing. When Mehmed offered the populace the choice of Radu,
Vlad's brother or the Impaler himself, the populace knew who to choose and soon Vlad was once again an exile on the run. An
attempt to return a few years afterwards ended in his death in battle.
Stephen the Great & war against Moldavia, 1475 - 1476 Mehmed's army seems to have spent itself in Wallachia for the
campaign against the Moldavians was shorter and yielded poorer results still. In 1475 Mehmed ordered an invasion of Moldavia.
Again, the Ottomans often took possession of the field but Moldavian hit & run tactics proved effective against the Turks. Poor
roads slowed the Ottomans further still until Stephen was able to concentrate his forces at Vaslui. An Ottoman offensive was held
in check and then finally driven from the field on 10 January 1475.
The Ottomans returned in 1476, this time assisted by their allies from Crimea, the Tartars and their newly-conquered Vassal of
Wallachia. Stephen knew that he did not have the resources to defend his people and evacuated them to the mountains. After a
failed attack on the Ottoman vanguard Stephen seemed on the brink of defeat when King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary offered
assistance against the Sultan. The Ottomans withdrew when the Hungarians began moving in and fighting did not resume until
1484.
Bayezid II, 1481 - 1512
Bayezid's early reign was cursed with a small civil war against his brother Jem, who escaped to the west. There European leaders
entertained ideas of installing a pro-Western Sultan whilst Crusading their way to the Balkans. Consequently Bayezid II did not
incite any serious wars with his Christian opponents until his brother's death in 1495. In the meantime Bayezid signed a ten-year
peace with Hungary in 1484 although this did not prevent a defeat of an Ottoman army at Villach in 1493. Between 1484 and
1486 Bayezid campaigned annually against Moldavia in an attempt to subdue it and link up with Crimea, his Muslim vassal and
ally. Despite two defeats in 1485 and 1486 Moldavia was subjugated. As Bayezid's reign drew to a close he was entangled in a
civil war between his sons Ahmed and Selim. Eventually Selim took the throne in 1512 and for the next 8 years continued minor
conquests in the west - although his main achievement was the conquest of the Mamluke Sultanate. It would be Selim's successor,
Suleiman who would continue the war against Hungary.
Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520 - 1566
Suleiman resumed the war against Hungary by attacking the city of Belgrade, the same settlement that had defied Mehmed II over
half a century ago. Despite reminiscent heroic resistance, the city fell to Suleiman. In 1522 Suleiman took his army to a
strategically successful siege of Rhodes, allowing the Knights Hospital to evacuate for the fort.
Mohács: the Fall of the Kingdom Main article: Battle of Mohács When Suleiman launched an invasion in 1526 the Grand vizier
was able to construct a great bridge ahead of the Sultan allowing his army to march into Hungary. Despite 80 days of marching
and taking 5 days to cross the Danube River the Ottomans met no resistance against the Hungarians. The original plan set out by
King Louis II was to send a vanguard to hold the Danube where the Ottomans were expected to cross, yet the nobles of the
Kingdom refused to follow the King's deputy in battle, claiming that they did so out of zealous allegiance to the King (and would
therefore only follow him). Consequently when King Louis II took the field his army of 26,000 men seemed to be doomed to fail
against the Ottomans' 100,000[9]. At Mohacs the plains of Hungary allowed the Heavier Christian Knights to launch an effective
charge. As the Hungarian knights brushed aside first the Akinjis and then the Sipahis, the Ottoman cavalry regrouped and flanked
the knights. However, the Sultan placed his Janissaries and cannon chained up as an effective last line of defense. The Hungarian
cavalry took serious casualties from the skilfully handled Turkish artillery. With the Cavalry annihilated, the Infantry suffered
immense casualties as the weight of numbers of the Ottomans and their skill in battle took their toll. When Suleiman the
Magnificent found the body of the dead Louis II he is said to have been disappointed at cutting down the youth, who had no heirs.
Aftermath of Mohács John Zápolya, who had been instructed by Louis II to raid the enemy's supply lines arrived at the battle too
late and fled the scene. Suleiman however was not ready to annex the Kingdom completely into the Ottoman realm and so John
Zapolyai was installed as the vassal King of Hungary. Meanwhile at the diet of Bratislava Archduke Ferdinand of Austria was
declared King of Hungary. The surviving nobles of Hungary now had to choose between a native vassal of Suleiman and a
Christian "foreigner" to pledge allegiance to. Suleiman's victory at Mohacs is considered a great and decisive battle for the
Ottomans. However, even though the Kingdom of Hungary was knocked out of the war Austria now took on the Ottoman enemy.
This is not to say that Austria alone could bear the full might of the Ottoman Empire, nor was Ottoman rule in most of Hungary
seriously contested beyond the city of Buda.
After John Szapolya's death (1540) Hungary was split into three parts. The north-west (present-day Slovakia, western
Transdanubia and Burgenland, western Croatia and parts of north-eastern present-day Hungary) remained under Habsburg rule;
although initially independent, later it became a part of the Habsburg Monarchy under the informal name Royal Hungary. The
Habsburg Emperors would from then on be also crowned as Kings of Hungary. The eastern part of the kingdom (Partium and
Transylvania) became at first an independent principality, but gradually was brought under Turkish rule as a vassal state of the
Ottoman Empire. The remaining central area (most of present-day Hungary), including the capital of Buda, became a province of
the Ottoman Empire. Nonetheless Mohacs simply enlarged the borders of the Ottoman realm thereby increasing exposure to
attack, bringing the empire into later conflict with Poland, Russia, the Cossacks and the Habsburgs.
Footnotes
1. ^ The Kingdom ceased to exist as a de facto sovereign country after Mohacs but the Habsburg rulers remained
the legitimate sovereign Kings of Hungary after the Diet of Bratislava
2. ^ Grant, R.G. (2005). Battle a Visual Journey Through 5000 Years of Combat. London: Dorling Kindersley. pp.
122.The Hungarians, with Vlad the Impaler had some 30,000 men whilst at Mohacs there was roughly 20,000 men
3. ^ The Royal army for Mohacs had an initial strength of 60,000 before disease and desertion decimated it
4. ^ http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/HUNGARY.htm#LajosIdied1382B
5. ^ http://www.archive.org/stream/austriahungarywa00ludwrich/austriahungarywa00ludwrich_djvu.txt
6. ^ Божилов, Иван (1994). "Иван Срацимир, цар във Видин (1352–1353 — 1396)" (in Bulgarian).
Фамилията на Асеневци (1186–1460). Генеалогия и просопография. София: Българска академия на науките. pp.
202–203. ISBN 9544302646. OCLC 38087158.
7. ^ Kartográfiai Vállalat (1991). "[Historical Worldmaps]". Történelmi világatlasz (Map). 1 : 10.000.000, . p.
112, section V. ISBN 963-351-696-X-CM.
8. ^ Fenyvesi, László (1990) (in Hungarian). Mátyás Király fekete serege [The Black Army of King Matthias].
Hadtörténelem fiataknak. Budapest, Hungary: Zrínyi Katonai Kiadó. ISBN 9633260170.
9. ^ Sources such as this Stephen, Turnbull (2003). The Ottoman Empire 1326 - 1699. New York: Osprey. pp.
46.support this number, other suggest a smaller number of 60,000
Hungary around 1550.
Louis I of Hungary 1342-1382
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Reign 21 July 1342 – 10 September 1382 (40 years, 51 days)
Predecessor Charles I SuccessorMary
King of Poland
Reign 17 November 1370 – 10 September 1382(11 years, 297 days)
Predecessor Casimir III SuccessorJadwiga
Hungarian coat of arms with Angevin helmet and Polish Coat of Arms (1340s)
The first big seal of Louis The second big seal of Louis Hungarian-Polish big seal (1370-1382) Privilege of Kassa
Hungarian clothes between 1370-1410 period Golden Forint, which depict King Saint Ladislaus, who was Louis' idol.
Fonthill vase is the earliest Chinese porcelain object to have reached Europe. It was a Chinese gift for Louis the great. Louis in
Zadar. Contemporary embossment. The family coat-of-arms. The golden horseshoe in the beak of the ostrich means the "talisman
of good luck"
Lands ruled by Louis in 1370s
The middle-aged King Coat of arms (clockwise from upper left): paternal (Hungary – the Arpad stripes – and Anjou-Sicily),
Poland, Dalmatia, and Hungary (the double cross).
Battle of Nicopolis (1396)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Battle of Nicopolis
(Note the counterfactual depiction of siege weapons)
Depiction of the French charge. Note the nearly innumerable combatants. Titus Fay saves King Sigismund of Hungary in the
Battle of Nicopolis. Painting in the Castle of Vaja, creation of Ferenc Lohr, 1896.
Map of Europe with the Danube marked 1540 depiction of the battle
The crusaders took eight days to cross the Danube at the Iron Gate
Battle Map
The execution of the prisoners in retaliation for the Rahovo massacre of Ottoman prisoners-
John Hunyadi (1444-1456)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Signature
John Hunyadi (Hungarian: Hunyadi János [ˈhuɲɒdi ˈjaːnoʃ], Medieval Latin: Ioannes Corvinus or Ioannes de Hunyad,
Romanian: Iancu (Ioan) de Hunedoara, Croatian: Janko Hunjadi, Serbian: Сибињанин Јанко / Sibinjanin Janko, Slovak: Ján
Huňady) (c. 1407[3] – 11 August 1456), nicknamed The White Knight[4] was a general (1444–1446) and Regent-Governor (1446–
1453) of the Kingdom of Hungary.[5][6] Hunyadi is widely celebrated as a successful and powerful generalissimo. He promoted a
revision of dated military doctrine and was an outstanding and iconic military opponent of the Ottoman Empire. Hunyadi was, in a
sweeping scope of European military history, the pre-eminent strategist and tactician of the 15th century in Christendom.[5] He
was also a Voivode of Transylvania (1440–1456),[7] and father of the Hungarian king, Matthias Corvinus. Hunyadi's military
genius, prowess and wherewithal to prosecute preventive and aggressive crusading warfare policies welded together many
Christian nationalities against the onslaught of the vastly numerically superior Ottoman Muslim forces. Hunyadi's leadership
achieved a state of integrity, stalemate and détente for the Hungarian Kingdom and the many European states that lay to its
periphery. Hunyadi's aim to re-organize the military forces of Hungary from strictly a feudal-based aristocratic levy into an
efficient and professional standing army would bring reform to European military components in a 'post-Roman' European war-
making society. These reforms were further developed by his successor and son King Matthias Corvinus who took them to their
ultimate culmination with the Black Army of Hungary. Hunyadi is often considered the bellwether of the European "post-Roman"
professional "Standing Army". He is renowned as one of the greatest Medieval field commanders of all time: His victory over
Mehmed II at the Siege of Nándorfehérvár (now Belgrade) in 1456 against overpowering odds is regarded as a seminal piece of
European military history. He was awarded the title Athleta Christi (Champion of Christ) by Pope Pius II.[8]
Family Main article: Hunyadi family The Hunyadi family were Hungarian noble family in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary, of
Wallachian[9] (Romanian)[10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18] origin according to the majority of sources. Hunyadi was named Valachus or
Balachus ("the Wallachian") in some contemporary texts.[19] There are also authors suggesting a possible Slavic origin,[20][21] with
other sources suggesting a possible Tatar-Cuman[22][23][24][25][26] descendance. However, according to Hugh Seton-Watson, "both
Hunyadi and his son considered themselves Hungarians".[27] According to other options, John Hunyadi came from a modest
Romanian noble family from Hațeg.[28] Others simply refer to the obscurity surrounding the year of birth and parentage.[29][30] The
Hunyadis were first recorded in a royal charter of 1409 in which Sigismund of Luxembourg, then King of Hungary, granted Vojk
the Hunyad Castle (in contemporary Hungarian: Hunyadvár, later Vajdahunyad, in present-day Romanian: Hunedoara) and its
estates for his distinction in the wars against the Ottomans.
Genealogy Vojk (or Vajk/Vayk) -Hunyadi's father- was described as being Vlach (an exonym and sometime endonym for
Romanian) descent by medieval chroniclers[31] and modern historians.[12][32][33][34][35] He was a nobile Knyaz[36] from
Wallachia[36][37][38] and was the son of "Şerb" (also spelled Serban, Sorb, Serbe or Sorbe), or a Vlach Knyaz from the Banate of
Szörény (Severin), Kingdom of Hungary. There are varying opinions as to Şerb's ancestry. From one point of view he had
supposedly Tatar-Cuman origin, because the second part of his name is derived from a Cuman dignity name ('Bâg'- prince) and
'Sor' means 'Calamity' in Tatar-Turkic.[24] Additionally, 'Sor' was an Altaic people in that period as well.[24] "Şerb" became
Catholic and Hungarian in culture.[39] According to medieval sources, Şerb had three sons: Hunyadi's father Vojk (a Hungarian
pagan name[citation needed], or a properly Vlach name, or even a Turkic or Slavic one), Magos (Mogoş, also Mogos, meaning "tall" in
Hungarian), and Radu(l) or Radol[citation needed] (a Romanian name).[40][41][not in citation given] According to some linguists, his son's name
(Vayk) was likely originated from the Turkic 'Bayk, Bayq',[23][24] what was used till the 18th century by Tatars.[24] A theory
developed at the end of the 19th century that Şerb was originally from Serbia.[42] Vojk took the family name of Hunyadi in 1409
when he received the estate around the Hunyad Castle from Sigismund and was ennobled as count of Hunyad. There are theories
about his great-grandfather, researchers suggest that he was probably called Costea[28] While the family's name and ascent to
comital rank of Count of Hunyad were established only by Sigismund granting the title; the lack of evidence for royal descent
gave rise to various legends and scholarly constructions about the origins of the Hunyadis. This is especially true of Hunyadi's son
Matthias Corvinus and his origin has also been disputed in modern times.[43] Matthias Corvinus' court historian Antonio Bonfini
flattered his king by tracing the family's ancestry to the Roman gens Corvina, or Valeriana, while adding: "for this man was
indeed born of a Romanian father and a Hungarian mother"[44] A contemporary Hungarian historian Johannes de Thurocz,
similarly flattering his king, wrote in the Chronicle of the Hungarians (Chronica Hungarorum) that the Hunyadi family was of
Hunnic origin, even calling Matthias Corvinus the "Second Attila".[45] The 16th century Saxon historian Gáspár Heltai made
Hunyadi the illegitimate son of king Sigismund and the young noble Erzsébet Morzsinay.[46][47]
Corvinus legend The epithet Corvinus (referring to the raven) was first used by Antonio Bonfini the biographer of his son
Matthias Corvinus, but is also applied to Hunyadi. It is linked to the legend documented by Gáspár Heltai. The legend said that
Hunyadi was the illegitimate son of Hungarian King Sigismund of Luxembourg,[48] and that Vojk was a faithful soldier of his
father for two decades. After the death of his wife, King Sigismund met Elizabeth Morzsinai, a virgin noblewoman, and fell in
love. In the morning, the king gave a royal ring to the lady, promising her that he would take care of the son. After the boy was
born, the family set off to Buda to the palace of Sigismund. During the trip, they took a rest, and baby Hunyadi started crying.
Elizabeth gave him the ring to make him quiet, whereupon a rook stole the ring. Elizabeth's brother took his bow and arrow and
shot the rook, whereupon, as if by a miracle, the rook did not die, and the ring was recovered. Arriving at the royal court in Buda,
Sigismund filled the baby's cradle with precious stones. Other versions of the legend state that it was the child Hunyadi himself,
about 6 years old, who shot the arrow. The legend may have some basis in fact, as his presumed father, Vojk, had never before
had a coat of arms depicting a raven, and suddenly he changed it for some reason. Moreover Wallachian coat of arms (which
changed its appearance through the Early Modern Age) depicts a raven-like bird (actually a black aquila chrysaëtos[49]) holding a
cross in its beak.[50] The family of Vojk received the estates of Hunyad, and Hunyadi's education was funded by the king. The part
of the legend that is most questioned is not the raven and the events surrounding Hunyadi, but the parentage by Sigismund. The
main counterargument is that Hunyadi was not able to become king of Hungary because he was not considered of royal blood. It
is argued that Hunyadi, his wife Elizabeth, and their son Matthias invented and/or promoted the legend in order to allow
Hunyadi's son to become king.
Mother Hunyadi's mother was Elizabeth Morzsinay (Hungarian: Erzsébet Morzsinay, Romanian: Elisabeta Morşina or Elisabeta
Mărgineanu[51]), a lady of the lesser nobility from Káránsebes (today:Caransebeş),[52] Krassó-Szörény county,[dubious – discuss]
Kingdom of Hungary. According to primary sources she was the daughter of a Romanian[53] lesser noble from Hunyad
(Hunedoara), Transylvania, Kingdom of Hungary. Some modern writers suggest she was ethnic Hungarian[47][54][55] while others
note that her family (also known as the Demsusi Muzsina family) was a family of Romanians ennobled in the second half of the
15th century[56] Since she was a noble her religion was Roman Catholicism. Ortodox people were not allowed to be noble in the
Kingdom of Hungary at least not after the arrival of Anjou kings.[57]
Wife In 1432, Hunyadi married Erzsébet Szilágyi (c. 1410-1483), a Hungarian noblewoman, also of high rank (Szilágy being the
name of a county overlapping with present-day Sălaj County).
Children John Hunyadi had two children, Ladislaus and Matthias Corvinus. Ladislaus felt victim to the struggle between
Hungary's various barons and its Habsburg king, Ladislaus the Posthumous (also king of Bohemia), in the years after the death of
Hunyadi. After the assassination of Ulrich II of Celje, the king felt threatened by Ladislaus. The king planned to eliminate him by
inviting him to Buda. Suspecting no evil, Ladislaus accompanied the King to Buda, but on arriving there was arrested on a charge
of plotting against the King, condemned to death without the observance of any legal formalities, and beheaded on 16 March
1457. His brother, Matthias, was also inveigled to Buda by the enemies of his house, and, on the pretext of being concerned in a
purely imaginary conspiracy against the King, was condemned to decapitation, but was spared on account of his youth. In
November 1457, the King died. Matthias was taken hostage by George of Poděbrady, governor of Bohemia, a friend of the
Hunyadis who aimed to raise a national king to the Magyar throne. Poděbrady treated Matthias hospitably and affianced him with
his daughter Catherine, but still detained him, for safety's sake, in Prague, even after a Magyar deputation had hastened thither to
offer the youth the crown. Matthias took advantage of the memory left by his father's deed, and by the general population's dislike
of foreign candidates; most the barons, furthermore, considered that the young scholar would be a weak monarch in their hands.
An influential section of the magnates, headed by the Palatine Ladislaus Garai and by Nicholas of Ilok, voivode of Transylvania,
who had been concerned in the judicial murder of Matthias's brother Ladislaus, and hated the Hunyadis as semi-foreign upstarts,
were fiercely opposed to Matthias's election; however, they were not strong enough to resist against Matthias's uncle Mihály
Szilágyi and his 15,000 veterans. On 20 January 1458, Matthias was elected king by the Diet. It was the first time in the medieval
Hungarian kingdom that a member of the nobility, without dynastic ancestry and relationship, mounted the royal throne.
Rise of a general While still a young enterprising man, Hunyadi entered the retinue of Sigismund, who appreciated his qualities
but was also the King's creditor on several occasions. A document describing a loan agreement of 1.200 gold florins, dated from
1434 refers to him "János the Wallachian"[58](John the Wallachian). He accompanied the monarch to Frankfurt in Sigismund's
quest for the Imperial crown in 1410, took an active part in the Hussite Wars in 1420, and in 1437 was sent south to successfully
raise the Turkish siege of Semendria. The young knight served many powerful magnates and strategists of Sigismund, including
Stefan Lazarević and Philippo Scolari. In Milan he made the acquaintance of the condottiere (mercenary captain) Francesco
Sforza and studied the new military art of Italy.[59] Later he received numerous landed estates and a privileged position in the royal
council of Hungary. His star was soon in the ascendant and in 1438 King Albert found Hunyadi promoted to Ban of Severin[48]
that lay south of the defensible southern frontiers of Hungary; the Carpathians and the Drava/Sava/Danube complex, a province
subject to constant Ottoman harassment. On the untimely death of Albert in 1439, Hunyadi was of the volition that Hungary was
best served by a warrior king and lent his support to the candidature of young King of Poland Władysław III of Varna in 1440,
and thus came into collision with the powerful magnate Ulrich II of Celje, the chief proponent of Albert's widow Elisabeth of
Bohemia (1409–1442) and her infant son, Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary. Featuring prominently in the brief
ensuing civil war, Władysław III's side was thus reinforced by Hunyadi's noticeable military abilities, and was rewarded by
Władysław with the captaincy of the fortress of Belgrade, a latter dignity that he shared with Mihály Újlaki. He became the king's
trusted adviser and most highly-regarded soldier, and was put in charge of military operations against the Ottomans. The king
recognized Hunyadi's merits by granting him estates in Eastern Hungary. Hunyadi became the greatest landowner in Hungarian
history. At the peak of his career he could call himself master of 2.3 million hectares of land, 28 castles, 57 towns and about 1,000
villages.[11] Unlike most of his contemporaries, Hunyadi did not use his great revenues or the military and political weight of his
thousands of retainers simply for his personal aggrandizement; for many years, he bore a large share of the cost of fighting the
Ottomans.[60]
First battles with the Ottomans The main frame of the conflict with the Turks now resided in his jurisdiction and Hunyadi soon
showed and displayed extraordinary capacity in marshalling its defenses with the limited resources at his disposal. In 1441 he
scored a pitched battle victory at Semendria over Ishak Bey. The following year, not far from Nagyszeben in Transylvania he
annihilated an invasion force of Ottomans that offered stern battle with an immense host, and recovered for Hungary the
suzerainty of Wallachia. In February 1450, he signed an alliance treaty with Bogdan II of Moldavia. In July 1442, an undaunted
and intrepid Hunyadi proceeded march against the enemy with 15,000 Hungarian and Szekler irregulars against a massed
formation of a third Turkish invasion force reinforced by the choicest of Ottoman military numbering 80,000 in Wallachia sent in
retaliation for subsequent defeats. Hunyadi's engagement at the Iron Gates is one of Hungary's more celebrated victories,
Hunyadi's maneuvers of infantry, cavalry and war wagons performed superbly to the astonishment of the Turkish commander
Sehabbedin, who was astounded by the smallness of the Magyar army. These victories made Hunyadi a prominent enemy of the
Ottomans and renowned throughout Christendom, and was a prime motivator to undertake in 1443, along with King Władysław,
the famous expedition known as the long campaign. Hunyadi, at the head of the vanguard, crossed the Balkans through the Gate
of Trajan, captured Niš, defeated three Turkish pashas, and, after taking Sofia, united with the royal army and defeated Sultan
Murad II at Snaim (Kustinitza). The impatience of the king and the severity of the winter then compelled him (February 1444) to
return home, but not before he had utterly broken the Sultan's power in Bosnia, Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Albania. No
sooner had he regained Hungary than he received tempting offers from Pope Eugene IV, represented by the Legate Julian
Cesarini, from Đurađ Branković, despot of Serbia, and George Kastrioti Skanderbeg, prince of Albania, to resume the war and
realize his ideal of driving the Ottomans from Europe. All the preparations had been made when Murad's envoys arrived in the
royal camp at Szeged and offered a ten years' truce on advantageous terms. Branković bribed Hunyadi – he gave him his vast
estates in Hungary – to support the acceptance of the peace. Cardinal Julian Cesarini found a traitorous solution. The king swore
that he would never give up the crusade, so all future peace and oath was automatically invalid. After this Hungary accepted the
Sultan's offer and Hunyadi in Władysław's name swore on the Gospels to observe them.
Battle of Varna Two days later Cesarini received tidings that a fleet of Venetian galleys had set off for the Bosporus to prevent
Murad (who, crushed by his recent disasters, had retired to Anatolia) from recrossing into Europe, and the cardinal reminded the
King that he had sworn to cooperate by land if the western powers attacked the Ottomans by sea. In July the Hungarian army
recrossed the frontier and advanced towards the Black Sea coast in order to march to Constantinople escorted by the galleys.
Đurađ Branković, however, fearful of the sultan's vengeance in case of disaster, privately informed Murad of the advance of the
Christian host, and prevented Kastrioti from joining it. On reaching Varna, the Hungarians found that the Venetian galleys had
failed to prevent the transit of the Sultan - indeed, the Genoese transported the Sultan's army (and received, according to legend,
one gold piece for each soldier shipped over). Hunyadi, on 10 November 1444, confronted the Ottomans with less than half the
Hungarian forces. Nevertheless, victory was still possible in the Battle of Varna as Hunyadi with his superb military skills
managed to rout both flanks of the Sultan's army. At this point, however, king Władysław, who up to that point had remained in
the background and relinquished full leadership to Hunyadi, assumed command and with his bodyguards carried out an all-out
attack on the elite troops of the Sultan, the Janissaries. The Janissaries readily massacred the king's men, also killing the king,
exhibiting his head on a pole. The king's death caused disarray in the Hungarian army, which was subsequently routed by the
Ottomans; Hunyadi himself narrowly escaped. On his way home, Vlad II Dracul of Wallachia imprisoned Hunyadi; only the
threats of the palatine of Hungary brought the voivode, theoretically an ally of Hunyadi against the Ottomans, to release him.[61]
Regent of the Kingdom of Hungary
Brief personal rule At the diet which met in February 1445 a provisional government consisting of five Captain Generals was
formed, with Hunyadi receiving Transylvania and four counties bordering on the Tisza, called the Partium or Körösvidék, to rule.
As the anarchy resulting from the division became unmanageable, Hunyadi was elected regent of Hungary (Regni Gubernator) on
5 June 1446 in the name of Ladislaus V and given the powers of a regent. His first act as regent was to proceed against the
German king Frederick III, who refused to release Ladislaus V. After ravaging Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola and threatening
Vienna, Hunyadi's difficulties elsewhere compelled him to make a truce with Frederick for two years. In 1448 he received a
golden chain and the title of Prince from Pope Nicholas V, and immediately afterwards resumed the war with the Ottomans. He
lost the two-day Second Battle of Kosovo (7–10 October 1448, owing to the treachery of Dan II of Wallachia, then pretender to
the throne, and of his old rival Branković, who intercepted Hunyadi's planned Albanian reinforcements led by George Kastrioti,
preventing them from ever reaching the battle. Branković also imprisoned Hunyadi for a time in the dungeons of the fortress of
Smederevo, but he was ransomed by his countrymen and, after resolving his differences with his powerful and numerous political
enemies in Hungary, led a punitive expedition against the Serbian prince, who was forced to accept harsh terms of peace. In 1450
Hunyadi went to Pozsony to negotiate with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III the terms of the surrender of Ladislaus V, but no
agreement could be reached. Several of John Hunyadi's enemies, including Ulrich II of Celje, accused him of conspiracy to
overthrow the King. In order to defuse the increasingly volatile domestic situation, he relinquished his regency and the title of
regent. On his return to Hungary at the beginning of 1453, Ladislaus named him count of Beszterce and Captain General of the
kingdom. The king also expanded his coat-of-arms with the so-called Beszterce Lions.
Belgrade victory and death Meanwhile, the Ottoman issue had again become acute, and, after the fall of Constantinople in 1453,
it seemed natural that Sultan Mehmed II was rallying his resources in order to subjugate Hungary. His immediate objective was
Nándorfehérvár (today Belgrade). Nándorfehérvár was a major castle-fortress, and a gate keeper of south Hungary. The fall of this
stronghold would have opened a clear way to the heart of Central Europe. Hunyadi arrived at the siege of Nándorfehérvár at the
end of 1455, after settling differences with his domestic enemies. At his own expense, he restocked the supplies and arms of the
fortress, leaving in it a strong garrison under the command of his brother-in-law Mihály Szilágyi and his own eldest son László
Hunyadi. He proceeded to form a relief army, and assembled a fleet of two hundred ships. His main ally was the Franciscan friar,
Giovanni da Capistrano (known today as St. John of Capistrano), whose fiery oratory drew a large crusade made up mostly of
peasants. Although relatively ill-armed (most were armed with farm equipment, such as scythes and pitchforks) they flocked to
Hunyadi and his small corps of seasoned mercenaries and cavalry. On 14 July 1456 the flotilla assembled by Hunyadi destroyed
the Ottoman fleet. On 21 July, Szilágyi's forces in the fortress repulsed a fierce assault by the Rumelian army, and Hunyadi
pursued the retreating Ottoman forces into their camp, taking advantage of the Turkish army's confused flight from the city. After
fierce but brief fighting, the camp was captured, and Mehmet lifted the siege and returned to Istanbul. A 70 year period of relative
peace on Hungary's southeastern border began with his flight. However, plague broke out in Hunyadi's camp three weeks after the
lifting of the siege, and he died August 11. On his deathbed Hunyadi said Defend, my friends, Christendom and Hungary from all
enemies... Do not quarrel among yourselves. If you should waste your energies in altercations, you will seal your own fate as well
as dig the grave of our country..[62] He is buried in the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Gyulafehérvár (now: Alba Iulia) next to his
younger brother, John. Sultan Mehmet II paid him tribute:"Although he was my enemy I feel grief over his death, because the
world has never seen such a man."
The Noon Bell Pope Callixtus III ordered the bells of every European church to be rung every day at noon, as a call for believers
to pray for the defenders of the city.[63][64] The practice of Noon bell is traditionally attributed to the international conmemoration
of the Belgrade victory and to the order of Pope Callixtus III.[65][66][67]
Legacy The rise of nationalism has led to hero images of John Hunyadi in the discourse of several local nationalities – each in its
own way has claimed him as their own[dubious – discuss]. Along with his son Matthias Corvinus, Hunyadi is considered a Hungarian
national hero and praised as its defender against the Ottoman threat.[68][69][70][71] He was born in and had a career in the Kingdom of
Hungary, Hunyadi was a member of the Hungarian aristocracy and a subject of the Hungarian crown. His whole life was
dedicated to the Hungarian and Christian cause; he married a Hungarian noblewoman, Erzsébet Szilágyi; and he reared his
children as Magyars[original research?].[72] He no doubt was born in the Catholic faith, which his father probably had already professed.
He has not only become member of the Hungarian nobility but has also risen according to their deserts to the highest positions in
the land.[73] John Hunyadi is mentioned in Szózat, a poem which is considered a "second anthem" of Hungary. Romanian
historiography gives Hunyadi a place of importance in the history of Romania too. He is remembered in Romania as a national
hero mostly due to his Romaniannote 1 origin and his role as Voivode of Transylvania (a region at the time part of the Kingdom of
Hungary now part of Romania). Hunyadi was also responsible for establishing the careers of both Stephen III of Moldavia and the
controversial Vlad III of Wallachia. Pope Pius II writes that Hunyadi did not increase so much the glory of the Hungarians, but
especially the glory of the Romanians among whom he was born.[74][75][76][77] The French writer and diplomat Philippe de
Commines described Hunyadi as a very valiant gentleman, called the White Knight of Wallachia, a person of great honour and
prudence, who for a long time had governed the kingdom of Hungary, and had gained several battles over the Turks[78] Hunyadi
was "recognised as being Hungarian..." and "frequently called Ugrin Janko, 'Janko the Hungarian'" in the Serbian and Croatian
societies of the 15th century,[79][80] while another bugarštica makes him of Serbian origin[80] He is also portrayed as an ardent
supporter of the Catholicization of Orthdox peoples[81] In Bulgarian folklore, the memory of Hunyadi was preserved in the epic
song hero character of Yankul(a) Voivoda, along with Sekula Detentse, a fictitious hero perhaps inspired by Hunyadi's nephew,
János Székely.[82] Nicolaus Olahus was the nephew of John Hunyadi[83] Among Hunyadi's noted qualities, is his regional primacy
in recognizing the insufficiency and unreliability of the feudal levies, instead regularly employing large professional armies. His
notable contribution to the development of the science of European warfare included the emphasis on tactics and strategy in place
of over-reliance on frontal assaults and mêlées. His diplomatic, strategic, and tactical skills allowed him to serve his country well.
After his death, Pope Callixtus III stated that "the light of the world has passed away", considering his defense of Christendom
against the Ottoman threat. The same pope ordered the noon bell to be rung for the memory of Hunyadi's victory in siege of
Belgrade, and to mark the resistance to Islamic progression inside Europe.
Notes
^ According to the majority of references, modern historians and mainstream sources. There are also alternative researches
suggesting other origin as it is already explained in the article.
1. ^ Engel, Pál; Andrew Ayton, Tamás Pálosfalvi (2005). Andrew Ayton. ed. The realm of St. Stephen: a history of
medieval Hungary, 895-1526. I.B.Tauris. p. 283.
2. ^ Gwatkin, Henry Melvill; John Bagnell Bury, James Pounder Whitney, Zachary Nugent Brooke. The
Cambridge medieval history, Volume 8. Macmillan. pp. 608.
3. ^ János Hunyadi. (2010). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 10, 2010, from Encyclopædia
Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277182/Janos-Hunyadi
4. ^ White Knight (Clear waters rising: a mountain walk across Europe by Nicholas Crane, Viking, 1996, p. 320),
White Knight of Wallachia [1][2] or White Knight of Hungary (Encyclopedia of the undead, p. 67, Career Press, 2006,
Jihad in the West: Muslim conquests from the 7th to the 21st centuries By Paul Fregosi, p. 244., Prometheus Books,
1998) depending on sources
5. ^ a b "János Hunyadi". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
6. ^ Stanley Sandler, Ground warfare: an international encyclopedia, Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, 2002, p. 391
+general+Ground
warfare&hl=en&ei=YDTNTOedNYzLswaXz8inAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCQQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=Hungarian%20general&f=false
7. ^ Nicholson, Helen J. (2004). The Crusades. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. p. 115. ISBN 0-313-32685-1.
8. ^ Suttner, Ernst Christoph (2007). Staaten und Kirchen in der Völkerwelt des östlichen Europa : Entwicklungen
der Neuzeit. p. 201.
9. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica "Janos Hunyadi"
10. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=Zgg6eqKKkbcC&pg=PA306&dq=iancu+de+hunedoara&hl=en&ei=yWd7TZWXLc6
u8QPFo8C6Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEYQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=iancu%20de%20
hunedoara&f=false
11. ^ a b Lendvai, Paul (2003). The Hungarians: a thousand years of victory in defeat. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers.
pp. 62. ISBN 9781850656821. "Matyas Hunyadi [...] was of Romanian origin on his father's side"
12. ^ a b Babinger, Franz. Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. Princeton University Press. p. 20.
13. ^ [3] Ronald D. Bachman, ed. Romania: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1989
14. ^ Stoianovich, Traian (2000). The Balkans Since 1453. C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd. p. 53. ISBN 1-85065-551-
0.
http://books.google.ro/books?id=xcp7OXQE0FMC&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=%22white+knight+of+wallachia%22#v
=snippet&q=%22john%20hunyadi%20was%20a%20rumanian%22&f=false. "John Hunyadi was a Rumanian who had
entered the service of Hungary and fought with such success against the Turks that he became a Hungarian national hero"
15. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia[4] "it may be taken as proved that the family of Hunyadi was of Rumanian origin"
16. ^ http://www.mongabay.com/reference/country_studies/romania/all.html
17. ^
http://books.google.com/books?ei=5UWCTcTHH4uLswbz_L20Aw&ct=result&id=QuBnAAAAMAAJ&dq=hunyadi+v
oyk&q=Hungarian+historians+have+sometimes+attempted+to+deny#search_anchor
18. ^ Elteto, Louis J.; Cadzow, John F.; Ludanyi, Andrew (1983). Transylvania: the roots of ethnic conflict. [Kent,
Ohio]: Kent State University Press. p. 45. ISBN 0-87338-283-8. "Although some Hungarian historians have tried to
disprove that the Hunyadi family was of Vlach (Wallachian) origin, the overwhelming evidence supports the view that
they indeed were not Magyars, but rose in the service of the Hungarian king"
19. ^ Hebron, Malcolm (1997). The Medieval Siege, Theme and Image in Middle English Romance. Oxford
University Press. p. 86. ISBN 9780198186205.
20. ^ Molnar, Miklos: A Concise History of Hungary. P. 61
21. ^ Frucht, Richard C. (2005). Eastern Europe: an introduction to the people, lands, and culture. ABC-CLIO. pp.
339. ISBN 9781576078006.
22. ^ Katolikus Lexikon: Hunyadi János, A M. Nemz. Tört. IV. Bp., 1896. - Elekes 1952. - Teke 1980. - Puskely
1994:279.(Hungarian)
23. ^ a b Acta orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, Volume 36, Magyar Tudományos Akadémia, 1982 p.
425-427, Cited:'Recalling what has been said above concerning the Turkic name Bayq, we may rightly come to the
conclusion that the name of Janos Hunyadi's father, Vayk was of Tatar-Cuman origin.', 'Vayk's family, which was of
Tatar-Cuman origin', 'The Damga (Turkic/Raven) must have been the mark of Vayk's clan'
24. ^ a b c d e Magyar Nyelvtudományi Társaság (SOCIETY OF HUNGARIAN LINGUISTICS), Magyar nyelv,
Volume 79, Akadémiai Kiadó, 1983, p.113
25. ^ László Rásonyi, Yusuf Gedikli, Doğu Avrupada Türklük, Selenge, 2006, p. 112
26. ^ Yılmaz Öztuna, Devletler ve hânedanlar, Volume 2, Kültür Bakanlığı, 2005, p. 116
27. ^ Seton-Watson, Hugh. Eastern Europe between the wars, 1918-1941. Cambridge University Press. pp. 25.
ISBN 9781001284781.
28. ^ a b Ioan Aurel Pop, Thomas Nägler, Mihai Bărbulescu, The History of Transylvania: Until 1541, Romanian
Cultural Institute, 2005 p. 294
29. ^ Nicholson, Helen J. (2004). The Crusades. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 115. ISBN 9780313326851.
30. ^ "János Hunyadi:Defender of Christendom - Hunyadi's Origin Contested". Corvinus Library.
http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/hunspir/hsp16.htm. "Historians are still in the dark about the year and place of his
birth, and even his parentage seems shrouded in mystery."
31. ^ Fejer, Georgius (1844). "E scriptorum ac literarum solennium testimoniis deducta." (in Latin). III. Genus et
incunabula Joannis, regni Hungariae Gubernatoris. Magyar Orszagos Leveltar, Buda. p. m.
http://www.arcanum.hu/mol/lpext.dll/fejer/33f4/3598/35fb?fn=document-frame.htm&f=templates&2.0. Retrieved 9
February 2011. "Herois nostratis pater fuit Voik, Valachus,"
32. ^ [5] A History of Hungary Peter F. Sugar, Péter Hanák, Tibor Frank - History - 1994
33. ^ Engel, Pal. Realm of St. Stephen : A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526. London,, GBR: I. B. Tauris &
Company, Limited, 2001. p xii.
34. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica |"Janos Hunyadi"
35. ^ Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages, Vol 1, De André Vauchez,Richard Barrie Dobson,Michael Lapidge p. 705
|http://books.google.com/books?id=qtgotOF0MKQC&pg=PR11&dq=Encyclopedia+of+the+Middle+Ages,+Volumul+1
++De+Andr%C3%A9+Vauchez,Richard+Barrie+Dobson,Michael+Lapidge&lr=&hl=ro&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
36. ^ a b Domokos G. Kosáry, Steven Béla Várdy, History of the Hungarian nation, Danubian Press, 1969, p. 45
37. ^ Ioan Aurel Pop, Thomas Nägler, Mihai Bărbulescu, The History of Transylvania: Until 1541, Romanian
Cultural Institute, 2005, p. 294
38. ^ Enea Silvius Piccolomini, (Pope Pius II), In Europa - Historia Austrialis, BAV, URB, LAT. 405, ff.245, IIII
kal. Aprilis MCCCCLVIII, Ex Urbe Roma
39. ^ David Nicolle, Angus McBride, Hungary and the fall of Eastern Europe 1000-1568, Osprey Publishing, 1988
40. ^ [6]
41. ^ Petre P. Panaitescu "Istoria Românilor", 7th edition, Editura didactică şi pedagigică, Bucureşti, 1990, p. 109
42. ^ Dr. Borovszky Samu, Magyarország vármegyéi és városai, Kiadta az országos monográfiai társaság,
Budapest
43. ^ Cf. Dr. Borovszky Samu, Magyarország vármegyéi és városai (Hungary's counties and cities), published by:
Országos Monográfiai Társaság (the Society for Hungarian Monographies), Budapest.)
44. ^ Decad. III, lib. 4, ed. cit., p. 448, in Armbruster, Adolf. The Romanity of the Romanians. Ch 3. Sec 2. p70
45. ^ TEKE ZSUZSA: HUNYADI JÁNOS • 1407 k.–1456, 10. évfolyam (1999) 9-10. szám (93-94.) (Rubicon
History Magazine, Hungarian)
46. ^ http://www.hik.hu/tankonyvtar/site/books/b152/ch12s01s01.html Heltai Gáspár: Krónika az magyaroknak
dolgairól (Hungarian)
47. ^ a b Anthony Endrey, Hungarian History: From 1301 to 1686, Hungarian Institute, 1980 Citation from the book:
"a Hungarian noblewoman, Elizabeth Morzsinai" [7]
48. ^ a b "János Hunyady". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07564b.htm.
49. ^ Dan Cernovodeanu. La Science et L'Art Heraldiques en Roumanie. Editura Stiinţifică şi Enciclopedică.
http://books.google.com/books?id=tWAoPAAACAAJ&dq=Dan+Cernovodeanu.
50. ^ Thomas Thornton. The Present State of Turkey. University of California.
http://books.google.com/books?id=9UpCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=wallachia+raven.
51. ^ Ion I. Nistor, Istoria românilor, Volume 1, Biblioteca Bucureștilor, 2002, p. 250
52. ^ László Kővári, Erdély nevezetesebb családai (more famous families of Transylvania), Barráné és Stein
Bizománya, 1854, p. 122
53. ^ "Opulenti Boyeronis (i. e. a Vlach nobleman) filiam – ex genere Morsinai – Transalpinus quidam Boyero,
nomine Woyk, qui ob simultates valachicas huc (in Transilvaniam) se patriis, ex oris receperat, venustate Morsinaianae
captus, duxit. – Elisabetham, vocatam ferunt;" available from:
http://www.arcanum.hu/mol/lpext.dll/fejer/33f4/3598/35fb?fn=document-frame.htm&f=templates&2.0
54. ^ Zoltán Bodolai, Hungarica: a chronicle of events and personalities from the Hungarian past, Hungaria, 1983
55. ^ Hóman Bálint- Szekfű Gyula: Magyar történet II., KMENy, Bp., 1936, 432.
56. ^ Makkai, László; Mócsy, András; Szász, Zoltán; Béla Köpeczi (2001). "III. TRANSYLVANIA IN THE
MEDIEVAL HUNGARIAN KINGDOM (896–1526), FROM THE MONGOL INVASION TO THE BATTLE OF
MOHÁCS". Romanian Voivodes and Cnezes, Nobles and Villeins. HISTORY OF TRANSYLVANIA. 1. Boulder,
Colorado: Social Science Monographs, Distributed by Columbia University Press, New York. ISBN 0-88033-479-7.
http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/57.html. "When he [János Hunyadi] served as Transylvania's voivode and Székely
count (the first time that the two offices were held by one man), Hunyadi drew into his retinue not only Hungarian and
Székely retainers but also several Romanian cnezes...several distinguished Transylvanian families trace their ancestry to
cnezes ennobled by Hunyadi: the Nádasdi Ungor, Malomvizi Kenderesi, Kendeffi...and Demsusi Muzsina
families...János Hunyadi's mother came from the Demsusi Muzsina family"LCCN 2001-131858
57. ^ Centraleuropas historia (The History of Central Europe) Kristian Gerner, Natur & Kultur , Stockholm 1997,
page 370
58. ^ Molnar, Miklos : A Concise History of Hungary. p. 61
59. ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277182/Janos-Hunyadi
60. ^ http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/84.html
61. ^ "National Geographic Magyarország: A várnai csata" (in Hungarian).
http://www.geographic.hu/index.php?act=napi&rov=5&id=742. Retrieved 2008-06-02.
62. ^ Sisa, Stephen (1990). The spirit of Hungary: a panorama of Hungarian history and culture (2 ed.). Vista
Books (original from University of Michigan). pp. 56.
63. ^ Thomas Henry Dyer (1861). The history of modern Europe: From the fall of Constantinople. J. Murray. p. 85.
http://books.google.com/books?id=jBAMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA85&dq=Noon+bell+belgrade&cd=5#v=onepage&q=Noo
n%20bell%20belgrade&f=false.
64. ^ István Lázár: Hungary: A Brief History (see in Chapter 6)
65. ^ Kerny, Terézia (2008). "The Renaissance - Four Times Over. Exhibitions Commemorating Matthias’s
Accession to the Throne". The Hungarian Quarterly. Budapest, Hungary: Society of the Hungarian Quarterly. pp. 79–90.
http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/issuedetails.aspx?issueid=36917033-77c7-4622-8f76-dae90f531363&articleId=ca7d4a8b-
cee0-4d8b-beab-fb1536ba3597. "On July 22, 1456, John Hunyadi won a decisive victory at Belgrade over the armies of
Sultan Mehmed II. Hunyadi’s feat—carried out with a small standing army combined with peasants rallied to fight the
infidel by the Franciscan friar St John of Capistrano— had the effect of putting an end to Ottoman attempts on Hungary
and Western Europe for the next seventy years, and is considered to have been one of the most momentous victories in
Hungarian military history. The bells ringing at noon throughout Christendom are, to this day, a daily commemoration of
John Hunyadi’s victory."
66. ^ http://www.hungarianhistory.com/lib/hunyadi/hu01.htm
67. ^ http://nq.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/CLXVII/sep08/171-d
68. ^ Volume 7 of World and Its Peoples: Europe. Marshall Cavendish. 2009. pp. 891. ISBN 9780761478836. "In
the war, Janos Hunyadi (1387-1456), subsequently a Hungarian national hero, emerged to lead Hungary's political life."
69. ^ Shaw, Stanford Jay (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey, Volume 1. Cambridge
University Press. pp. 51. ISBN 9780521291637. "Hunyadi had suddenly risen as the great Hungarian national hero as a
result of his victories over the Turks in 1442."
70. ^ Dupuy, Richard Ernest (1986). The encyclopedia of military history from 3500 B.C. to the present. Harper &
Row, original from University of Michigan. pp. 435. ISBN 9780061812354. "John Hunyadi, the national hero of
Hungary, and his son Mathias Corvinus, who reigned as King of Hungary"
71. ^ Matthews, John P. C. (2007). Explosion: the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Hippocrene Books. pp. 73–74.
ISBN 9780781811743. "One of the most powerful personalities in Hungarian history, Hunyadi established a national
unity and order which transcended privileges and special interests and succeeded in raising Hungary to the status of a
great power."
72. ^ "János Hunyadi:Defender of Christendom - Hunyadi's Origin Contested". Corvinus Library.
http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/hunspir/hsp16.htm.
73. ^ Lukinich, Imre. A History of Hungary in Biographical Sketches. Ayer Publishing.
74. ^ C. Giurescu, Dinu; C. Giurescu, Constantin (1980). The making of the Romanian national unitary state.
Meridiane Pub. House. p. 60.
http://books.google.com/books?cd=1&id=edFBAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22In+his+Historia+de+Europa%2C+Pope+Pius+II+
states+%22&q=%22In+his+Historia+de+Europa%2C+Pope+Pius+II+states+%22#search_anchor.
75. ^ C. Giurescu, Constantin (1969). Transylvania in the history of Romania: an historical outline. Garnstone Pub.
House. p. 82.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FLpnAAAAMAAJ&q=%22+Iancu+of+Hunedoara%29+whose+name+overshadows
+all+others,+has+enhanced+the+glory+not+so+much+of+the+Hungarians,+but+of+the+Romanians,+out+of+whom+he
+came+%22&dq=%22+Iancu+of+Hunedoara%29+whose+name+overshadows+all+others,+has+enhanced+the+glory+n
ot+so+much+of+the+Hungarians,+but+of+the+Romanians,+out+of+whom+he+came+%22&cd=1.
76. ^ Aurel Pop, loan (1997) (in Romanian). Istoria Transilvaniei medievale: de la etnogeneza românilor până la
Minai Viteazul. Cluj-Napoca: Presa Universitară Clujeană. p. 82. ISBN 973-9261-24-8.
http://www.scribd.com/doc/12693963/ioan-aurel-pop-istoria-transilvaniei-medievale.
77. ^ Burkhard Gotthelf Struve (1717). Rerum Germanicarum Scriptores aliquot insignes. 2. p. 89.
http://books.google.ro/books?id=W1M_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq=%22non+tam+Hungaris+quam+Valac
his+ex+quibus+natus+erat+gloriam+auxit%22&#v=onepage&q=%22non%20tam%20Hungaris%20quam%20Valachis%
20ex%20quibus%20natus%20erat%20gloriam%20auxit%22&f=false.
78. ^ Scoble, Andrew Richard. The Memoirs of Philippe De Commynes, Lord of Argenton (Volume 2); Containing
the Histories of Louis Xi and Charles Viii, Kings of France. p. 87. ISBN 9781150902581.
79. ^ Domokos Varga, Hungary in greatness and decline: the 14th and 15th centuries, Hungarian Cultural
Foundation, 1982, p. 66
80. ^ a b Chadwick, H. Munro; Nora Kershaw Chadwick (1986). The Growth of Literature, Volume 2. Cambridge
University Press. pp. 316–317. ISBN 9780521310185.
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ds2oBKF_FrUC&pg=PA317&dq=Ugrin+Janko#v=onepage&q=recognised%20as
%20being&f=false.
81. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=8LkrAQAAIAAJ&q=iancu+de&dq=iancu+de&hl=en&ei=uWl7TZy8O8ur8QPCv8S
kCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CD0Q6AEwBTgU
82. ^ Балкански, Тодор (1996). Трансилванските (седмиградските) българи. Етнос. Език. Етнонимия.
Ономастика. Просопографии (1 ed.). ИК Знак 94. pp. 102–103.
83. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=Y4EsAQAAIAAJ&q=iancu+de&dq=iancu+de&hl=en&ei=CWt7TYS2M8ey8QO4xf
C6Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDcQ6AEwBDgy
References
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: John Hunyadi
• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopædia
Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Sources cited by the Encyclopædia Britannica:
o R.N. Bain, "The Siege of Belgrade, 1456", in Eng. Hist. Rev., 1892.
o Antonio Bonfini, Rerum ungaricarum libri xlv, editio septima (in Latin; ~contemporary source). Hungarian
edition Balassi Kiado 2001
o J. de Chassin, Jean de Hunyad, (in French), Paris, 1859.
o György Fejér, Genus, incunabula et virtus Joannis Corvini de Hunyad (in Latin), Buda, 1844.
o Vilmos Fraknói, Cardinal Carjaval and his Missions to Hungary, (in Hungarian), Budapest, 1889.
o P. Frankl, Der Friede von Szegedin und die Geschichte seines Bruches (in German), Leipzig, 1904.
o A. Pcr, Life of Hunyadi (in Hungarian), Budapest, 1873.
o József Teleki, The Age of the Hunyadis in Hungary (in Hungarian), Pest, 1852–1857; (supplementary volumes
by D. Csinki 1895).
• Enea Silvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius II) In Europa - Historia Austrialis, BAV, URB, LAT. 405, ff.245, IIII kal. Aprilis
MCCCCLVIII, Ex Urbe Roma Bilanguical (German-Latin) edition: [8]
• Camil Mureşanu, John Hunyadi. Defender of Christendom, Iaşi-Oxford-Portland 2001
Crusades portal
Further reading
In English:
• Held, Joseph (1985). Hunyadi: Legend and Reality. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0880330701.
• Muresanu, Camil (Trans. by Laura Treptow) (2000). John Hunyadi: Defender of Christendom. Center for Romanian
Studies. ISBN 9739432182.
Additional Books that Mention John Hunyadi:
• Florescu, Radu and Raymond T. McNally (1990). Dracula, Prince of Many Faces: His Life and His Times. Back Bay
Books. ISBN 0316286567.
• Lord Kinross, Patrick Balfour (1979). The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. Harper
Perennial. ISBN 0688080936.
In Hungarian:
• Benedek, Elek. Nagy Magyarok Élete: Hunyadi János - Hunyadi Mátyás. Pannon-Literatúra Kft.. ISBN 9639355941.
• Czuczor, Gergely. Hunyadi János és három más történet. Unikornis Kiadó. ISBN 9634274625.
• Darvas, József (2004). A törökverő. Korona Kiadó Kft.. ISBN 9639376930.
• Földi, Pál (2004). Hunyadi János, a hadvezér. Anno Kiadó. ISBN 9633753465.
• Szentmihályi Szabó, Péter (2007). Kapisztrán és Hunyadi. Szépirodalmi Könyvkiadó. ISBN 9789638618450.
The Battle of Varna, as depicted in the 1564 edition of Martin Bielski's Polish Chronicle. Sigismund of Luxembourg's royal
charter (1409)
Hunyadi's tomb in Gyulafehérvár / Alba Iulia Catholic Cathedral. Personal Coat of arms – note the raven depicted on the
escutcheon, the origin of the name Corvinus. John Hunyadi - hand-colored woodcut in Johannes de Thurocz's Chronicle Chronica
Hungarorum,
Gothic fresco of the Siege of Belgrade in the Church of Immaculate Conception of Virgin Mary in Olomouc (1468) John
Hunyadi's seal Ioanis de Huniad, Gubernatoris
Regni Hungarie John Hunyadi, contemporary engraving John Hunyadi in a Johannes de Thurocz Chronicle woodcut
HungaryHunyad Castle, main entrance
Battle of Sibiu (1442)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Date March 18-March 25, 1442
Location Sântimbru and Sibiu, Transylvania (now Romania)
Result Hungarian victory
Belligerents
Władysław III of Poland John Hunyadi Kasim Pasha[2] Turakhan Beg[3] Isak-Beg[4]
Skanderbeg
Đurađ Branković
Strength
20,000 Hungarian soldiers and mercenaries
Unknown
5,000 Polish soldiers[5] 8,000 Serbs[6]
Casualties and losses
Unknown 300 Albanian cavalrymen deserted along with Skanderbeg
At the Battle of Niš (Battle of Nissa) (early November, 1443), crusaders[7] led by John Hunyadi,[8] captured Ottoman stronghold
Niš and defeated three armies of the Ottoman Empire. The Battle of Niš was part of Hunyadi's expedition known as the long
campaign. Hunyadi, at the head of the vanguard, crossed the Balkans through the Gate of Trajan, captured Niš, defeated three
Turkish pashas, and, after taking Sofia, united with the royal army and defeated Sultan Murad II at Snaim (Kustinitza). The
impatience of the king and the severity of the winter then compelled him (February 1444) to return home, but not before he had
utterly broken the Sultan's power in Bosnia, Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Albania.
Background In 1440 John Hunyadi became the trusted adviser and most highly-regarded soldier of the king Władysław III of
Poland. Hunyadi was rewarded with the captaincy of the fortress of Belgrade and was put in charge of military operations against
the Ottomans. The king Władysław recognized Hunyadi's merits by granting him estates in Eastern Hungary. Hunyadi soon
showed and displayed extraordinary capacity in marshalling its defenses with the limited resources at his disposal. He was
victorious in Semendria over Isak-Beg in 1441, not far from Nagyszeben in Transylvania he annihilated an Ottoman force and
recovered for Hungary the suzerainty of Wallachia. In July 1442 at the Iron Gates he defeated a massed Ottoman formation of
80.000 led by Sehabbedin. These victories made Hunyadi a prominent enemy of the Ottomans and renowned throughout
Christendom, and was a prime motivator to undertake in 1443, along with King Władysław, the famous expedition known as the
long campaign with Battle of Niš as one of the battles of this campaign. Hunyadi was accompanied by Giuliano Cesarini during
this campaign.[9]
Battle There was no one major battle for Niš but five different battles. The first was a battle against small garrison in Niš and
capture of the town, three different battles against three different Ottoman armies advancing to the Niš and last, fought against the
remnants of all three of them. The battle took place in the plain between Bolvani and Niš on November 3, 1443.[10] Ottoman forces
were led by Kasim Pasha, the beglerbeg of Rumelia, Turakhan Beg and Isak-Beg.[11] After Ottoman defeat retreating forces of
Kasim Pasha and Turakhan Beg burned all villages between Niš and Sofia.[12] The Ottoman sources justify an Ottoman defeat by
lack of cooperation between the Ottoman armies led by different commanders.[13]
Aftermath George Kastrioti Skanderbeg deserted the Ottoman army along with 300 other Albanians and started a twenty-five
year long Albanian rebellion against the Ottoman Empire.[14] Murad II signed a treaty for ten years, and abdicated in favor of his
son Mehmed II. When the peace was broken the next year, Murad returned to the Balkans and won the Battle of Varna in
November 1444.[15]
References
1. ^ Riley-Smith, Jonathan, The Crusades: A History, (Continuum International Publishing Group, 1987), 275.
2. ^ Skënderbeu: Jeta dhe vepra by Kristo Frashëri, p. 130.
3. ^ Houtsma, Martijn Theodoor (1993) First encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936 VIII Netherlands: E.J. Brill and
Luzac and Co. p. 466 http://books.google.com/books?id=ro--
tXw_hxMC&pg=PA876&lpg=PA876&dq=Pasha+Yigit+Beg&source=bl&ots=VsIOV9u8BG&sig=aMPS1pECgYmbxx
riLBF3ZoMP42k&hl=en&ei=EHYUTej7M4ea8QP_w_CEBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CB
YQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Pasha%20Yigit%20Beg&f=false ""In the beginning of November 1443, Turakhan Beg
commanded one of the Ottoman corps in the battle against John Hunyadi."
4. ^ Babinger, Franz (1992), Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time, Princeton University Press, p. 25, ISBN
9780691010786,
http://books.google.com/books?id=PPxC6rO7vvsC&pg=PA25&dq=battle+of+Zlatitsa&hl=en&ei=i8XsTdOcAs7usgbUs
tTnCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CE4Q6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=battle%20of%20Zlatitsa&f
=false, "The combined host met Ottoman forces first on November 3, 1443, between the castle of Bolvan (near
Aleksinac) and the city of Niš. Here Kasim Bey, then governor of Rumelia, Ishak Bey and other standard bearers were
defeated."
5. ^ Setton, Kenneth Harry W. Hazard, Norman P. Zacour (1989) A history of the crusades : Volume VI: The
impact of the crusades on Europe Madison, Wis. : The University of Wisconsin Press p. 270 ISBN 9780299107406
OCLC 475548809
http://books.google.com/books?id=TKaPrQPFIAMC&pg=PA270&lpg=PA270&dq=turakhan+beglerbeg+rumelia&sourc
e=bl&ots=4FY7tr9Kq4&sig=-dah7t3UKE8h7RnVI9apgkQbDxM&hl=en&ei=epTsTby7M4_t-
gbakLTpDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=turakhan%20begler
beg%20rumelia&f=false "The whole army estimated to consist of 25,000 men, included an important mercenary force
hired with funds given by Serbian despot, and in addition, a contigent of 8,000 Serbs and 5,000 Polish soldiers"
6. ^ Babinger, Frank and Ralph Manheim, William C. Hickman, Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time, (Princeton
University Press, 1978), 25.
7. ^ Riley-Smith, 275.
8. ^ Hupchick, Dennis P., The Balkans: From Constantinople to Communism, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 117.
9. ^ Babinger, Franz (1992), Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time, Princeton University Press, p. 25, ISBN
9780691010786,
http://books.google.com/books?id=PPxC6rO7vvsC&pg=PA25&dq=battle+of+Zlatitsa&hl=en&ei=i8XsTdOcAs7usgbUs
tTnCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CE4Q6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=battle%20of%20Zlatitsa&f
=false, "John Hunyadi accompanied by the cardinal-legate Giuliano Cesarini."
10. ^ Setton, Kenneth Harry W. Hazard, Norman P. Zacour (1989) A history of the crusades : Volume VI: The
impact of the crusades on Europe Madison, Wis. : The University of Wisconsin Press p. 270 ISBN 9780299107406
OCLC 475548809
http://books.google.com/books?id=TKaPrQPFIAMC&pg=PA270&lpg=PA270&dq=turakhan+beglerbeg+rumelia&sourc
e=bl&ots=4FY7tr9Kq4&sig=-dah7t3UKE8h7RnVI9apgkQbDxM&hl=en&ei=epTsTby7M4_t-
gbakLTpDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=turakhan%20begler
beg%20rumelia&f=false "the most important battle of the whole campaign took place at Bolvani, in the plain of Nish on
November 3, 1443"
11. ^ Babinger, Franz (1992), Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time, Princeton University Press, p. 25, ISBN
9780691010786,
http://books.google.com/books?id=PPxC6rO7vvsC&pg=PA25&dq=battle+of+Zlatitsa&hl=en&ei=i8XsTdOcAs7usgbUs
tTnCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CE4Q6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=battle%20of%20Zlatitsa&f
=false, "The combined host met Ottoman forces first on November 3, 1443, between the castle of Bolvan (near
Aleksinac) and the city of Niš. Here Kasim Bey, then governor of Rumelia, Ishak Bey and other standard bearers were
defeated."
12. ^ Imber, Colin (2006) The Crusade of Varna, 1443-45 Aldershot ; Burlington (Vt.) : Ashgate, cop. p. 16 ISBN
9780754601449 OCLC 470458159
http://books.google.com/books?id=xeuaoghuq3cC&pg=PA49&dq=kasim+pasha+nish&hl=en&ei=3UHnTZza "In the
course of their flight Kasim and Turahan burned all villages between Niš and Sofia."
13. ^ Imber, Colin (2006) The Crusade of Varna, 1443-45 Aldershot ; Burlington (Vt.) : Ashgate, cop. p. 270 ISBN
9780754601449 OCLC 470458159 "The Ottoman sources in general emphasize the disagreement and lack of
cooperation between frontier Ottoman forces under Turakhan and sipahi army under Kasim"
14. ^ Encyclopaedia of the Muslim World, Ed. Taru Bahl, M.H. Syed, (Anmol Publications, 2003), 45.
15. ^ The Historians' History of the World By Henry Smith Williams - Page 439
Further reading
• Imber, Colin (2006) The Crusade of Varna, 1443-45 Aldershot ; Burlington (Vt.) : Ashgate, cop. ISBN 9780754601449
OCLC 470458159
http://books.google.com/books?id=xeuaoghuq3cC&pg=PA49&dq=kasim+pasha+nish&hl=en&ei=3UHnTZzaHtSs8QPU7Nz
8Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=snippet&q=kasim&f=false
Battle of Varna (1444)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
by Jan Matejko
Murad II
/
Władysław
John Hunyadi
III of Poland
†
Strength
~ 20,000[1][2]
~ 60,000[3][4]
(15,000 Polish, Hungarian, Bohemian soldier, 4,000 Wallachian, 1,000
(15,000 regular Janissary, Sipahi,
other Soldier from Lithuania, Papal States, Holy Roman Empire,
Mercenary of the Sultan)
Croatia, Bulgaria)
Casualties and losses
~ 10,000[5][6] ~ 20,000[7][8][9]
The Battle of Varna took place on November 10, 1444 near Varna in eastern Bulgaria. In this battle the Ottoman Empire under
Sultan Murad II defeated the Polish and Hungarian armies under Władysław III of Poland and János Hunyadi. It was the final
battle of the Crusade of Varna.[10][11]
Background After failed expeditions in 1440–2 against Belgrade and Transylvania, and the defeats of the "long campaign" of
Janos Hunyadi in 1442–3, the Ottoman sultan Murad II signed a ten-year truce with Hungary. After he had made peace with the
Karaman Emirate in Anatolia in August 1444, he resigned the throne to his twelve year-old son Mehmed II. Reneging on the
peace treaty, Hungary co-operated with Venice and the pope, Eugene IV, to organize a new crusader army. On this news Murad
was recalled to the throne by his son. Although Murad initially refused this summoning persistently on the grounds that he was not
the sultan anymore, he was outwitted by his son who on the news of his refusal wrote to him: "If you are the sultan, lead your
armies; but if I am the sultan, I hereby order you to come and lead my armies."[cite this quote] Murad then had no choice but to reclaim
the throne.
Preparations A mixed Papal army consisting mainly of Hungarian, Polish (whose combined armies numbered 15,000) and
Wallchian (4,000) forces, with smaller detachments of Czechs, Papal knights, Teutonic Knights, Bosnians, Croatians, Bulgarians,
Lithuanians, Serbs and Ruthenians (Ukrainians)[12] Papal, Venetian and Genoese ships had blockaded the Dardanelles as the
Hungarian army was to advance on Varna, where it would meet the Papal fleet and sail down the coast to Constantinople, pushing
the Ottomans out of Europe. The Hungarian advance was rapid, Ottoman fortresses were bypassed, while local Bulgarians from
Vidin, Oryahovo, and Nicopolis joined the army (Fruzhin, son of Ivan Shishman, also participated in the campaign with his own
guard). On October 10 near Nicopolis, some 4,000 Wallachian cavalrymen under Mircea II, one of Vlad Dracul's sons, also
joined. Refugee Armenians in Hungary also took part in the wars of their new country against the Ottomans as early as the battle
of Varna in 1444, when some Armenians were seen amongst the Christian forces.[13]
Deployment Late on November 9, a large Ottoman army of around 50,000 men approached Varna from the west. At a supreme
military council called by Hunyadi during the night, the Papal legate, cardinal Julian Cesarini, insisted on a quick withdrawal.
However, the Christians were caught between the Black Sea, Lake Varna, the steep wooded slopes of the Franga plateau (356 m
high), and the enemy. Cesarini then proposed a defense using the Wagenburg of the Hussites until the arrival of the Christian fleet.
The Hungarian magnates and the Croatian and Czech commanders backed him, but the young (20-year-old) Władysław and
Hunyadi rejected the defensive tactics. Hunyadi declared: "To escape is impossible, to surrender is unthinkable. Let us fight with
bravery and honor our arms." Władysław accepted this position and gave him the command. Andreas del Palatio states that
Hunyadi commanded the "Wallachian army" indicating a large Romanian component in Hunyadi's personal army.[14] In the
morning of November 10, Hunyadi deployed the army of some 20,000 crusaders as an arc between Lake Varna and the Franga
plateau; the line was about 3.5 km long. Two banners with a total of 3,500 men from the king's Polish and Hungarian bodyguards,
Hungarian royal mercenaries, and banners of Hungarian nobles held the center. The Wallachian cavalry was left in reserve behind
the center. The right flank that lined up the hill towards the village of Kamenar numbered 6,500 men in 5 banners. Bishop Jan
Dominek of Varadin with his personal banner led the force; Cesarini commanded a banner of German mercenaries and a Bosnian
one. The Bishop of Eger led his own banner, and the military governor of Slavonia, ban Franco Talotsi, commanded one Croatian
banner. The left flank, a total of 5,000 men in 5 banners, was led by Michael Szilágyi, Hunyadi's brother in law, and was made up
of Hunyadi's Transylvanians, Bulgarians, German mercenaries and banners of Hungarian magnates. Behind the Hungarians,
closer to the Black Sea and the lake, was the Wagenburg, defended by 300 or 600 Czech and Ruthenian mercenaries under hetman
Ceyka, along with Poles, Lithuanians and Wallachians. Every wagon was manned by 7 to 10 soldiers and the Wagenburg was
equipped with bombards. The Ottoman center included the Janissaries and levies from Rumelia deployed around two Thracian
burial mounds. Murad observed and directed the battle from one of them. The Janissaries dug in behind ditches and two palisades.
The right wing consisted of Kapikulus and Sipahis from Rumelia, and the left wing was made up by Akıncıs, Sipahis from
Anatolia, and other forces. Janissary archers and Akıncı light cavalry were deployed on the Franga plateau.
The battle The light Ottoman cavalry assaulted the Croats of ban Talotsi. Christians from the left riposted with bombards and
firearms and stopped the attack. Christian soldiers chased the Ottomans in a disorderly pursuit. The Anatolian cavalry ambushed
them from the flank. The Christian right wing attempted to flee to the small fortress of Galata on the other side of Varna Bay, but
most of them were slain in the marshland around Varna Lake and the river Devnya, where Cesarini also met his end. Only ban
Talotsi's troops managed to withdraw behind the Wagenburg. The other Ottoman flank assaulted the Hungarians and Bulgarians
of Michael Szilagyi. Their push was stopped and turned back; then Sipahis attacked again. Hunyadi decided to help and advised
Władysław to wait until he returned; then advanced with two cavalry companies. The young king, ignoring Hunyadi's advice,
rushed 500 of his Polish knights against the Ottoman center. They attempted to overrun the Janissary infantry and take Murad
prisoner, and almost succeeded. But Władysław had fallen in a pitfall in front of Murad's tent and slain by the Janissary
bodyguards, his head was cut off and later taken to the Ottoman court.[15] The remaining Polish cavalry was smashed by the
Ottomans. On his return, Hunyadi tried frantically to salvage the king's body but all he could accomplish was to organize the
retreat of the remains of his army. It suffered thousands of casualties, and was virtually annihilated. Many European prisoners
were slaughtered or sold as slaves; the minnesinger Michael Beheim wrote a song based on the story of one Hans Mergest who
spent 16 years in Ottoman captivity after the battle.
Aftermath The death of Władysław left Hungary in the hands of the four-year-old Ladislaus Posthumous of Bohemia and
Hungary. The defeat also set the stage for the fall of Constantinople in 1453. See also: Second Battle of Kosovo
Legacy In the aftermath the Ottomans had removed a significant opposition to their expansion into central and eastern Europe,
subsequent battles allowed a huge number of European people to become Ottoman subjects.
References
1. ^ Ervin Lipta: Magyarország hadtörténete ISBN 963-32-6337-9
2. ^ Csaba Csorba-János Estók-Konrád Salamon: Magyarország képes története, ISBN 963-548-961-7
3. ^ Ervin Lipta: Magyarország hadtörténete ISBN 963-32-6337-9
4. ^ Csaba Csorba-János Estók-Konrád Salamon: Magyarország képes története, ISBN 963-548-961-7
5. ^ Ervin Lipta: Magyarország hadtörténete ISBN 963-32-6337-9
6. ^ Csaba Csorba-János Estók-Konrád Salamon: Magyarország képes története, ISBN 963-548-961-7
7. ^ Ervin Lipta: Magyarország hadtörténete ISBN 963-32-6337-9
8. ^ Csaba Csorba-János Estók-Konrád Salamon: Magyarország képes története, ISBN 963-548-961-7
9. ^ László Markó: A Magyar Állam Főméltóságai, ISBN 963-547-085-1
10. ^ Bodnar, Edward W. Ciriaco d'Ancona e la crociata di Varna, nuove prospettive. Il Veltro 27, nos. 1–2 (1983):
235–51
11. ^ Halecki, Oscar, The Crusade of Varna. New York, 1943
12. ^ Magyarország hadtörténete (1984), 102.-103. pg.
13. ^ Basmadjian (1922) (in French), Histoire moderne des Armeniens, Paris, p. 45.
14. ^ Istoria Romaniei, Vol II, p. 440, 1960
15. ^ Florescu, Radu R.; Raymond McNally (1989). Dracula, Prince of Many Faces: His Life and His Times.
Boston: Little, Brown & Co..
External links
• Battle map (Hungarian)
• Imber, Colin (July 2006). "Introduction" (PDF). The Crusade of Varna, 1443–45. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0-7546-
0144-7. http://www.ashgate.com/subject_area/downloads/sample_chapters/Crusade_of_Varna_Intro.pdf.
• Ervin Liptai: Magyarország hadtörténete I. Zrínyi Katonai Kiadó, Budapest 1984. ISBN 963-326-320-4
• Battle of Varna animated battle map by Jonathan Webb
The memorial of the battle in Varna, built in an antique Thracian mound tomb, bearing the name of the fallen king
Died October 23, 1456 (aged 70) Ilok, Syrmia, Kingdom of Hungary[1]
Canonized 1690 or 1724, Rome by either Pope Alexander VIII or Pope Benedict XIII
Manuscript depicting John of Capistrano, ca. 1470. Statue of John of Capistrano in Budapest, Hungary.
. The saint's coat of arms, with a sword piercing a crescent moon, on the Papal Ombrellino at Mission Basilica San Juan
Capistrano
Siege of Belgrade (1456)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Ottoman Empire
Kingdom of Hungary Serbs European Crusaders
Commanders and leaders
North wall of the Belgrade Fortress from the 17th century. Part of Belgrade Fortress from the 17th century.
Battle of Nándorfehérvár, Hungarian painting from the 19. century. In the middle Giovanni da Capistrano with the cross in his
hand.Stone in the Kalemegdan park, in Belgrade, with engraved inscription on the place where Christian forces under command
of John Hunyadi won the battle against the Ottomans in the year 1456.
Gothic fresco Siege of Belgrade in Church of Immaculate Conception of Virgin Mary in Olomouc (Czech Republic) from 1468 is
probably the oldest depiction of the battle. It depicts Giovanni da Capistrano in the center and John Hunyadi on the left with flag.
Siege of Belgrade (in Hungarian: Nándorfehérvár) 1456. Hünername 1584. Fortress of Belgrade as it looked in the Middle Ages.
The lower and upper town with the palace are visible.
Matthias Corvinus (1458-1490)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Matthias on the 1000 Hungarian forint banknote The Hunyad Castle, where Matthias grew up.Transylvania,present-day Romania
Medieval Coat of Arms of Matthias Corvinus, guarded by Black Army heavy infantry men. Matthias Church, Budapest. The
damaged art relic was renovated in 1893. The roughly 50 years old Matthias (contemporary sculpture from Buda Castle) Signature
and the royal stamp
Matthias Corvinus as depicted in Chronica Hungarorum by Johannes de Thurocz Coat of arms John Corvinus (His illegitime son)
triumphed in Vienna in 1485
heraldry and young Matthias as depicted in Johannes de Thurocz's German manuscript (1490)
Western conquests of Matthias Corvinus.
Black Army of Hungary (1458-1494)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
tail was reconstructed after a miniature in Philostratus Chronicle, one of the Corvinas,
Heraldry
representing the 1485 entry of János Corvinus, son of king Matthew, into Vienna. The black
colour of the flag used to be white (argent) in fact, but the argent paint oxidized. The
reconstruction preserves the original colour.
Mascot Raven
Engagements Holy Roman Empire, Bohemia, Serbia, Bosnia, Moldavia, Wallachia, Italy
Commanders
Notable
Pál Kinizsi, Balázs Magyar, Imre Zápolya, John Giskra, John Haugwitz, František Hag
commanders
The Black Army (Hungarian: Fekete sereg, pronounced [ˈfɛkɛtɛ ˈʃɛrɛɡ] 'Black Legion' or 'Regiment'—possibly named after their
black armor panoply, see below) is in historiography the common name given to the military forces serving under the reign of
King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary. The ancestor and core of this early standing mercenary army appeared in the era of his father
(John Hunyadi) in the early 1440s.
Hungary's Black Army traditionally encompasses the years from 1458 to 1494.[1] The mercenary soldiers of other countries in the
era were conscripted from the general population at times of crisis and soldiers worked as bakers, farmers, brick-makers, etc. for
most of the year. In contrast, the men of the Black Army fought as well-paid, full-time mercenaries and were purely devoted to
the arts of warfare. It was a standing mercenary army, which conquered parts of Austria, Vienna (1485) and parts of Moravia. The
core of the army originally consisted of 6-8 thousand mercenaries,[2] later increasing to a permanent size of 30.000 men and
doubling during invasions. The soldiers were mainly Bohemians, Germans, Serbs, Poles[3] and, from 1480, Hungarians. Every
fifth soldier in the Black Army had an arquebus in the infantry, which was an unusual ratio at the time. The high price of
medieval gunpowder prevented them from raising it any further.[4] The main troops of the army were the infantry, artillery and
light and heavy cavalry. The function of the heavy cavalry was to protect the light armored infantry and artillery, while the other
corps delivered random, surprise assaults on the enemy. One important victory of the Black Army of Hungary was at the Battle
of Breadfield where the Hungarians defeated the Ottomans. The death of Matthias Corvinus meant the end of the Black Army
since Vladislaus II was not able to cover the cost of the army.[2]
Development of a modern well-organized drafting In the first years of Matthias' rule, the structure of enlisting troops was built
on the legacy of his ancestor Sigismund of Luxembourg. The majority of his army consisted of noble banners[2] and the soldiers
provided and regulated by the Militia Portalis (English: manor militia),[5] which outlined that for every twenty serf-lots (portae) a
noble was ordered to raise and lend one archer to the king. Later, that obligation was reconsidered and the limit was shifted to an
archer per 33 manors and three mounted archers per 100 manors. Those who didn't have serfs but owned manors as a noble had to
join a regional count in state of war. No significant number of mercenaires were present in the Hungarian army during Matthias'
early years. (In the 1463 Janus Pannonius' report of the siege of Jajce Castle, there is no mention of them.) In case of emergency, a
last chance existed for the actual king in power to suddenly mobilize the population. Every noble, no matter his social class, had to
participate in person with his weaponry and all of his personal guards made available. These were the estate armies.[2] Whenever
they were called upon they were not allowed to fight for over 15 days and their field of operations was restricted within the
borders of Hungary. The so-called insurrectio (noble insurrection) was nothing more than an obsolete form of drafting but it was
valid until the Battle of Raab in 1809, mainly because it relieved the participting nobles of paying their taxes. But generally, these
enlisted armada played a minor role in the Black Army since Matthias decreased their participation gradually and called them in in
large numbers early in his reign.[6] In the laws of 1459 of Szeged, he restored the basis of 20 serfs induct an archer (this time it was
based on the numbers of persons). The barons' militia portalis no longer counted in the local noble's banner but into the army of
the county (led by a captain appointed by the king) and could have been sent abroad as well. He also lifted the insurrectio's time
of service from 15 days to 3 months.[7]
Size of
Country Ruler Deployment Year of military census
army
Kingdom of
Edward I 28,700 Falkirk campaign1 1298
England
Filippo Maria
Duchy of
Visconti Duke of 30,000 Battle of Maclodio4 1427
Milan
Milan
Siege of
Ottoman
Sultan Mehmet II 100,000 Nándorfehérvár 1456
Empire
(Belgrade)6
Duchy of
Count Amadeus 3,000 Gallipoli7 1366
Savoy
Taxonomy
Table 1 :Largest Middle Age European armies
Comparison of 15th century armies in focus of their size[8]
1
combined of 3,000 heavy cavalry and over 25,700 infantry
2
consisting of 28,000 men-at-arms and 16,700 foot soldiers
3
crew of the navy of 3,300 ships[9]
4
estimated[10]
5
(2/3 of which are cavalry)
6
round number
7
:300 Venitian brigandi,[11] English condottiero led by Enguerrand de Coucy[12]
Though these efforts were sound, the way they were carried out wasn't in any way supervised. In 1458, Matthias borrowed as
much as 500 heavy cavalry from George of Poděbrady to strengthen his situation at home against his rival landlords. This marks
the turning-point away from obsolete noble banners to skilled soldiers of fortune (in this case they were remnants of Hussites
whose battle tactics were later adapted by the Black Army).[6] He needed more seasoned veterans so he chose to settle a group of
rogue Czech army deserters led by John Jiskra who were already plundering the northern countryside seeking daily loot. Jiskra
was promised royal pardon in the Peace Treaty of Wiener Neustadt of 1463 and two castles, Solymos and Lippa (now Şoimuş and
Lipova), and his soldiers received a payment of 25.000 ducats. The next year he was stationed in Bosnia to fight the Ottomans.[13]
Previously in 1462, the king sent word to his equerry that he should hire 8 000 cavalry to start a holy war against the Ottoman
Empire only if the Venetians - according to their promise - covered the expenses (unfortunately for the Hungarians, this financial
aid was postponed from time to time). The first major and mass conscription of mercenaries appeared during the Bohemian Wars
(1468–78) whereas the core of his royal infantry a force of 6 000-8 000 armed men were incorporated into the Black Army (the
origins of the moniker could also come from this era)[14]
The term Black Army and its captains Several speculations arose about the army's cognomen. The first recorded accounts using
the "black" attribute appear in written memoranda immediately after his death, when the rest of the army was pillaging the
Hungarian and later Austrian villages when they received no pay. One theory‹See Tfd›[weasel words] suggests that they wore a black
stripe on their shoulder as a sign of mourning. The Italian Medieval historian, Bonfini, used the word only to describe the
"toughness" of veterans serving in their lines. Others‹See Tfd›[weasel words] suppose that Captain Frantisek Hag's black chestplate
inspired the name. A third idea is that they adopted the adjective from another captain, "Black" John Haugwitz, whose nickname
already earned him enough recognition to be identified with the army as a whole.[2]Since no such name as the "Black Army"
existed when Matthias' army was in service, all of his leaders, who were in charge of different army branches, count as Black
Army generals.[clarification needed] Another noteworthy general was Pál Kinizsi who helped Corvinus' successor, Vladislas II of
Hungary, to dissolve what remained of the discontent Black Army.[6]
Funding the army to its greatest extent After Matthias' income increased periodically, simultaneously, the number of
mercenaries increased as well. Historical records vary when it comes to numbers mainly because it changed from battle to battle
and most soldiers were only employed for the duration of combat or a longer conflict. Reckoning the nobility's banners, the
mercenaries, the soldiers of conquered Moravia and Silesia, and the troops of allied Moldovia and Wallachia, the king could have
gathered an army of 90.000 men. (Despite the levies formed mainly by peasants and shepherds, Wallachia and Moldavia remained
vassal countries of Hungary or Poland and, later, the Ottoman Empire.) The nobility's participation in the battlefield were ignored
by the time their support could have been redeemed in gold later on. The cities were also relieved of paying war-levies if they
supplied the craftsmanship and weapon production to equip the military. King Matthias increased the serf's taxes; he switched the
basis of taxing from the portae to the households and, occasionally, they collected the royal dues twice a year during wartime.
Counting the vassals' tribute, the western contributions, the local nobility's war payment, the tithes, and the urban taxes, Matthias'
annual income reached 650.000 florins for comparison the Ottoman Empire had 1.800.000/year[14]. In contrast to popular belief,
historians have speculated for decades that the actual sum altogether could circle around 800.000 florins in a good year at the peak
of Matthias' reign, but never surpassed the financial threshold of one million florins, a previously commonly accepted number.[15]
In 1467, Matthias Corvinus reformed the coin system to see to the easier accumulation of taxes and manageable disbursements
and introduced an improved dinar, which had a finer silver content (500‰) and weighted half a gram. He also re-established its
ratio, where one florin of gold equaled 100 dinars of silver, which was so stable that it remained in place until the mid-16th
century.[16] The army was divided into three parts: the cavalry, paid 3 florins per horse; the pavisors received double the money;
and the archers, light infantry and arquebusiers, with the latter consisting of mostly Bohemian, Germans and Poles (all paid
differently). Medieval gunpowder was quite expensive so the king preferred adapting Hussite tactics to mounted warfare (based
on defense, placing infantry behind wagon blockades or tall pavises, while the cavalry contantly harassed the enemy and guarded
the "middle") and placed archery in favor of fusiliers with the latter being engaged at the very start of the battle. With firearm
production being made available by local marksmen in Transylvania, especially in Braşov,[6][17] [18] these type of ranged infantry
became cheaper to handle for the Hungarians.[7]
Improving the river fleet The river fleet (Hungarian: flottila or naszád) was composed of wooden galleys, rowboats (later
upgraded to gunboats) and smaller ships, which were capable of sailing up the rivers Danube, Tisza and Sava. The victory at the
Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) in 1456, where the fleet played a significant role in breaking through the Turkish river blockade to
bring relief to the besieged city, showed its importance and signaled the beginning of a recognition of its significance. It also
encouraged King Matthias to build a larger and better equipped navy. Since they were manned by South Slavs, mainly Serbs and
Croats, the two major ports of operations were Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) and Szabács (Šabac). In 1475, concomitantly with the
introduction of field guns, he ordered the installation of artillery onto the river barges as well as bombards able to shot cannonballs
ranging from 100-200 lb. In 1479, he had a mixed fleet of 360 vessels, a crew of 2600 sailors, and a capacity of 10.000 soldiers on
board.[7][19] Matthias also secured an exit to the Adriatic Sea, the city-port of Zengg from which Balázs Matthias could embark for
his maritime campaigns.[20] Matthias could also monitor the trade going through the Danube delta to the Black Sea from the City
of Kilia, but during his reign, it was seized by the Moldavian army supported by the Ottoman fleet.[21]
Uprisings within the Black Army The disadvantage of having periodically or occasionally paid recruits was that if their money
hadn't arrived on time, they simply left the battlefield or - in a worse scenario - they revolted, as it happened in several instances.
Since they were the same skilled men-at-arms led by the same leaders previously fighting under the Hungarian flag, they were as
difficult to eliminate as the Black Army was to its enemies. However they could be outnumbered since it was always a flank or
division which quit the campaign. An easier solution was when the captain accepted some lands and castles to be mortgaged in
return of service (in one occasion the forts of Ricsó (Hričovský hrad) and Nagybiccse (Bytča) to František Hag). An example of
mass desertion occurred in 1481 when a group of 300 horsemen joined the opposing Holy Roman forces. One of these recorded
insurrections was conducted by Jan Svehla who accompanied Corvinus to Slavonia in 1465 to beat the Ottomans. But when they
were approaching Zagreb, Svehla asked for royal permission to officially quit the offensive with his mercenaries due to financial
difficulty. His request was denied and as a consequence, he and two of his vice-captains left the royal banner along with their
regiments. Following their breakaway George of Poděbrady secretly supported their invasion into the Comitatus of Nitra and their
occupation of the fort of Kosztolány as the army was composed of Czech or Moravian professionals, previously in service for
Podebrad and Frederick III. Apart from the militia, there were religious outcasts (considered heretics) looking for shelter,
including Hussite Brethrens and rogue Moravian Žebraks[nb 1] who favoured pillaging instead of payment. Svehla established an
ad-hoc fort and he appointed Jorig Lichtenburger and Vöttau as comeses for the county. The fort and its looting inhabitants had a
surrounding sphere of influence ranging from the valleys of Váh and Nitra to the eastern provinces of Austria. Matthias realized
the threat and ordered two of his "upper-land" captains to besiege Kosztolany, namely Stefan Zápolya and Ladislaus
Podmaniczky. After returning from Slavonia the King joined the siege. It is worth mentioning that here, among few occasions,
Matthias cooperated with Frederick. He sent a strong armoured mounted troop led by commander Ulrich von Grafeneck to help
wipe out these brigades. When he reached Pozsony (Bratislava), he was reinforced by Knight Georg Pottendorfer with his 600
crusader cavalry. This totaled 8-10 thousand people ready to besiege who began an assault after taking some minor fortifications
on 1 January 1467. The vanguards of the Black Army officers were all present against their former ally. They included the
Palatinate Mihály Országh, Jan Jiskra, Jan Haugwitz, Balázs Magyar, Pál Kinizsi, Nicholaus Ujlaki Ban of Macsó (Mačva), and
Peter Sobi Ban of Bosnia-Croatia-Dalmatia, with the latter-most dying in the assault. Before the siege began, Matthias offered
Svehla the chance to return to his service in exchange for a unconditional surrender on all grounds. After a refusal, he immediately
began the siege and the cannon-firing despite the harsh winter conditions. Svehla and his 2.500 men (and additional citizens)
resisted the superior besiegers, but food storages reached extremely low levels by time and all the efforts to break out were
unsuccessful so he decided to capitulate twice to Matthias with the aforementioned taking his revenge in rejecting it. After three
weeks Svehla feigned a break-out attempt in the front while getting out from the rear through a water channel. Though his
physically weak and exhausted entourage of 2 000 infantry tried to elude the besieging forces, they weren't fast enough to escape
safely. Balázs Magyar and Pál Kinizsi rode down to the fort of Csejte (Čachtice) where they clashed. Almost all of the rioters fell,
only 250 taken as prisoners. Svehla evaded capture again but was put in custody by peasants by the time he was too debilitated to
fight.
Matthias doomed him to be hung up along with the remaining couple of hundred prisoners. This was a rather violent act regarding
the campaigns of King Matthias Corvin. The very next day on 31 January 1467, witnessing the executions, the garrison asked for
mercy and it was granted; and after taking Kosztolány he also offered František Hag - officer member of the resistance group -
captainship in the Black Army since he found him skilled enough. Although in another case in 1474, František Hag revolted due
to lack of pay but the conflict ended without violence and he remained Matthias' subject until his death.[6][20][23]
Branches, tactics, equipments
Heavy Cavalry At the height of the century, the heavy cavalry was already at its peak although it showed signs of declining
tendencies. The striking power and the ability to charge without backup made them capable of forcing a decisive outcome in most
battles. Although they were rarely deployed on their own, if they were, they would take square formations. Such turning-points
occurred at the battle of Breadfield (1479). Usually they made up one-sixth of the army and with mercenary knights were in the
majority. Their armament was well-prepared and of high quality except for the noble banners. This stands for proprietary arms not
the ones provided by the King.
Weaponry
• Lances: The lance was the principal assault weapon of the tilting heavy cavalry. They were up to 4 meters long, ranging
from the classical lance type with a lengthened spearhead (often decorated with animal tails, flags or other ornaments), to the
short conical spearheaded, one designed for piercing heavy armour. A buckler-like vamplate protected the hand and arm. Its
stability was increased with a fastening hook (lance-arret) on the side of the horseman's cuirass.
• Swords: The most common swords of the era originated from Southern Europe.[citation needed] They were 1 meter long with
an "S"-shaped crossguard with an edge designed to slice rather than to pierce because of its rounded pinpoint.[clarification needed]
Its thick pommel was useful for balancing and for whizzing[clarification needed] in close combat. The other version which became
popular in the second half of the century, where the whole body is very similar[clarification needed] except for the quillon, was bent
towards the pin[clarification needed] for the purpose of breaking or clinching the enemy's blade. The 130–140 cm long
bastardswords also came into use. As a companion weapon, daggers of saw-toothed and flame-form type were applied (both
with ring-guard) and a misericordia.
• Apart from these, they carried auxiliary weapons such as Gothic maces, flanged maces, axes and crossbows (balistrero
ad cavallo) and short shields similar in design to the pavise (petit pavois)) for defense.[24]
Light cavalry The traditional hussars were introduced by Matthias; henceforth the light cavalry is called huszár, a name derived
from the word húsz (twenty in English), which refers to the drafting scheme where for every twenty serfs a noble owned, he had to
equip a mounted soldier. After the Diet of Temesvár (Timişoara) of 1397, the light cavalry was institutionalized as an arm
division. They were the second ranked in order within an army and generally considered an elite force. They assembled from the
militia portalis, a significant number of them insurrectios, the Moldavians and Transylvanians with the first having serfs with
lesser accoutrement and the latter generally regarded as good horsearchers. They were divided into groups of 25 (turma) led by a
captain (capitaneus gentium levis armature). Their field of operation was scouting, securing, prowling, cutting enemy supply
lines, and disarraying them in battle. They also served as an additional maneuverable flank (for swooping advance attacks) to
strong centers of heavy cavalry.
Weaponry Helmet, mail shirt, sabre, targe, spear and in some cases throwing axes and topors.
• Sabres (szablya): One type followed the tradition of Southern European longswords ("S"-shaped crossguard), while
gradually transforming into an Eastern style blended (Turkish) sabre. The other type was the so-called huszarszablya
(hussarsabre), a 40mm thick multi-layered sabre stuck with 3–6 rivets.
• Bows: The traditional Magyar composite bow and, due to heavy Eastern influence, the more powerful Turkish-Tatar bow
came into play.
• Axes: Throwing axes could also have had some role in light cavalry weaponry. It was made from one piece of metal,
with a short engraved haft. If the arc of the blade is almost flat or slightly curved, it is called the Hungarian type axe. A
subsidiary to the aforementioned beaked pickaxe was also favored: it had a beak-looking, protruding edge resulting in a
stronger piercing effect.[24]
Infantry Infantry was less important but formed a stable basis in the integrity of an army. They were organized from mixed
ethnicities and were composed of heavy infantry, shielded soldiers, light infantry and fusiliers. Their characteristics include the
combination of plate and mail armour, and the use of the pavises (these painted willow-wood large shields were often ornamented
and covered with leather and linen). The latter served for multiple purposes: to hold enemy attack, cover ranged infantry shooting
from behind (fusiliers engage first, the archer fire constantly), and moveable hussite-style Tabor (with a restricted deployment of
war wagons in number).
Weaponry various long-range weapons including bows, crossbows, arquebuses; all sorts of melee weapons, halberds, pikes, awl-
pikes; hussite/peasant weapons such as slings, frails; handweapons like morgensterns and war-hammers, and classical swords and
sabres.
• Melee weapons: Corseques, glaives, partisans, Friulian spears, and halberds were all adapted depending on the social
class and nationality of the infatrymen. The 15th-century type of halberd was a transition which mixed the hatchet with the
awl-pike, sometimes affixed with a "beak" that was used the pull a knight off his horse and to inrease its piercing impact.
They were covered with metal langlets on the side to prevent being cut in two.
• Archery: The most valuable archers were the crossbowmen. Their number in Matthias' service reached 4 000 in the
1470s. They used sabres as a secondary weapon (which was unusual for infantry in those ages). Their primary advantage was
the ability to shoot heavy armour, while the disadvantages were that they required defense to protect them while moving
slowly in a standing position.
• Arquebusiers: Matthias disfavored them compared to archery. They charged in the early stages of battle. Their aiming
ability, price and the danger of primitive handcannons (self-exploding) prevented them from being highly effective,
especially against smaller groups of people or hand-to-hand combat. A distinctive Hungarian feature was that they didn't use
a fork to stabilize their guns but put it on top of the pavese instead (or in some cases on the parapet of a wagon). Two types
were simoultanously brought to practice, the schioppi (handgun) and the arquebus à croc (not to be confused with cannons).
Three classes of handguns were distinguished: the "bearded" light guns; forked guns; the first primitive muskets (irontube
compounded with wooden grip to be pushed against the shoulder). Their calibers varied from 16 to 24mm.[24]
Arsenal
Glaive. Corseque. Flanged maces- Peasant flail- Pavese shield Bastardsword Blended crossguarded sword Morning Stars
Crossbow and accessories. Parts of a longsword.
The ancient "Roman guards" of the tomb of Jesus Christ were depicted as contemporary infantrymen of the Kingdom of
Hungary. Church of Hronský Beňadik (built around 1470s, then called Garamszentbenedek)
Dissolution of the Black Army Before his death in 6 April 1490 King Matthias asked his captains and barons to pledge an oath to
his son John Corvinus and secure his succession to the throne. Though John was the biggest estate holder in Hungary and had the
command over the Black Army his stepmother Queen Beatrice of Naples invited two heirs the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian
I and Polish prince John I Albert for an inhernheritance assembly to be held at Buda. The first based his claim on the Peace Treaty
of Wiener Neustadt while the latter on his family ties. Furthermore the Hungarian barons invited a third pretender, the King of
Bohemia and brother of John Albert Vladislas II. After the barons double crossed John Corvinus he escaped from the capital and
was up to moving to Pécs, while he was attacked midway at Szabaton village and suffered a defeat, from which he could retreat.
No parts of the Black Army was - yet - involved as their core was stuck in Silesia and Styria. Their famed captains Blaise Magyar
and Paul Kinizsi joined the pretenders' side, John Albert and Vladislas respectively the latter subsequently became the legitime
king.[25] Maximilian immediately attacked the conquested territories of in Austria in 1490. The Black Army fortified itself in the
occupied forts on the western border. Most of them were captured by trick, bribery, citizen revolt in a few weeks without any
major battles. The trenchline along the river Enns, which was built by mercenary captain Wilhelm Tettauer resisted quite
successfully for a month. Due to the lack of payment some of the Black Army mercenaries mostly Czechs switched side and
joined the Holy Roman army of 20.000 men in invading Hungary. They advanced in the heart of Hungary and managed to capture
the city of Székesfehérvár, which he sacked as well as the tomb of King Matthias kept there. Still his Landsknechts were
unsatisfied with the plunder and refused to go for taking Buda. He returned to the Empire in late December but left garrisons of a
few hundred soldiers in those Hungarian cities and castles he occupied.[26] The National Council of the barons decided to
recuperate the cities lost especially Székesfehérvár. The Black Army was put on reserve at Eger but their payment of 46.000
Forints were late again so they robbed the neighboring monasteries, churches, peasantries and lorddoms. After their dues were
paid appointed captain Steven Báthory gathered an army of a total 40.000 soldiers and began the siege in June 1491, which lasted
for a month. More minor cities were regained and without further support from the German nobility Maximilian agreed to
negotiate and in the end he signed the Peace of Pressburg in 1491, which included the ceding the Silesian lands to him.[26] John
Haugwitz never recognized this treaty and held their possessions in Silesia afterwards.[27] Meanwhile disappointed John Albert
gathered an army at the eastern border of Hungary nad attacked the vicinity of Kassa and Tokaj also in 1490. John Corvinus
accepted Vladislaus as his feudal lord and helped him in his coronation (he personally handled the crown to him). Vladislaus
married widow queen Beatrice in order to acquire her assets of 500.000 Forints. This would have allowed him to cover the
expenses of the Black Army stationed in Moravia and upper Silesia and the cost of transporting them home to upper Hungary to
defend it from the Polish army of John Albert.[26]John Filipec on the behalf of the new King helped to convince Silesian Black
Army leader John Haugwitz to return to duty in exchange for 100.000 Forints. The Hungarian-Czech army of 18.000 met the
Polish troops in December 1491 in the Battle of Eperjes (Prešov) which was a decisive victory for the Black Army.[27] John Albert
withdrew to Poland and promised he has no further claims to the throne. The Black Army was sent to the south region to fight the
Ottoman invasions. While waiting for their wages they sought plunder in the nearby villages. The National Council orderer Paul
Kinizsi to stop the plundering at all costs. He arrived to Szegednic-Halászfalu in late August 1492, where he dispersed the Black
Army led by Haugwitz. From the 8000 members 2000 were able to escape to western Styria where they continued to pillage the
countryside.[27] The prisoners were escorted to Buda where the Black Army was officially disbanded and they were allowed to
leave abroad under the condition to never come back and claim their payment. They joined the forces already in Austria.[1] They
confronted count Georg Eynczinger on May 7, 1493. at Thaya, where they were all killed or captured and tortured to death. The
last remaining mercenaries were integrated into local garrisons like the one in Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) under the leadership of
Balthasar Tettauer, brother of Wilhelm Tettauer. They were so frustrated on their financial status they even blackguardly allied
with Ottoman Mihaloğlu Ali Bey to secretly handle the fort to his Sultan Bayezid II. With their plan surfaced Paul Kinizsi
intervene in May 1494 before their act could take place. He arrested the captain and his crew for treason, and famished them to
death.[1]
Stephen Dávidházy
Victory
HRE ỗ← 1484 Leitzersdorf, Archduchy of Austria
Tobias von Boskowitz und (Details)
Černahora[20]
Stephen Dávidházy†[30]
HRE ۩ 1484 Korneuburg, Archduchy of Austria Victory
Tobias von Boskowitz und
Černahora[20]
Matthias Corvinus[31]
Pł. ۩ 1474 Wrocław, Duchy of Silesia Melchior Löbel Victory
Jan II the Mad[32]
Cz. ỗ← 1468 Olomouc, Margravate of Moravia Matthias Corvinus[33] Victory
Cz. ỗ← 1469 Hradiště, Margravate of Moravia Matthias Corvinus[33] Defeat
Victory
HRE ۩ 1485 Vienna, Archduchy of Austria Matthias Corvinus[20] (Details)
Matthias Corvinus
Emeric Zápolya[34]
Wilhelm Tettauer[35]
Bartholomew Drágffy of
Beltiug
Wiener-Neustadt, Archduchy of Victory
HRE ۩ 1487 Jacob Szekler
Austria (Details)
Ladislaus Kanizsay
Peter Geréb of Vingard
Matthias Geréb of Vingard
Stephen V Báthory
[36]
Stefan Zápolya[22]
HRE ۩ 1480 Radkersburg, Duchy of Styria Victory
Jacob Szekler [37]
Paul Kinizsi
Victory
Ott. ỗ← 1479 Breadfield, Kingdom of Hungary Stephen V Báthory (Details)
Vuk Grgurević
Basarab Laiotă cel Bătrân
Matthias Corvinus
Defeat
Mld ỗ← 1467 Baia, Principality of Moldavia
(Details)
Stephen V Báthory
Matthias Corvinus
John Kállay V.
George Parlagi Victory
Ott. ۩ 1463 Jajce, Bosnia
(Details)
Paul Kállay I.[38]
Provost Gaspar Bak of Berend[39]
Matthias Geréb of Vingard[40]
Emeric Zápolya[41]
Ott. ۩ 1464 Jajce, Bosnia Jacob Szekler Victory
[42]
Matthias Corvinus
Ott. ۩ 1464 Srebrenik, Bosnia Victory
Emeric Zápolya[43]
Matthias Corvinus
Ott. ۩ 1464 Zvornik, Bosnia Defeat
Emeric Zápolya
Count Sigismund Szentgyörgyi
Berthold Elderbach
Monyorókeréki
Nicholas Székely Szentgyörgyi
Ladislaus Kanizsay [43]
George Matucsinai
Paul Kinizsi
Ott. ỗ← 1482 Zrenjanin, Despotate of Serbia Peter Dóczy Victory
Vuk Grgurević[50]
Cz. ỗ← 1469 Vilémov, Margravate of Moravia Matthias Corvinus (surrender)[nb 3] Defeat
Cz. ỗ← 1469 Uherský Brod, Margravate of Moravia Matthias Corvinus[54] Defeat
Špilberk Castle, Margravate of
Cz. ۩ 1469 Matthias Corvinus[55] Victory
Moravia
Ott. ỗ← 1481 Bosnasaray, Ottoman Empire Matthias Corvinus[56] Victory
Matthias Corvinus
Pł. ۩ 1471 Nitra, Kingdom of Hungary Victory
Emeric Zápolya[nb 4]
Pł. ۩ 1473 Michalovce, Kingdom of Hungary Matthias Corvinus Victory
Demeter Jaksics
Michael Csupor†
[62]
Matthias Corvinus
Pł. ۩ 1473 Humenné, Kingdom of Hungary Victory
[62]
Sebastian Rozgonyi
hss ۩ ≠ 1459 Hlohovec, Kingdom of Hungary Victory
bishop Ladislaus Héderváry[59]
Sebastian Rozgonyi
hss ۩ ≠ 1458 Vadna, Kingdom of Hungary Victory
bishop Ladislaus Héderváry[28]
Sebastian Rozgonyi
hss ۩ 1459 Sárospatak, Kingdom of Hungary bishop Ladislaus Héderváry Victory
Blaise Magyar[28]
Matthias Corvinus
hss ۩ ≠ 1460 Gyöngyöspata, Kingdom of Hungary Sebastian Rozgonyi Victory
Sebastian Rozgonyi
hss ۩ ≠ 1458 Nižná Myšľa, Kingdom of Hungary bishop Ladislaus Héderváry Victory
Blaise Magyar[64]
Kežmarok Castle, Kingdom of
hss ۩ 1462 Stefan Zápolya[28] Victory
Hungary
Sebastian Rozgonyi
hss ۩ ≠ 1458 Sečovce, Kingdom of Hungary Victory
Blaise Magyar[64]
hss ỗ← 1458 Rimavská Seč, Kingdom of Hungary Sebastian Rozgonyi[28] Victory
Matthias Corvinus
HRE ۩ 1486 Eggenburg, Archduchy of Austria Victory
Bartholomew Drágffy of
Beltiug[36]
Laa an der Thaya, Archduchy of
HRE ۩ 1486 Matthias Corvinus[73] Victory
Austria
Victory
HRE ۩ 1486 Retz, Archduchy of Austria Matthias Corvinus[73] (Details)
Matthias Corvinus
Victory
HRE ۩ 1485 Kaiserebersdorf, Archduchy of Austria
Tobias von Boskowitz und (Details)
Černahora[67]
HRE ۩ 1485 Pitten, Archduchy of Austria Matthias Corvinus[74] Victory
†
: Denotes captain deceased in battle Mld : Moldavians
۩ : Denotes a siege (the dates at sieges concerns to the Pope : Papal State
end of siege) Sax. : Saxony
ỗ← : Denotes an open field battle Ven. : Venice
≠ : Denotes a minor conflict involving less than 5000 PŁ. : Kingdom of Poland
Hungarian units hss : Hussites
Cz. : Czechs HUN : Hungary
HRE : Holy Roman Empire
Ott. : Ottomans
Against Hungary
HRE ۩ ≠ 1490 Ernsthofen, Kingdom of Hungary Wilhelm Tettauer[26] Defeat
Stefan Zápolya
Pł. ỗ← 1491 Prešov, Hungary John Haugwitz[27] Victory
(supporting army)
HUN ỗ← 1492 Szegednic, Halászfalu; Kingdom of Hungary John Haugwitz[27] Defeat
†[27]
HRE ỗ← ≠ 1493 Thaya, Holy Roman Empire John Haugwitz Defeat
†[1]
HUN ۩ ≠ 1494 Belgrade, Kingdom of Hungary Balthasar Tettauer Defeat
Notes
Strength
40,000 Moldavians 5,000 Székelys 2,000 Polish ~ 60,000 - 80,000 17,000 Wallachians(did not participate
1,800 Hungarians 20 cannons in the battle) 20,000 Bulgarians
Casualties and losses
Unknown 40,000+
The Battle of Vaslui (also referred to as the Battle of Podul Înalt or the Battle of Racova) was fought on January 10, 1475
between Stephen III of Moldavia and the Ottoman Beylerbey of Rumelia, Hadân Suleiman Pasha. The battle took place at Podul
Înalt (the High Bridge), near the town of Vaslui, in Moldavia (now part of eastern Romania). The Ottoman troops numbered up to
120,000, facing about 40,000 Moldavian troops, plus smaller numbers of allied and mercenary troops.[2]
Stephen inflicted on the Ottomans a decisive defeat that has been described as "the greatest ever secured by the Cross against
Islam,"[3] with casualties, according to Venetian and Polish records, reaching beyond 40,000 on the Ottoman side. Mara Brankovic
(Mara Hatun), who had formerly been the younger wife of Murad II, told a Venetian envoy that the invasion had been worst ever
defeat for the Ottomans.[4] Stephen was later awarded the title "Athleta Christi" (Champion of Christ) by Pope Sixtus IV, who
referred to him as "Verus christiane fidei aletha" (The true defender of the Christian faith).[5] According to the Polish chronicler
Jan Długosz, Stephen did not celebrate his victory; instead, he fasted for forty days on bread and water and forbade anyone to
attribute the victory to him, insisting that credit be given only to "The Lord."
Background See also: The Night Attack and Battle of Baia The conflict between Stephen and Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II
worsened when both laid their claims to the historical region of Bessarabia, now known under the name of Budjak. The region had
first belonged to Wallachia, but later succumbed to Moldavian influence under Petru I of Moldavia and was possibly annexed to
Moldavia in the late 14th century by Roman I of Moldavia.[6] Under Alexandru cel Bun, it had become an integral part of
Moldavia and was successfully defended in 1420 against the first Ottoman attempt to capture castle Chilia.[7] The ports of Chilia
and Akkerman (Romanian: Cetatea Albā) were essential for Moldavian commerce. The old trade route from Caffa, Akkerman,
and Chilia passed through Suceava in Moldavia and Lwow in Poland (now in Ukraine). Both Poland and Hungary had previously
made attempts to control the region, but had failed; and for the Ottomans, "the control of these two ports and of Caffa was as
much an economic as a political necessity,"[8] as it would also give them a better grip on Moldavia and serve as a valuable
strategic point from which naval attacks could be launched against the Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania. This is confirmed by
a German chronicle which explains that Mehmet wanted to turn Moldavia into "some kind of fortress," and from there, to launch
attacks against Poland and Hungary.[9] The Ottomans also feared the strategic position of Moldavia, from whence it would only
take 15 to 20 days to reach Constantinople.[10] In 1448, Petru II of Moldavia awarded Chilia to John Hunyadi, the governor of
Transylvania;[4] and in effect, it gave Hungary control of the strategic area on the Danube, with access to the Black Sea. With the
assassination of Bogdan II of Moldavia in 1451 by his brother Petru Aron, the country fell into civil war, as two pretenders fought
for the throne: Aron and Alexăndrel.[11] Bogdan's son, Stephen, fled Moldavia together with his cousin, Vlad Dracula — who had
sought protection at the Moldavian court — to Transylvania, at the court of Hunyadi.[11] Even though Hungary had made peace
with the Turks in 1451, Hunyadi wanted to transform Wallachia and Moldavia into a barrier that would protect the kingdom from
Ottoman expansion.[12] In the fall of 1453, after the Ottoman capture of Constantinople, Moldavia received an ultimatum to start
paying tribute to the Porte;[13] two years later, on October 5, 1455, Aron sent the first Moldavian tribute to the Porte: a payment of
2,000 ducats.[14] With both Wallachia and Moldavia conducting a pro-Ottoman policy, the plan to install Dracula as prince of
Wallachia began to take shape. Sometime between April to July 1456, with the support of a few Hungarian troops and Wallachian
boyars, Prince Vladislav II was dethroned and slain, as Dracula took possession of the Wallachian throne;[12] and as such, Chilia
became a shared Wallachian-Hungarian possession. In April 1457, Dracula supported Stephen with 6,000 horsemen, which the
latter used to invade Moldavia and occupy the Moldavian throne,[15] ending the civil war as Aron fled to Poland. The new prince
continued sending the tribute that his uncle and Mehmed had agreed upon, and in such way, avoided any premature confrontation
with his enemy. His first priority was to strengthen the country and to retrieve its lost territory. Because Aron resided in Poland,
Stephen made a few incursions in southern Poland. The hostilities ended on April 4, 1459, when in a new treaty between the two
countries, Moldavia accepted vassalage and Poland returned Hotin back to Moldavia; the latter also assumed the obligation to
support Moldavia in retrieving Chilia and Cetatea Albă.[16] It was also in the interest of Poland to have the area belonging to
Moldavia, as it would increase their commerce in the region.[17] On March 2, 1462, in a renewed treaty between the two countries,
it was agreed that no Moldavian territory should remain under foreign rulership, and if such territory was under foreign rulership,
that territory should be regained.[17] Later that year, it is believed that Stephen asked Dracula to return Chilia back to Moldavia —
a demand which was most likely refused.[18] On June 22, when Dracula was fighting Mehmed, Stephen allied himself with the
Sultan and with some Turkish assistance, he launched an attack on Chilia.[19] The fortress, defended by tall stone walls and 12
cannons, was in the middle of the 15th century the strongest fortification located in the Danube area.[20] The Wallachians rushed to
the scene with 7,000 men, and together with the Hungarian garrison battled the Moldavians and the Turks for eight days. They
managed to defend the town, while wounding Stephen in his foot with a shrapnel.[19] In 1465, while Dracula was imprisoned in
Hungary, Stephen again advanced towards Chilia with a large force and siege weapons; but instead of besieging the fortress, he
showed the garrison — who favoured the Polish King — a letter in which the King required them to surrender the fortress. This
they did, and Stephen entered the fortress where he found "its two captains, rather tipsy, for they have been to a wedding."[21]
Mehmed was furious about the news and claimed Chilia for being a part of Wallachia — which now was a vassal to the Porte —
and demanded Stephen to give it over to him. The latter refused, however, and recruited an army, forcing Mehmed — who was
not yet ready to wage war — to accept the situation, if only for the time being.[21] The Moldavian prince, realizing that a future
war with Mehmed could not be avoided, tried to gain time by increasing his tribute to the Porte by 50 percent (to 3,000 ducats);
and also sent an envoy to Constantinople with gifts for the sultan.[22] In 1467, Matthias Corvinus of Hungary launched an
expedition against Moldavia in order to punish Stephen for annexing the region. The invasion ended in a disaster for the
Hungarians as they suffered a bitter defeat at the Battle of Baia, where Corvinus was thrice wounded by arrows and had to be
“carried from the battlefield on a stretcher, to avoid him falling into the hands of the enemy.”[23] In order to secure his southern
frontier from Ottoman threats, Stephen wanted to liberate Wallachia — where the hostile Radu the Handsome, the halfbrother of
Dracula ruled — from Ottoman dominion. In 1470, he invaded the country and burned down the town of Brăila[24] and in 1471,
Stephen and Radu confronted each other in Moldavia, where the latter was defeated.[25] Meanwhile, Genoa, which possessed
several colonies in the Crimea, began to worry about Stephen's growing influence in the region; and ordered her colonies to do
whatever was needed to revenge past mischief from which allegedly, the Genovese had suffered.[25] The colonies in turn pursued
the Tatars to attack Moldavia. Later that year, the Tatars invaded the country from the north, causing great damage to the land and
enslaving many.[25] Stephen replied by invading Tatar territory with Polish assistance. In 1472, Uzun Hassan of Ak Koyunlu
invaded the Ottoman Empire from the east, causing a great crisis to the empire. He was defeated the following year, but this
unexpected event, as it is explained in a contemporary source, encouraged Venice and Hungary to renew their war on the
Ottomans, and Moldavia to free herself from any Ottoman influence.[25] In 1473, Stephen stopped paying the annual tribute to the
Porte[26] and as a reaction to this, an Italian letter, dated from 1473 to Bartolomeo Scala, secretary of the Republic of Florence,
reveals that Mehmed had left Constantinople on April 13 and was planning to invade Moldavia from land and sea.[27] Stephen still
hoped to make peace with Radu and asked the Polish king to work as mediator.[25] The peace attempts failed and the conflict
intensified with three leaders challenging each other for the Wallachian throne: Radu, who was supported by Mehmed; the
seemingly loyal Basarab Laiotă, who at first was supported by Stephen; and Basarab Ţepeluş cel Tânăr—who would gain the
support of Stephen after Laiotă's betrayal.[28] A series of "absurd"[28] clashes followed, starting with another confrontation between
Stephen and Radu on November 18–20, at Râmnicu Sărat, where the latter suffered his second defeat at the hands of the
Moldavian "warlike" prince.[28] A few days later, on November 28, the Ottomans interneved with an army consisting of 12,000
Ottomans and 6,000 Wallachians, but "they incurred heavy losses and fled across the Danube."[28] After capturing the castle of
Bucharest, Stephen put Laiotă on the throne,[24] but on December 31, a new Ottoman army of 17,000 set camp around river
Bârlad, laying waste to the countryside, and intimidating the new prince into abandoning his Wallachian throne and fleeing to
Moldavia.[28] In the spring of 1474, Laiotă took the Wallachian throne for the second time; and in June, he made the decision to
betray his protégé by submitting to Mehmet.[28] Stephen then invested his support into a new candidate, named Ţepeluş (little
spear), but his reign was even shorter, as it only lasted a few weeks after being defeated by Laiotă in battle on October 5. Two
weeks later, Stephen returned to Wallachia and forced Laiotă to flee.[28] Mehmed, tired of what transpired in Wallachia, gave
Stephen an ultimatum to forfeit Chilia to the Porte, to abolish his aggressive policy in Wallachia, and to come to Constantinople
with his delayed homage.[26] The Prince refused and in November 1474, he wrote to the Pope to warn him of further Ottoman
expansion, and to ask him for support.[29]
Preparations for war
Ottomans Mehmed ordered his general, Suleiman Pasha, to end the siege of Venetian-controlled Shkodër[30] (now in Albania), to
assemble his troops in Sofia, and from there to advance with additional troops towards Moldavia. For these already exhausted
Ottoman troops, who had besieged the city from May 17 to August 15,[22] the transit from Shkodër to Moldavia was a month's
journey through bad weather and difficult terrain.[31] According to Długosz, Suleiman was also ordered that after inflicting defeat
on Stephen, he was to advance towards Poland, set camp for the winter, then invade Hungary in spring, and unite his forces with
the army of the Sultan. The Ottoman army consisted of Janissaries and heavy infantry, which were supported by the heavy cavalry
sipahis and by the light cavalry (akinci), who would scout ahead. There were also Tatar cavalry and other troops (such as the
Timariots) from vassal states. Twenty thousand Bulgarian peasants were also included in the army; their main tasks were to clear
the way for the rest of the army by building bridges over waters and removing snow from the roads, and to drive supply
wagons.[32] In total, the Ottoman cavalry numbered 30,000.[33] In September 1474, the Ottoman army gathered in Sofia, and from
there, Suleiman marched towards Moldavia by crossing the frozen Danube on foot.[34] His first stop was Wallachia, which he
entered via Vidin and Nicopolis. His army rested in Wallachia for two weeks, and was later met by a Wallachian contingent of
17,000 under Basarab Laiotă, who had changed sides to join the Ottomans.
Moldavians Stephen was hoping to gain support from the West, and more specifically from the Pope. However, the help that he
received was modest in numbers. The Hungarian Kingdom sent 1,800 Hungarians, while Poland sent 2,000 horsemen.[35] Stephen
recruited 5,000 Székely soldiers.[35] The Moldavian army consisted of twenty cannon; light cavalry (Călăraşi); elite, heavy cavalry
— named Viteji, Curteni, and Boyars — and professional foot soldiers. The army reached a strength of up to 40,000, of whom
10,000 to 15,000 comprised the standing army. The remainder consisted of 30,000 peasants armed with maces,[36] bows, and other
home-made weapons. They were recruited into Oastea Mare (the Great Army), into which all able-bodied free men over the age
of 14 were conscripted.
Battle The invading army entered Moldavia in December 1474. In order to fatigue the Ottomans, Stephen had instituted a policy
of scorched earth[35] and poisoned waters.[34] Troops who specialised in setting ambushes harassed the advancing Ottomans. The
population and livestock were evacuated to the north of the country into the mountains.[37] Ottoman scouts reported to Suleiman
that there were untouched villages near Vaslui, and the Ottomans headed for that region. The winter made it difficult to set camp,
which forced the Ottomans to move quickly and head for the Moldavian capital, Suceava. In order to reach Vaslui, where the
Moldavian army had its main camp, they needed to cross Podul Înalt over the Bârlad River. The bridge was made of wood and not
suitable for heavy transportation of troops.[34] Stephen chose that area for the battle — the same location where his father, Bogdan
II, had defeated the Poles in 1450; and where he, at an age of 17,[38] had fought side-by-side with Vlad 'the Impaler'.[19] The area
was ideal for the defenders: the valley was a semi-oval surrounded on all sides by hills covered by forest. Inside the valley, the
terrain was marshy, which restricted troop movement.[38] Suleiman had full confidence in his troops and made few efforts to scout
the area. On January 10, on a dark and misty[37] Tuesday morning, the battle began. The weather was frigid, and a dense fog
limited vision. The Ottoman troops were exhausted, and the torrent made them look like "plucked chickens."[30] Stephen fortified
the bridge, while setting and aiming his cannons at the structure. Peasants and archers were hidden in the forest, together with
their Prince and his boyar cavalry. The Moldavians made the first move by sending musicians to the middle of the valley. The
sound of drums and bugles made Suleiman think that the entire Moldavian army awaited him there.[39] Instead, the centre of the
valley held the Székely forces and the Moldavian professional army, which were ordered to make a slow retreat when they
encountered the enemy. Suleiman ordered his troops to advance and, when they made enough progress, the Moldavian artillery
started to fire, followed by archers and handgunners firing from three different directions.[30] The archers could not see the enemy
for the fog, and, instead, had to follow the noise of their footsteps. The Moldavian light cavalry then helped to lure the Ottoman
troops into the valley by making hit-and-run attacks. Ottoman cavalry tried to cross the wooden bridge, causing it to collapse.[40]
Those Ottoman soldiers who had managed to survive the attacks from the artillery and the archers, and who did not get caught in
the marshes, had to confront the Moldavian army, together with the Székely soldiers further up the valley. The 5,000 Székely
soldiers were successful in repelling the 7,000 Ottoman infantrymen. Thereafter, they made a slow retreat,[37] as instructed by
Stephen, but were later routed by the Ottoman sipahi,[40] while the remaining Ottoman infantry attacked the Moldavian flanks.
Suleiman tried to reinforce his offensive, not knowing what had happened in the valley, but then Stephen, with the full support of
his boyars, ordered a major attack. All his troops, together with peasants and heavy cavalry, attacked from all sides.
Simultaneously, Moldavian buglers concealed behind Ottoman lines started to sound their bugles, and in great confusion some
Ottoman units changed direction to face the sound.[41] When the Moldavian army hit, Suleiman lost control of his army.[30] He
desperately tried to regain control, but was later forced to signal a retreat. The battle lasted for four days;[42] with the last three
days seeing the fleeing Ottoman army being pursued by the Moldavian light cavalry and the 2,000-strong Polish cavalry until they
reached the town of Obluciţa (now Isaccea, Romania), in Dobruja. The Wallachians fled the field without joining battle and Laiotă
now turned his sword against the Turks, who had hoped for a safe passage in Wallachia; on January 20, he exited his castle and
confronted some of the Turks that were lurking on his land. Thereafter, he took one of their flags and sent it to a Hungarian friend
as proof of his bravery.[43] The Ottoman casualties were counted as 45,000, including four Pashas killed and a hundred standards
taken.[44] Jan Długosz writes that "all but the most eminent of the Turkish prisoners are impaled",[45] and their corpses burned.[35]
Only one was spared — the only son of the Ottoman general Isaac Bey, of the Gazi Evrenos family, whose father had fought with
Mircea the Old.[43] Another Polish chronicler reported that on the spot of the battle rested huge piles of bones upon each other,
next to three immured crosses.[35]
Aftermath After the battle, Stephen sent "four of the captured Turkish commanders, together with thirty-six of their standards and
much splendid booty, to King Casimir in Lithuania", and implored him to provide troops and money to support the Moldavians in
the struggle against the Ottomans. He also sent letters and a few prisoners and Turkish standards to the Pope and King Matthias
Corvinus, asking for support.[46] In response, "the arrogant Matthias writes to the Pope, the Emperor and other kings and princes,
telling them that he has defeated a large Turkish army with his own forces under the Voivode of Wallachia."[47] The Pope's reply
to Stephen denied him help, but awarded him with the "Athleta Christi",[48] while King Casimir pleaded "poverty both in money
and men" and did nothing; his own men then accused him of sloth, and advised him to change his shameful behaviour or hand
over his rule to someone else.[46] Chronicler Jan Długosz hailed Stephen for his victory in the battle:
“ Praiseworthy hero, in no respect inferior to other hero soldiers we admire. He was the first contemporary among the
rulers of the world to score a decisive victory against the Turks. To my mind, he is the worthiest to lead a coalition of
the Christian Europe against the Turks.[49] ”
[25]
Hassan tried to create a new coalition with the European powers, arguing that Mehmed's best troops were lost at Vaslui. Upon
hearing about the devastating defeat, Mehmed refused for several days to give audience to anyone; his other plans of expansion
were put to rest as he planned revenge on Stephen.[4] In the following year, Mehmed invaded the country with an army of 150,000,
which was joined by 10,000 Wallachians under Laiotă and 30,000 Tatars under Meñli I Giray. The Tatars, who called for a Holy
War, attacked with their cavalry from the north and started to pillage the country. The Moldavians took chase after them, and
routed and killed most of them. "The fleeing Tatars discard their weapons, their saddles and clothes, while some, as though
crazed, jump into the River Dniepr."[50] Giray wrote to Mehmed that he could not wage more war against Stephen, as he had lost
his son and two brothers, and had returned with only one horse.[51] In July 1476, after killing 30,000 Ottomans, Stephen was
defeated at the Battle of Valea Albă. However, the Ottomans were unsuccessful in their siege of the Suceava citadel and the
Neamţ fortress, while Laiotă was forced to retreat back to Wallachia when Dracula and Stefan Báthory, Voivode of Transylvania,
gave chase with an army of 30,000.[52] Stephen assembled his army and invaded Wallachia from the north, while Dracula and
Báthory invaded from the west. Laiotă fled, and in November, Dracula was installed on the Wallachian throne. He received 200
loyal knights from Stephen to serve as his loyal bodyguards, but his army remained small. When Laiotă returned, Dracula went to
battle and was killed by the Janissaries near Bucharest in December 1476. Laiotă again occupied the Wallachian throne, which
urged Stephen to make another return to Wallachia and dethrone Laiotă for the fifth and last time, while Dracula's son, Ţepeluş,
was established as ruler of the country. In 1484, the Ottomans under Bayezid II, managed to conquer Chilia and Cetatea Albă and
incorporate it into their empire under the name of Budjak, leaving Moldavia a landlocked principality for many years to come.
Between May and September 1488, Stephen built the Voroneţ Monastery to commemorate the victory at Vaslui; "the exterior
walls — including a representation of the Last Judgment on the west wall — were painted in 1547 with a background of vivid
cerulean blue. This is so vibrant that art historians refer to Voroneţ blue the same way they do Titian red."[53] In 1490, he extended
his work by building another monastery of Saint John the Baptist. These monasteries served as cultural centres; today, they are on
UNESCO's World Heritage List. Stephen's victory at Vaslui is considered one of the greatest Moldavian victories over the
Ottomans, and as such "played a role in universal history" by securing the "culture and civilization of the Christian West from the
onslaught of Islam."[54]
Footnotes
1. ^ Ferencz Kállay (1829) (in Hungarian). Historiai értekezés a' nemes székely nemzet' eredetéről: hadi és polgári
intézeteiről a régi időkben [Historical discourse about the origin of the 'magnanimous szekler nation' : military and civil
institutes in the past times.]. Nagyenyed, Hungary: Fiedler Gottfried. p. 247. http://books.google.com/books?id=tDo-
AAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=hu#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
2. ^ Kronika Polska mentions 40,000 Moldavian troops; Gentis Silesiæ Annales mentions 120,000 Ottoman troops
and "no more than" 40,000 Moldavian troops; the letter of Stephen addressed to the Christian countries, sent on January
25, 1475, mentions 120,000 Ottoman troops; see also The Annals of Jan Długosz, p. 588;
3. ^ The Balkans: A History of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Rumania, Turkey
4. ^ a b c Istoria lui Ştefan cel Mare, p. 133
5. ^ Saint Stephen the Great in his contemporary Europe (Respublica Christiana), p. 141
6. ^ Moldavia in the 11th-14 Centuries, pp. 218-19
7. ^ The Annals of Jan Długosz, p. 449
8. ^ The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300-1600, p. 129
9. ^ Gentis Silesiæ Annales
10. ^ Letter to Leonardo Loredano, written on December 7, 1502
11. ^ a b Studii Noi Despre Probleme Vechi — Din Istoria Evului Mediu Românesc, p. 92
12. ^ a b Studii Noi Despre Probleme Vechi — Din Istoria Evului Mediu Românesc, p. 92-3
13. ^ Studii Noi Despre Probleme Vechi — Din Istoria Evului Mediu Românesc, p. 91
14. ^ The Ottoman Law of War and Peace—The Ottoman Empire and Tribute Payers, p. 164
15. ^ Studii Noi Despre Probleme Vechi — Din Istoria Evului Mediu Românesc, p. 94
16. ^ Studii Noi Despre Probleme Vechi — Din Istoria Evului Mediu Românesc, p. 96
17. ^ a b Studii Noi Despre Probleme Vechi — Din Istoria Evului Mediu Românesc, p. 134
18. ^ Studii Noi Despre Probleme Vechi — Din Istoria Evului Mediu Românesc, pp. 95-6
19. ^ a b c Dracula: Prince of many faces — His life and his times, p. 149
20. ^ Studii Noi Despre Probleme Vechi — Din Istoria Evului Mediu Românesc, p. 97
21. ^ a b The Annals of Jan Długosz, p. 552
22. ^ a b Semnificaţia Haracului în relaţiile Moldo-Otomane din vremea lui Ştefan cel Mare — Câteva Consideraţii
23. ^ The Annals of Jan Długosz, p. 566
24. ^ a b Costin, N. Letopiseţul Ţărîi Moldovei
25. ^ a b c d e f Relaţiile internaţionale ale Moldovei în vremea lui Ştefan cel Mare
26. ^ a b The Ottoman Law of War and Peace—The Ottoman Empire and Tribute Payers, p. 165
27. ^ Noi Izvoare Italiene despre Vlad Ţepeş şi Ştefan cel Mare; Studies and Materials of Medium History
XX/2002
28. ^ a b c d e f g Mehmed the Conqueror and his time, p. 339
29. ^ Letter of Stephen, Vaslui November 29, 1474
30. ^ a b c d The Chronicles of the Ottoman Dynasty
31. ^ Great Events
32. ^ Istoria lui Ştefan cel Mare, p.127
33. ^ Historia Turchesca
34. ^ a b c Istoria lui Ştefan cel Mare, p. 128
35. ^ a b c d e Kronika Polska
36. ^ Istoria lui Ştefan cel Mare, pp. 127, 130
37. ^ a b c The Ottoman Empire 1326-1699, p. 42
38. ^ a b Istoria lui Ştefan cel Mare, p. 129
39. ^ Grigore U. Letopiseţul Ţărîi Moldovei
40. ^ a b Istoria lui Ştefan cel Mare, p. 130
41. ^ Roumania Past and Present, Chapter XI.
42. ^ Documentary: Amintirile unui Pelerin, Antena 1
43. ^ a b Istoria lui Ştefan cel Mare, pp. 131-32
44. ^ A Documented Chronology of Roumanian History - from prehistoric times to the present day, Oxford 1941, p.
108
45. ^ The Annals of Jan Długosz, p. 588
46. ^ a b The Annals of Jan Długosz, pp. 588-9
47. ^ The Annals of Jan Długosz, p. 589
48. ^ website: Romania Country study, U.S. Library of Congress.
49. ^ Historiae Polonicae, libri XIII, vol. II, note 528, Leipzig 1712.
50. ^ The Annals of Jan Długosz, pp. 592, 594
51. ^ Letter of Giray to Mehmed, October 10–19, 1476
52. ^ Diary of Ladislav, servant of Dracula; August 7, 1476
53. ^ Artistic Route Through Romania
54. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia
References
• Antena 1, Amintirile unui Pelerin (documentary)
• Babinger, Franz. Mehmed the Conqueror and his time ISBN 0-691-01078-1
• Cândea, Virgil. Saint Stephen the Great in his contemporary Europe (Respublica Christiana), Balkan Studies 2004
• Catholic Encyclopedia, Rumania. (source: New Advent)
• Denize, Eugen. Semnificaţia Haracului în relaţiile Moldo-Otomane din vremea lui Ştefan cel Mare — Câteva
Consideraţii.
• Długosz, Jan. The Annals of Jan Długosz ISBN 1-901019-00-4
• Ghyka, Matila. A Documented Chronology of Roumanian History - from prehistoric times to the present day, Oxford
1941
• Florescu, R. Radu; McNally, T. Raymond. Dracula: Prince of many faces - His life and his times ISBN 978-0-316-
28656-5
• Inalcik, Halil. The Ottoman Empire - The Classical Age 1300-1600 ISBN 1-84212-442-0
• Iorga, Nicolae. Istoria lui Ştefan cel Mare, 1904 (new edition 1966), Bucharest.
• Matei, Mircea D.; Cârciumaru, Radu. Studii Noi Despre Probleme Vechi — Din Istoria Evului Mediu Românesc. Editura
Cetatea de Scaun, ISBN 973-85907-2-8
• Nevill Forbes; Arnold J. Toynbee; D. Mitrany, D.G. Hogarth. The Balkans: A History of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece,
Rumania, Turkey, 2004. ISO-8859-1
• Samuelson, James. Roumania Past and Present, Chapter XI. Originally published London: Longmans, Green, and Co.,
1882. Electronic text archive on the site of the Center for Advanced Research Technology in the Arts and Humanities,
University of Washington.
• Sandberg-Diment, Erik. Artistic Route Through Romania, New York Times, The. 1998
• Sfântul Voievod Ştefan cel Mare, Chronicles. (retrieved)
o Angiolello, Giovanni Maria. Historia Turchesca
o Bonfinius, Antonius. Historia Pannonica ab Origine Gentis AD Annum 1495
o Curius, Joachim. Gentis Silesiæ Annales
o Długosz, Jan. Historiae Polonicae, Leipzig 1712
o Husein, Kodja. Great Events
o Murianus, Mathaeus. Letter to Leonardo Loredano, written on December 7, 1502
o Orudj bin Adil and Şemseddin Ahmed bin Suleiman Kemal paşa-zade. The Chronicles of the Ottoman Dynasty
o Pasha, Lütfi. The Chronicles of the House of Osman (Tevarih-i al-i Osman)
o Hoca Sadeddin Efendi. Crown of Histories (Tadj al-tawarikh)
o Stephen the Great; letter of January 25, 1475
o Stryjkowski, Maciej. Kronika Polska
• Spinei, Victor. Moldavia in the 11th-14 Centuries, Romania 1986
• Panaite, Viorel. The Ottoman Law of War and Peace—The Ottoman Empire and Tribute Payers. ISBN 0-88033-461-4
• Papacostea, Şerban. Relaţiile internaţionale ale Moldovei în vremea lui Ştefan cel Mare
• Pippidi, Andrei. Noi Izvoare Italiene despre Vlad Ţepeş şi Ştefan cel Mare; Studies and Materials of Medium History
XX/2002
• Turnbull, Stephen. The Ottoman Empire 1326-1699 ISBN 1-84176-569-4
• Ureche, Grigore and Costin, Nicolae. Letopiseţul Ţărîi Moldovei
External links
• Detailed article describing the strategy and the units used in the battle
• Brief history of Moldavia covering the Vaslui battle
• Short essay about Stephen the Great with a description of the Vaslui battle
• Short article describing the battle
The last judgment, painted outside the monastery. Statue of Stephen at the Vaslui monument.
Travnik
Battle of Breadfield (1479)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In 1480 and 1481 the city and fort of Otranto, in Apulia, southern Italy, were held by Ottoman troops.
Attack On July 28, 1480, an Ottoman fleet of 128 ships of which 28 were galleys arrived near the Neapolitan city of Otranto in
the region Apulia. Possibly these troops came from the siege of Rhodes. On July 29 the garrison and the citizens retreated to the
citadel, the Castle of Otranto. On 11 August this was taken by the invaders. According to Christian historiography a razzia was
held to round up the male citizens. Archbishop Stefano Agricoli and others were killed in the cathedral. Bishop Stephen Pendinelli
and the garrison commander, count Francesco Zurlo, were sawn in two alive. On August 12, 800 citizens who refused to convert
to Islam were taken to the Hill of the Minerva and beheaded.[2] Some of the remains of the 800 martyrs are today stored in Otranto
cathedral and in the church of Santa Caterina a Formiello in Naples. The cathedral is said to have been used as a stable after
that.[citation needed] This version has come under severe criticism. From the Turkish side it is disputed that large-scale executions took
place; the bones to be found in the Cathedral of Otranto are claimed to be actually those of fighters killed during the Turkish
invasion. Italian researchers, on the other hand, conclude that some acts of terror were committed by the Turkish invaders to
create panic among the Italians around Otranto. Some citizens were transported to Albania as slaves. In August, 70 ships of the
fleet attacked Vieste. On September 12, the Monastero di San Nicholas di Casole, which accommodated one of the richer libraries
of Europe, was destroyed. In October 1480, the coastal cities of Lecce, Taranto and Brindisi were attacked. Because of lack of
food Gedik Ahmed Pasha returned with most of his troops to Albania, leaving a garrison of 800 infantry and 500 cavalry behind
to defend Otranto. It was assumed he would return after the winter.
Response Since it was only 28 years after the fall of Constantinople, there was some fear that Rome would suffer the same fate.
Plans were made for the Pope and citizens of Rome to evacuate the city. Pope Sixtus IV repeated his 1471 call for a crusade.
Several Italian city-states, Hungary and France responded positively to this. The Republic of Venice did not, as it had signed an
expensive peace treaty with the Ottomans in 1479. In 1481 an army was raised by king Ferdinand I of Naples to be led by his son
Alphonso II of Naples. A contingent of troops was provided by king Matthias Corvinus of Hungary.
Counter attack The city was besieged starting May 1, 1481. On May 3 the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Mehmed II, died, with
ensuing quarrels about his succession. This possibly prevented the sending of Ottoman reinforcements to Otranto. So in the end
the Turkish occupation of Otranto ended by negotiation with the Christian forces, permitting the Turks to withdraw to Albania.
However, quite a few of them were still taken captives when the Christian troops occupied Otranto again.
Aftermath The number of citizens, said to have been about 20,000 (a figure very much disputed by recent research), had
decreased to 8,000. Out of fear of another attack, many of these left the city.
See also Crown of Aragon History of Islam in southern Italy
References
1. ^ Franz Babinger (1978). "X.". Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. New Jersey, USA: Princeton University
Press. p. 394. ISBN 0 691 09900 6.
http://books.google.com/books?id=PPxC6rO7vvsC&pg=PA302&hl=hu&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=fa
lse. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
2. ^ Bunson, Matthew. "How the 800 Martyrs of Otranto Saved Rome". Catholic Answers.
http://www.catholic.com/thisrock/2008/0807fea2.asp. Retrieved 11 August 2011.
External links
• En.otrantopoint.com
• Zum.de
• Borghitalia.it
• Castellipuglia.org
• Uni-mannheim.de
• Cronologia.leonardo.it
• Museomuro.it
• How the Eight Hundred Men of Otranto Saved Rome
• The Crusades Wiki
Battle of Krbava field (1493)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Ottoman Empire
Kingdom of Hungary Kingdom of Croatia
Commanders and leaders
*Bosnian Sanjak Bey Hadım Yakup Paşa , Gazi Husrev-
*Croatian Ban Mirko Derenčin † *Ivan Frankopan Cetinski †
beg ,*Sanjak Bey Ismail *Mehmed Bey Karlerije ,
*Ferdinand Berislavić †
Staniša Crnojević
Strength
8,000 2,000–3,000 heavy cavalry 8,000 infantry
Casualties and losses
? 1,000 killed 8,000–10,000 killed 1,500 POW[2]
The Battle of Krbava field (Croatian: Krbavsko polje, Hungarian: Korbávmezei csata), was fought between the Ottoman Empire
of Bayezid II and a Croatian army of the Kingdom of Hungary on September 9, 1493 in what is today southern Croatia (Lika
region). The Kingdom of Croatia was during this period united under the crown of the Kingdom of Hungary, and the Croatian
lords who fought in the battle were subjects of the unified crown. The battle resulted in the total defeat of the Croatian army led by
Ban Mirko Derenčin, viceroy of King Vladislas II.[3]
Background After the fall of the Bosnian Kingdom into the Ottoman hands in 1463, the southern and central parts of the
Kingdom of Croatia remained unprotected, the defense of which was left to Croatian gentry who kept smaller troops in the
fortified border areas at their own expense. The Ottomans meanwhile reached the river Neretva and having conquered
Herzegovina (Rama) in 1482, they found their way toward Croatia, skillfully avoiding the fortified border towns. Through the
conquest of the Kingdom of Croatia, the Ottoman light cavalry pushed its way towards the towns of Carinthia and Carniola,
threatening thus to a border area of Venice as well.
Preparations In order to stop such invasions, in the summer of 1493 the Croats attempted to rally their troops under the command
of Viceroy Mirko Derenčin at Krbava field (near today's Udbina) in central Croatia, and lay in wait there to trap the Ottomans. In
the meanwhile, the Ottoman Sanjak Bey Hadım Yakup Paşa with some 8,000 Akıncı (Turkish light cavalry) was returning from
an expedition to Styria and Croatian Zagorje. Croatian feudal army under the command of Viceroy Derenčin at Krbava field had
some 2,000 heavy feudal cavalry and some 8,000 infantry from all parts of the Croatia. The Croats overestimated their powers.
Battle The Croatian army rushed at the Ottomans. After first luring Croats into plains, where light cavalry were in advantage over
heavy feudal cavalry, surrounding it from the front, one flank and rear. Croatian army suffered a total defeat in which the cream of
the old Croatian nobility perished to a man, including Mirko Derenčin.[4]
Aftermath The defeat was resounding. In one single day, around 7,000 Croatian soldiers lost their lives, including many of
Croatian feudal nobleman of the time. The defeat at Krbava field shook all the social strata in Croatia; however it did not dissuade
the Croats from making even more decisive and persistent attempts at defending themselves against the attacks of the much more
powerful enemy. Following the battle, scores of Croatian refugees moved toward Austria while others migrated to Italian coastal
areas.[4]
Notes
1. ^ Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture By Richard C. Frucht, pg. 422
2. ^ Battle of Krbava field (Croatian)
3. ^ Democratic Transition in Croatia: Value Transformation, Education & Media By Sabrina P. Ramet, Davorka
Matic, pg. xii
4. ^ a b Croatia: A History By Ivo Goldstein, Nikolina Jovanovic, pg.31
Military history of the Ottoman Empire portal
References
Fred Singleton, A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples. Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
King of Hungary
Reign 1490 – 1516
Predecessor Matthias Corvinus
Successor Louis II
King of Bohemia
Reign 1471 – 1516
Predecessor George of Podebrady
Successor Louis II
Spouse Barbara of Brandenburg Beatrice of Naples Anne de Foix
IssueAnne, Queen of the Romans Louis II of Hungary
Dálnok in 1900
Apátfalva Kalocsa Nagylak, work by Lapis András Dózsa's portrait on the former 20 forint banknote
Meeting of the Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian I, and the Jagiellonian brothers, Vladislaus II, King of Hungary and King of
Bohemia, and Sigismund I, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, by Jan Matejko (1838-1893)
Woodcut by Albrecht Dürer commemorating the double wedding at the First Congress of Vienna, on 22 July 1515. From left to
right: Maximilian I; Maximilian's granddaughter, Mary and Vladislaus's son Louis; Vladislaus II; Vladislaus's daughter, Anna;
Vladislaus's brother, Sigismund I.
For the congress held in 1815, see Congress of Vienna.
The First Congress of Vienna was held in 1515, attended by the Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian I, and the Jagiellonian
brothers, Vladislaus II, King of Hungary and King of Bohemia, and Sigismund I, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. It
was a turning point in the history of central Europe, ultimately increasing the power of the Habsburgs and diminishing that of the
Jagiellonians. Maximilian had been supporting Vasili III of the Grand Duchy of Moscow against the Jagiellonian rulers of
Lithuania, Poland, Hungary and Bohemia, to advance the Habsburg claims to the succession in Hungary and Bohemia. The
Jagiellonians had been facing simultaneous threats on all fronts, from the Emperor, the Russians, the Teutonic Order under Albert
of Prussia, and the Crimean Tatars. The city of Smolensk fell to the Russians in 1514, and Maximilian planned a congress to
cement his claims in central Europe. However, Lithuanian and Polish forces decisively defeated the Russian army at the Battle of
Orsha on 8 September 1514, changing the balance of power. The Congress opened at the Emperor's border, at Pozsony (Pressburg
or Bratislava) in Hungary, where Maximilian's representative met Vladislaus and Sigismund, and concluded after they travelled
together to Austria where the two kings met the emperor and went on to Vienna. The Emperor promised to cease his support of
Moscow against Lithuania and Poland, and to arbitrate in disputes between the Teutonic Order and Poland under the Second
Treaty of Thorn. The Habsburg claims to the succession in Hungary and Bohemia were advanced substantially - Vladislaus's only
son, Louis, married the Emperor's granddaughter Mary; and her brother, Archduke Ferdinand, married Vladislaus' daughter, Anna.
A woodcut by Albrecht Dürer commemorates the double wedding on 22 July 1515. Vladislaus died on 13 March 1516, and
Maximilian died on 12 January 1519, but his designs were ultimately successful: on Louis's death in 1526, he was succeeded as
King of Bohemia by Maximilian's grandson, Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor.
References Borderlands of Western Civilization: A History of East Central Europe, Oskar Halecki, 1952. ISBN 096657348X.
Louis II of Hungary (1516-1526)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Louis owed allegiance to the Imperial Habsburgs as a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece. Coin of Louis II of
Hungary with the inscription in Latin: "Louis by the grace of God King of Hungary, Dalmatia, Croatia"
Statue of Louis II of Hungary in Mohács Louis II painted by Titian.
Young Louis (right in the front) and the family of Emperor Maximilian I Woodcut by Albrecht Dürer commemorating the double
wedding at the First Congress of Vienna, on 22 July 1515. From left to right: Maximilian I; Maximilian's granddaughter, Mary
and Vladislaus's son Louis; Vladislaus II; Vladislaus's daughter, Anna; Vladislaus's brother, Sigismund I of Poland.
Battle of Mohács 1526
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
General Pál Tomori, the captain of the army, in his golden renaissance armour (1526) Suleiman the Magnificent. Louis II of
Hungary and Bohemia the young king, who died at the Battle of Mohács, painted by Titian
John Zápolya (1526-1540)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
King of Hungary
Reign 1526 – 1540
Coronation 11 November 1526
Predecessor Louis II
Successor Ferdinand I John II Sigismund Zápolya
Voivode of Transylvania
Reign 1511 – 1526
Successor Stephen Báthory
Spouse Isabella Jagiellon
IssueJohn II Sigismund Zápolya
4. László Zápolya
2. Stefan Zápolya
5. Dorothea
1. John Zápolya
24. Przemyslaus I Noszak, Duke of Cieszyn
12. Boleslaus I, Duke of Cieszyn
25. Elisabeth of Bytom
6. Przemyslaus II, Duke of Cieszyn
26. Siemowit IV, Duke of Masovia
13. Euphemia of Masovia
27. Alexandra of Lithuania
3. Hedwig of Cieszyn
28. Bolesław III of Warsaw
14. Bolesław IV of Warsaw
29. Anna of Halshany
7. Anna of Warsaw
15. Barbara of Ruthenia
See also Beatrice of Naples Ivan Karlović Petar Keglević
References
1. ^ Britannica
2. ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/304576/John
3. ^ Zdzisław Spieralski, Jan Tarnowski 1488-1561, Warszawa 1977, p. 124-125.
External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: János Szapolyai
János I Szapolyai
House of Szapolyai
Born: 1487 2 February Died: 1540 22 July
Regnal titles
Preceded by Voivode of Transylvania Succeeded by
unknown 1511–1526 Stephen Báthory
King of Hungary Succeeded by
Preceded by
contested by Ferdinand I John II Sigismund
Louis II
1526–1540 contested by Ferdinand
Suleiman receiving Isabella and her infant son Sigismund, circa 1540. Suleymanname, circa 1558. John Zápolya 18th century
depiction János Szapolyai royal coat of arms.
Bohemia Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg) Papal States Ottoman Turks Moldavia Hungary
(Kingdom of Szapolyai's)
Hungary (Kingdom of Ferdinand's) Voivodian Serbs
Commanders and leaders
Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Holy Roman John Zapolya Petru Rareş voievod of Moldavia
Emperor Jovan Nenad † Suleiman the Magnificent
Following the Battle of Mohacs, the Ottomans were forced to withdraw as events elsewhere in their now massive Empire required
the Sultan's attention.[1] Seizing upon their absence was Ferdinand I who attempted to enforce his claim as King of Hungary. In
1527 he drove back the Ottoman vassal John Zapolya and captured Buda (now Budapest), Győr, Komárno, Esztergom and
Székesfehérvár by 1528. Meanwhile, the Ottoman Sultan took no action at this stage despite the pleas of his vassal.
Aftermath For the Austrians, the victory here would be a very disappointing one. On 10 May 1529, Suleiman the Magnificent
launched his own counter-attack negating all of Ferdinand's gains. Of greater disappointment was the fact that many of the
recently captured forts surrendered without resistance greatly speeding up the advance. As a result, Suleiman was able to reach
and besiege Vienna.
[edit] Notes
1. ^ Turnbull, Stephen. The Ottoman Empire 1326–1699. New York: Osprey, 2003. pg 49
Monument of the Siege of Kőszeg, located in the bourg of Kőszeg Statue of Nikola Jurišić in Senj, Croatia
Date 1532
Location Kőszeg, Kingdom of Hungary within Habsburg Monarchy (today's Hungary)
Result Ottoman defeat
Belligerents
Date 1552
Location Eger, Northern Hungary
Result Hungarian Victory
Belligerents
Ottoman Empire Hungarian defenders
Commanders and leaders
Ahmed Pasha Ali Pasha István Dobó
Strength
In reality 35-40,000 men[1][2] (Gárdonyi's data: 150,000 and 200,000[3] is romantic
Approx 2,100-2,300[4]
exaggeration)
Casualties and losses
Heavy 300-400 killed
The Siege of Eger occurred during the 16th century Ottoman Wars in Europe. It was a major Hungarian victory after a series of
crushing defeats at the hands of Ottoman forces and checked the Ottoman expansion into both Central Europe and Eastern Europe.
Background The Ottoman Sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, commenced his expansion of the empire in 1520 after the reign of
Selim I. He began assaults against Hungarian and Austrian influenced territories, invading Hungarian soil in 1526. The Hungarian
Army was crushed at the Battle of Mohács and the way was paved for an attack on the Danube Basin. The battle also brought
about the death of the King of Hungary and Bohemia, Louis II, leading to a disputed claim for the throne. The Austrian Emperor
Ferdinand I succeeded to the Bohemian throne but was challenged to the Hungarian throne by the pretender John Zápolya whose
claim was backed by nobles and the Sultan. The power struggle continued beyond John's death in 1540 when his son, John II
Sigismund Zápolya succeeded to the throne. It was not resolved until he renounced the throne in 1563 when he was succeeded by
Maximilian I. The Ottomans met resistance during the Siege of Güns (Kőszeg) in 1532, where a force of 800 men[5] under Miklós
Jurisich managed to hold back the Ottoman armies. However, this only delayed their campaign by 25 days, and they continued to
close in on Buda, finally occupying the capital in 1541. Buda became the seat of Ottoman rule in the area, with the Ottoman
supported John II governing the occupied territories. The loss of Christian forts at Temesvár and Szolnok in 1552 were blamed on
mercenary soldiers within the Hungarian ranks.[6] When the Turks turned their attention to the northern Hungarian town of Eger in
the same year few expected the defenders to put up much resistance, particularly as the two great armies of the Ottoman lords
Ahmed and Ali, which had crushed all opposition previously, united under Eger. Eger was an important stronghold and key to the
defence of the remainder of Hungarian soil. North of Eger lay the poorly reinforced city of Kassa (present day Košice), the centre
of an important region of mines and associated mints, which provided the Hungarian Kingdom with large amounts of quality
silver and gold coinage. Besides allowing a take-over of that revenue source, fall of Eger would also enable the Ottoman Empire
to secure an alternative logistic and troop route for further west-ward military expansion, possibly allowing the Turks to lay sieges
on Vienna more frequently.
Castle The Castle of Eger is located east of the town on a hillside. Its actual location was not ideal from a military point of view -
the castle overlooks only the southern and western parts of the walled town - however, it had the advantage over the Ottoman
forces as it provided excellent locations for gun positions. The castle comprised an inner and outer fortress with a gate tower to the
southeast and 6 bastions on the walls - the Earth Bastion and Prison Bastion to the northwest, Sándor Bastion on the north wall,
Bolyky Bastion on the northeast corner, Bebek Bastion on the eastern corner of the outer fortress and the Dobó Bastion on the
western wall. The Varkoch gate sat on the southern wall of the inner fortress while a further bastion, Church Bastion, lay at the
centre of the wall separating the two parts of the fortress. The fortress of Eger was built on the ruins of an earlier stone fort, which
replaced an ancient earthen encampment, possibly erected by the Huns. This made Eger's foundations stronger than usual and
greatly hindered the work of Ottoman miners. As was usual during sieges at that time, both the attackers and the defenders tried to
dig tunnels under the walls and plant gunpowder charges to either open gaps into the fortress or destroy the attacker's trenches.
None of these attempts were successful during the siege of Eger.
Siege The old hungarian data and Gárdonyi's roman about the number of the Ottoman Army (150-200,000 men) is romantic
exaggerates. In reality the Ottoman army was number to 35-40,000 men from the Rumelian army (and some Anatolian contingent)
and the troops of Ahmed Pasha from Buda.[7] The Ottomans had 16 zarbuzans (very large siege cannons) as well as 150 medium
and smaller pieces of artillery and a fleet of two thousand camels, which proved to be highly useful in the collection and
transportation of wood to the site used for the construction of temporary siege platforms. The defenders had 6 large and about a
dozen smaller cannons and some 300 trench guns with ample supplies of ammunition. Despite the difference in troop numbers,
Eger's strong walls and the high morale of its defenders allowed the fortress to withstand five major assaults and continuous
cannonfire (excluding the ones stuck in the walls of the stronghold, almost 12,000 cannonballs landed inside the fortress before
the siege ended). The fortress was defended by 2,100-2,300 people, a mixture of professional soldiers, insurgent peasants and a
few dozen women. Among the approximately 1,530 combat-ready personnel there were only a handful of foreign mercenaries:
Dobó had hired six cannonmasters from Germany in order to make the most efficient use of Eger's artillery. The defenders were
commanded by István Dobó and his deputy István Mekcsey, who had assumed command in 1549. Another noted officer, famous
in Hungarian literature and folklore, was Gergely Bornemissza. He commanded a detachment of 250 hungarian infantry, however
it was his skill with explosives that was to make this young officer's name. During the siege Bornemissza devised primitive but
lethal grenades and powder keg sized bombs to use against the attackers as well as a water-mill wheel packed with gunpowder
which he rolled into the Ottoman ranks. His secret lay in the gunpowder not simply exploding but sparking even more fire. He
loaded these weapons with oil, sulfur and flint in order to shower the enemy with burning missiles. The Ottomans had expected an
easy victory, but the bravery of the castle's defenders, as well as Dobó's inspired leadership, resisted and repulsed repeated
Ottoman assaults. Even after the storage tower containing 24 metric tons of black gunpowder exploded and caused extensive
structural damage, the invaders still could not find a way into the castle compound. After 39 days of bloody, brutal and intense
fighting the Ottoman Army withdrew, beaten and humiliated. The defenders' losses amounted to about one third of their ranks,
including those killed and permanently maimed in combat. Dobó lost both of his squires. According to modern historical research,
several external factors contributed the defenders' success. There was significant in-fighting between the two Ottoman leaders,
Pasha Ali and Pasha Ahmed. Ahmed was the senior and contributed twice as many troops to the united army, but Ali showed
more strategic talent and proved his skill in artillery, heavily damaging the castle walls with his battery of just four large siege
guns. During the siege, the Ottoman army ran out of gunpowder and cannonballs (which were carved out of marble) at least twice,
limiting Ahmed's use of heavy artillery for a week or more. The end of autumn arrived earlier than usual with heavy rain and
freezing nighttime temperatures. Reduced rice rations and allegations of corruption among the officers caused discontent among
the Ottoman troops. After the victory Dobó and his officers resigned, in order to protest King Ferdinand's refusal to contribute any
material help to the defence. Gergely Bornemissza was appointed to take over command of the fortress. He was later ambushed,
captured and hanged by the Ottomans. The fortress of Eger remained defiant of Ottoman attacks until 1596 when 7,000 defenders,
mostly foreign mercenaries, capitulated to the Ottoman forces personally commanded by the Sultan, Mehmed III. The town
remained in Ottoman hands for 91 years. Eger has become an emblem of national defence, a symbol of patriotic heroism, and the
superiority of a national army over an unmotivated foreign mercenary force.
In art and literature Earliest records of the siege were recorded by the chronicler Sebestyén Tinódi Lantos in 1554 who wrote
musical verses of the exploits of the people of Eger. It was not until the 19th century that the siege was seized upon by Hungarian
writers as the basis of fictional accounts. The first was the poem Eger by Mihály Vörösmarty in 1827. The most famous account
was by author Géza Gárdonyi who wrote his popular 1899 historical novel Egri csillagok about the events of this period. It
chronicles the events leading up to and including the siege and tells the tale of Gergely Bornemissza, as well as Captain Dobó, and
his co-commander István Mekcsey. During the 1960s the novel was adapted into a feature-length film, which is still regularly
shown on Hungarian television. Bertalan Székely's painting Az Egri Nők (Women of Eger) depicts the defence of the fortress,
especially by the womenfolk, and hangs in the National Art Gallery in Budapest.
References
1. ^ László Markó: A Magyar Állam főméltóságai, 1999. ISBN 963-548-961-7
2. ^ Magyarország hadtörténete, Zrínyi katonai kiadó, Budapest 1985. szerk.: Liptai Ervin ISBN 963-32-6337-9
3. ^ Gárdonyi, Géza. Egri Csillagok (vol. 2). Európa Könyvkiadó, Budapest. 2000. pages 17, 49.
4. ^ Magyarország hadtörténete, Zrínyi katonai kiadó, Budapest 1985. szerk.: Liptai Ervin ISBN 963-32-6337-9
5. ^ Çiçek,, Kemal; Ercüment Kuran, Nejat Göyünç, Đlber Ortaylı (2000). The Great Ottoman-Turkish Civilisation
(3 ed.). University of Michigan: Yeni Türkiye, 2000 Item notes.
6. ^ Fallon, Steve; Neal Bedford (2003). Hungary (4 ed.). Lonely Planet. pp. 331. ISBN 1740591526,
9781740591522.
7. ^ Magyarország hadtörténete, Zrínyi katonai kiadó, Budapest 1985. editor.: Liptai Ervin ISBN 963-32-6337-9
Siege of Szigetvár Szigeth (1566)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Johann Peter Krafft: Zrinsky's charge from the fortress of Szigetvár (1825)
Nicholas Zrinsky †
Suleiman I † Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmet Paşa
Strength
2,300[3]–3,000[4] Croats and Hungarians[5][Note 2]
600 100,000[7]–300,000[8][Note 3]
80,000 Ottomans 12,000–15,000 Tatars
able-bodied men by the end of the siege[6] 7,000 Moldavians
Casualties and losses
Heavy; Nicholas Zrinsky dies in the final battle. Almost entire Heavy; Suleiman dies during siege of natural causes.
garrison wiped out. 2,300–3,000 killed in combat. 20,000[4]–30,000[9][10] killed or died of sickness.
The Siege of Szigetvár or Battle of Szigeth (Hungarian: Szigetvári csata, Croatian: Bitka kod Sigeta or Sigetska bitka, Turkish:
Zigetvar Savaşı) was a siege of the Szigeth Fortress in Baranya (near the present Hungarian/Croatian border) which blocked
Suleiman's line of advance towards Vienna in 1566 AD.[11] The battle was fought between the defending forces of the Austrian
Habsburg Monarchy under the leadership of Croatian ban Nicholas Zrinsky (Croatian: Nikola Šubić Zrinski, Hungarian: Zrínyi
Miklós), and the invading Ottoman army under the nominal command of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (Ottoman Turkish:
ليمانÕÕÕÕÕÕÕÕ سSüleymān).[11] After the Battle of Mohács in 1526, which resulted in the end of the independent Kingdom of Hungary,
Ferdinand I was elected King by the nobles of both Hungary and Croatia.[12] This was followed by a series of conflicts with the
Habsburgs and their allies, fighting against the Ottoman Empire. In the Little War in Hungary both sides exhausted themselves
after sustaining heavy casualties. The Ottoman campaign in Hungary ceased until the offensive against Szigetvár.[13] In January
1566 Suleiman went to war for the last time.[14] The siege of Szigetvár was fought from 5 August to 8 September 1566 and,
though it resulted in an Ottoman victory, there were heavy losses on both sides. Both commanders died during the battle—Zrinsky
in the final charge and Suleiman in his tent from natural causes.[6][Note 4] More than 20,000 Turks had fallen during the attacks and
almost all of Zrinsky's 2,300 man garrison was killed, with most of the final 600 men killed on the last day.[4] Although the battle
was an Ottoman victory, it stopped the Ottoman push to Vienna that year. Vienna was not threatened again until the Battle of
Vienna in 1683.[6] The importance of the battle was considered so great that the French clergyman and statesman Cardinal
Richelieu was reported to have described it as "the battle that saved civilization."[3] The battle is still famous in Croatia and
Hungary and inspired both the Hungarian epic poem Siege of Sziget and the Croatian opera Nikola Šubić Zrinski.[15]
Background See also: Ottoman–Habsburg wars On 29 August 1526 the Hungarian forces led by King Louis II were defeated at
the Battle of Mohács by Ottoman forces led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.[16] Louis was killed in the battle which resulted
in the end of the independent Kingdom of Hungary, as he died without an heir. Both Hungary and Croatia became disputed
territories with claims from both the Habsburg and Ottoman empires. Ferdinand I from the House of Habsburg, brother of Holy
Roman Emperor Charles V, married the sister of Louis II[13] and was elected King by the nobles of both Hungary and
Croatia.[12][17][Note 5] The throne of Hungary became the subject of a dynastic dispute between Ferdinand and John Zápolya from
Transylvania. Suleiman had promised to make Zápolya the ruler of all Hungary.[18] Ferdinand set out to enforce his claim on
Hungary and captured Buda from John Zápolya in 1527, only to relinquish his hold on it in 1529 when an Ottoman counter-attack
stripped Ferdinand of all his territorial gains during 1527 and 1528.[13] The Siege of Vienna in 1529 was the first attempt by
Suleiman the Magnificent to capture the Austrian capital. This siege signalled the pinnacle of Ottoman power and the maximum
extent of Ottoman expansion in central Europe.[13]
Little War in Hungary Main article: Little War in Hungary The years from 1529 to 1552 were known as the "Little War in
Hungary". Following Suleiman's unsuccessful siege of Vienna in 1529 Ferdinand launched a counter-attack in 1530 to regain the
initiative. An assault on Buda was driven off by John Zápolya, although Ferdinand was successful elsewhere—capturing Gran
(Esztergom) and other forts along the Danube river, a vital strategic frontier.[13] Suleiman's response came in 1532 when he led a
massive army of over 120,000 troops to besiege Vienna again. Ferdinand withdrew his army, leaving only 700 men with no
cannons and a few guns to defend Güns (Koszeg)[13] although Ibrahim Pasha, the Grand Vizier of the Ottomans, did not realize
how poorly defended Koszeg was. Suleiman came to join him shortly after the siege had started.[13] For more than twenty five
days Croatian captain Nikola Jurišić and his garrison of 800 Croats held out against nineteen full-scale assaults and an incessant
bombardment by the Ottomans.[5] As a result the city was offered a surrender on favourable terms and, although the offer was
rejected, the Ottomans retreated[5][19][Note 6] leading to a peace treaty between Ferdinand and Suleiman. John Zápolya was
recognized as the King of Hungary by the Habsburgs, although as an Ottoman vassal.[13] The treaty did not satisfy either John
Zápolya or Ferdinand and their armies began skirmishes along the borders. In 1537 Ferdinand attacked John’s forces at Osijek in
violation of the treaty. The siege was a disaster of similar magnitude to that of Mohács, with an Ottoman relief army smashing the
Austrians. Rather than attack Vienna again Suleiman attacked Otranto in southern Italy. Nonetheless, an Ottoman victory at the
naval Battle of Preveza (1538) gave the Habsburg-led coalition another defeat.[20] John Zápolya died in 1540 and was succeeded
by his infant son John II Sigismund Zápolya. For much of his reign the country was governed by his mother Isabella Jagiellon,
with continued support from Suleiman. John II remained as nominal King of Hungary until he abdicated in 1570 and returned the
country to Habsburg rule.[20] A further humiliating defeat was inflicted on the Habsburgs in the Siege of Buda (1541) when the
Ottomans responded to a request for help from Isabella Jagiellon. In April 1543 Suleiman launched another campaign in Hungary,
taking back Bran and other forts so that much of Hungary returned to Ottoman control. In August 1543 the Ottomans succeeded in
the Siege of Esztergom (1543) which was followed by the capture of three Hungarian cities: Székesfehérvár, Siklós and Szeged,
offering better security for Buda.[20] Another peace agreement between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans lasted until 1552 when
Suleiman decided to attack Eger. The siege proved futile and the Habsburg victory reversed a period of territorial losses in
Hungary. The survival of Eger gave the Austrians good reason to believe that Hungary was still a contested ground and the
Ottoman campaign in Hungary ceased, until its revival in 1566.[20]
Campaign of 1566 See also: List of campaigns of Suleiman the Magnificent In January 1566 Sultan Suleiman I had ruled the
Ottoman Empire for 46 years and went to war for the last time.[14] He was 72 years old and, although having gout to the extent that
he was carried on a litter, he nominally commanded his thirteenth military campaign.[14] On 1 May 1566 the Sultan left
Constantinople at the head of one of the largest armies he had ever commanded.[14] His opposite number, Count Nicholas Zrinsky,
was one of the largest landholders in Croatia, a seasoned veteran of border warfare, and a Ban (Croation royal representative)
from 1542 to 1556.[21] In his early life he distinguished himself in the Siege of Vienna and pursued a successful military career.[7]
Suleiman's forces reached Belgrade on 27 June after a forty nine day march. Here he met with John II Sigismund Zápolya who he
earlier promised to make the ruler of all Hungary.[18] Learning of the Zrinsky's success in an attack upon a Turkish encampment at
Siklós, Suleiman decided to postpone his attack on Eger (German: Erlau) and instead attack Zrinsky's fortress at Szigetvár to
eliminate him as a threat.[22][7]
Siege The advanced guard of the Turks arrived at on 2 August 1566 and the defenders made several successful sorties causing
considerable loss to the Turks.[10] The Sultan arrived with the main force on 5 August[10][11] and his big war tent was erected on the
Similehov hill, giving him a view of the battle. The Sultan had to stay in his camp where he received verbal battle progress reports
from his Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, the real operational commander of the Ottoman forces.[23] Count Zrinsky found
himself besieged by a hostile army of at least 150,000 soldiers with powerful artillery.[10] Zrinsky had assembled a force of around
2,300 Croatian and Hungarian soldiers prior to the siege.[5] These consisted of his personal forces and those of his friends and
allies.[24] The majority of the defenders were Croatian, with a significant Hungarian contingent represented in both the men-at-
arms and the leadership.[24][5] Szigetvár was divided into three sections divided by water: the old town, the new town and the
castle—each of which was linked to the next by bridges and to the land by causeways.[11] Although it was not built on particularly
high ground the inner castle, which occupied much of the area of today's castle, was not directly accessible to the attackers. This
was because two other baileys had to be taken and secured before a final assault on the inner castle could be launched.[11] When
the Sultan appeared before the Fortress he saw the walls hung with red cloth, as though for a festive reception, and a single great
cannon thundered once to greet the mighty warrior monarch.[25] The siege began on 6 August when Suleiman ordered a general
assault on the ramparts,[10] although the attack was successfully repulsed.[10] Despite being undermanned, and greatly
outnumbered, the defenders were sent no reinforcements from Vienna by the imperial army.[10] After over a month of exhausting
and bloody struggle the few remaining defenders retreated into the old town for their last stand. The Sultan tried to entice Zrinsky
to surrender, ultimately offering him leadership of Croatia under Ottoman influence,[25][26] Count Zrinsky did not reply and
continued to fight.[26] The fall of the castle appeared inevitable but the Ottoman high command hesitated. On 6 September the
Suleiman died in his tent[6] and his death was kept secret at great effort[6] with only the Sultan's innermost circle knowing of his
demise. A courier was dispatched from the camp with a message for Suleiman's successor, Selim. The courier may not even have
known the content of the message he delivered to distant Asia Minor within a mere eight days.[6]
Final battle The final battle began on 7 September, the day after Suleiman's demise. By this time, the fortress walls had been
reduced to rubble by mining with explosives and wood fueled fires at the corners of the walls. In the morning an all-out attack
began[4] with fusillades from small arms, "Greek fire", and a concentrated cannonade.[Note 7] Soon the castle, the last stronghold
within Szigetvár, was set ablaze and cinders fell into the apartments of the count.[4] The Ottoman army swarmed through the city,
drumming and yelling. Zrinsky prepared for a last charge addressing his troops:
“ ...Let us go out from this burning place into the open and stand up to our enemies. Who dies – he will be with God. Who
dies not – his name will be honoured. I will go first, and what I do, you do. And God is my witness – I will never leave
you, my brothers and knights!... ”
[7]
Zrinsky did not allow the final assault to break into the castle. As the Turks were pressing forwards along a narrow bridge the
defenders suddenly flung open the gate and fired a large mortar loaded with broken iron, killing 600 attackers.[7] Zrinsky then
ordered a charge and led his remaining 600 troops out of the castle.[7] He received two musket wounds in his chest and was killed
shortly afterwards by an arrow to the head.[7] Some of his force retired into the castle.[7] The Turks took the castle and most of the
defenders were slain. A few of the captured defenders were spared by Janissaries who had admired their courage,[7] with only
seven defenders managing to escape through the Ottoman lines. Zrinsky's corpse was beheaded and his head taken to the
Emperor[27] while his body received an honourable burial by a Turk who had been his prisoner, and well treated by him.[7]
Powder magazine explosion Before leading the final sortie by the castle garrison, Zrinsky ordered a fuse be lit to the powder
magazine.[4][Note 8] After cutting down the last of the defenders the besiegers poured into the fortress. The Ottoman Army entered
the remains of Szigetvár and fell into the booby trap,[6] thousands perished in the blast when the castle's magazine exploded.[28]
The Vizier Ibrahim's life was saved by one of Zrinsky's household who warned him of the trap when the Vizier and his troops
searched for treasure and interrogated the survivors. While inquiring about treasure the prisoner replied that it had been long
expended, but that 3,000 lbs of powder were under their feet to which a slow match had been attached.[7] The Vizier and his
mounted officers had just enough time to escape but 3,000 Turks perished in the explosion.[5][7][10][29]
Aftermath See also: Treaty of Adrianople (1568) Almost all of Zrinsky's garrison was wiped out after the final battle.[4] Ottoman
casualties were also heavy. Three pashas, 7,000 Janissaries and 28,000 other soldiers are said to have perished.[7] Sources vary on
the exact number with estimates ranging from 20,000–35,000.[4][7][9] After the battle the Grand Vizier forged bulletins in the
Sultan's name, proclaiming victory.[6] These announced that the Sultan regretted that his current state of health prevented him from
continuing with the successful campaign.[6] His body was returned to Constantinople while the inner circle of officials pretended
to keep up communication with him.[6] Turkish sources state that the illusion was maintained for three weeks and that even the
Sultan's personal physician was strangled as a precaution.[6] It is likely that the long journey and the siege had a detrimental effect
on the Sultan's health.[6] His death meant that any advances were postponed as the Grand Vizier had to return to Constantinople
for the succession of the new Sultan, Selim II.[6][29] Even if Suleiman had lived his army could not have achieved much in the short
time that remained between the fall of Szigeth and the onset of winter.[30] The prolonged resistance at Szigeth delayed the Ottoman
push to Vienna.[30] Two ambasadors were sent by Emperor Maximilian: Croatian Antun Vrančić and Styrian Christoph
Teuffenbach. They arrived in Istanbul on 26 August 1567 and were well received by Sultan Selim II.[31] An agreement ending the
war between the Austrian and Ottoman empires was reached on 17 February 1568, after five months of negotiations with Sokollu
Mehmed Pasha.[31] The Treaty of Adrianople was signed on 21 February 1568.[31] Sultan Selim II agreed to an eight-year truce,[8]
although the agreement brought 25 years of (relative) peace between the Empires until the Long War. The truce was conditional
and Maximilian agreed to pay an annual tribute of 30,000 ducats.[30]
Depictions in art The Croatian Renaissance poet and writer Brne Karnarutić, from Zadar, wrote The Conquest of the City of
Sziget (Croatian: Vazetje Sigeta grada) sometime before 1573.[32] His work was posthumously published in 1584 in Venice.[32]
This is the first Croatian historical epic dealing with national history and the Battle of Szigetvár. It was inspired by Marulić's
Judita.[32][33] The battle was also immortalized in the Hungarian epic poem Szigeti Veszedelem ("Peril of Sziget"), written in fifteen
parts by Zrinsky's great-grandson Nicholas VII of Zrin (also a Ban of Croatia) in 1647 and published in 1651.[15] This was one of
the first such epics in the Hungarian language and was also inspired by Marulić's Judita.[32][33] Kenneth Clark's renowned history
Civilisation lists the Szigeti Veszedelem as one of the major literary achievements of the 17th century.[15] In spite of the author and
other members of Zrinsky family being fierce enemies of the Turks, the poem never demonizes them.[34] The Turks are portrayed
as human beings and a love story between Deliman the Tatar and the Sultan's daughter Cumilla is interwoven into the main
plot.[34] Peter Zrinsky (Croatian: Petar Zrinski, Hungarian: Zrínyi Péter), the brother of Nicholas VII of Zrin, published Opsida
Sigecka (1647/8) in the Croatian language—not surprising since the Zrinsky family were bilingual.[15] Another Croatian nobleman
warrior-poet Pavao Ritter Vitezović (1652–1713) wrote about the battle.[35] His poem Odiljenje sigetsko ("The Sziget Farewell"),
first published in 1684, reminisces about the event without rancour or crying for revenge.[35] The last of the four cantos is titled
"Tombstones" and consists of epitaphs for the Croatian and Turkish warriors who died during the siege, paying equal respect to
both.[35] Ivan Zajc's 1876 opera Nikola Šubić Zrinski is his most famous and popular work in Croatia. This recounts the heroic
defiance of the Croats towards the Turks, as a metaphor for their later nationalist impulses within the Habsburg monarchy.[36]
Zrinski is depicted in the plot as a 16th-century Croatian hero who defeated the Turks a couple of times before perishing
sacrificially, along with his family and close supporters, in the siege of Szigeth castle.[15][36] The opera is patriotic with a famous
aria "U boj, u boj".[15][36]
Notes
1. ^ Although the Turks won the battle, the outcome can be seen as a "pyrrhic victory", because of a heavy Turkish
casualties and the death of Sultan Suleiman. Moreover, the battle delayed the Ottoman push for Vienna that year and
suspended the Ottoman expansion in Europe.
2. ^ The majority of the defenders were ethnic Croats, which is clearly mentioned in the only first-hand report of
the siege, written in "Podsjedanje i osvojenje Sigeta" by Franjo (Ferenc) Črnko, Zrinsky's chamberlain, and one of the
surviving soldiers from the battle. Later works "Vazetje Sigeta grada" (1573) by Brne Karnarutić, "Szigeti veszedelem"
(1647) by Nicholas VII Zrinsky, and "Opsida Sigecka" (1647) by Peter Zrinsky, also prove that Croats were a majority
among the defenders.
3. ^ The number of 300,000 Ottomans mentioned by some chroniclers, is probably overestimated. There is some
tendency by some historians to exaggerate these figures to overstate the bravery of the outnumbered defenders of
Szigetvár. Although, on 1 May 1566, Suleiman did left Istanbul at the head of one of the largest armies he had ever
commanded, the number of his forces was probably closer to 100,000 than to 300,000.
4. ^ It is generally accepted that Suleiman died in his tent behind the siege lines from natural causes, before the
Turks achieved victory. According to George F. Nafziger, Suleiman died of a heart attack when learned of his victory.
According to Stephen Turnbull, several contemporary accounts, such as the ones used later by Nicholas VII Zrinsky for
his epic, attribute Suleiman's death to Zrinsky's hand.
5. ^ On 1 January 1527, the Croatian nobles at Cetin unanimously elected Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria as their
king, and confirmed the succession to him and his heirs. In return for the throne, Archduke Ferdinand, at Parliament on
Cetin (Croatian: Cetinski Sabor), promised to respect the historic rights, freedoms, laws, and customs the Croats had
when united with the Hungarian kingdom and to defend Croatia from Ottoman invasion. (R. W. Seton -Watson:The
southern Slav question and the Habsburg Monarchy page 18)
6. ^ According to Stephen Turnbull, the city was offered terms for a nominal surender. The only Ottomans who
would be allowed to enter the castle would be a token force who would raise the Turkish flag. Anyway, Suleiman
withdrew at the arrival of the August rains, and did not continue towards Vienna as previously planned, but homeward.
7. ^ According to Robert William Fraser, more than 10,000 large cannon balls where shot into the fortress during
the siege.
8. ^ According to Francis Lieber, explosion of the powder magazine is somewhat disputable.
References
Footnotes
1. ^ Kohn (2006), p. 47.
2. ^ Lázár and Tezla (1999), p. 70.
3. ^ a b Timothy Hughes Rare & Early Newspapers, Item 548456. Retrieved 1 December 2009.
4. ^ a b c d e f g h Lieber (1845), p. 345.
5. ^ a b c d e f Wheatcroft (2009), pp. 59–60.
6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Turnbull (2003), p. 57.
7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Shelton (1867), pp. 82–83.
8. ^ a b Elliott (2000), p. 117.
9. ^ a b Tait (1853), p. 679.
10. ^ a b c d e f g h Coppée (1864), pp. 562–565.
11. ^ a b c d e Turnbull (2003), p. 56.
12. ^ a b Corvisier and Childs (1994), p. 289
13. ^ a b c d e f g h Turnbull (2003), pp. 49–51.
14. ^ a b c d Turnbull (2003), p. 55.
15. ^ a b c d e f Cornis-Pope and Neubauer (2004), pp. 518–522.
16. ^ Turnbull (2003), p. 49
17. ^ Milan Kruhek: Cetin, grad izbornog sabora Kraljevine Hrvatske 1527, Karlovačka Županija, 1997, Karlovac
18. ^ a b Turnbull (2003), pp. 55–56.
19. ^ Ágoston and Alan Masters (2009), p. 583
20. ^ a b c d Turnbull (2003), p. 52.
21. ^ Krokar Slide Set #27, image 42
22. ^ Setton (1991), pp. 845–846.
23. ^ Sakaoğlu (1999), pp. 140–141.
24. ^ a b Perok (1861), pp. 46–48.
25. ^ a b Roworth (1840), p. 53.
26. ^ a b Pardoe (1842), p. 84.
27. ^ Sakaoğlu (1999), p. 141.
28. ^ Dupuy (1970), p. 501.
29. ^ a b Nafziger & Walton (2003), p. 105
30. ^ a b c Elliott (2000), p. 118.
31. ^ a b c Setton (1984), pp. 921–922.
32. ^ a b c d Karnarutić (1866), pp. 1–83.
33. ^ a b Lökös, István (April 1997). "Prilozi madžarskoj recepciji Marulićevih djela [A Contribution to the
Hungarian Reception of Marulić’s Works]" (in Croatian) (PDF). Colloquia Maruliana 6.
http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=14696. Retrieved 3 December 2009.
34. ^ a b Anzulovic (2000), p. 57.
35. ^ a b c Anzulovic (2000), pp. 57–58.
36. ^ a b c Rockwell, John (29 April 1986). "Opera: Zajc's 'Nikola Subic Zrinski'". The New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/1986/04/29/arts/opera-zajc-s-nikola-subic-zrinski.html. Retrieved 3 December 2009.
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0631168486, 9780631168485.
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• Sakaoğlu, Necdet (2001). Bu Mülkün Sultanları: 36 Osmanlı Padişahi. Oğlak Yayıncılık ve Reklamcılık. ISBN
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Further reading
• Fraser, Robert William (1854). Turkey, ancient and modern: a history of the Ottoman Empire from the period of its
establishment to the present time. A. & C. Black.
External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Battle of Szigetvár
Military history of the Ottoman Empire portal
• (Croatian) Animation of the Battle of Szigetvár
• (Hungarian) Hungarian epic poem "Peril of Sziget", written by Nicholas VII Zrinsky
• (Croatian) Nicholas Zrinsky and Battle of Szigeth
Cover of the first edition of Vazetje Sigeta grada, 1584. Turkish–Hungarian Friendship Park in Szigetvar Nicholas Subich
Zrinsky, preparing for the final battle, by Oton Iveković
Szigetvár Fortress today Artistic impression of the battle of Szigetvár Siege of Szigetvár Fortress by overwhelming Ottomans
The largest expansion of Turks (1683)