STRUCTURES OF HELICOPTER

As seen below in Fig.1, these are the most common components that a helicopter comprises of.
The two major structural components that maintain the structural integrity and form are fuselage
and tail boom, and they are commonly known as the primary structures for a helicopter.

Figure 1: Exploded view of a twin-blade rotorcraft.

There are three main types of structural construction method applicable in rotorcraft; which are:
- Tubular construction
This type of method encompasses a combination of tubular framework (Fig.2) known as trusses
and longerons, which are welded together to form a triangular structure (Fig.2 - yellow circle). For
fuselage, mostly the endoskeleton is made of welded tubular framework. The advantage of this
type of construction is that the tubular skeletal system can be easily repaired if the welded joints
fail and also, jigs are not necessarily required. The major downside of this construction is that, the
geometric dimension will not be in close tolerance and also, welding is an expensive
manufacturing process especially when it comes to welding aluminum or stainless steel, etc.
 Figure 2: Tail boom constructed using aluminum tubes.
- Stressed skin construction, and
Stress skin construction, as the name suggests, uses sheets such as aluminum alloys for the
construction of a structure. However, when constructing using this skin (sheet), an internal support
framework is essential in order to maintain a fixed shape and also aid in fastening the skin to the
frame. There are two subcategories of stressed skin construction, which are monocoque and semi-
monocoque. A monocoque structure (Fig.3a) uses its outer shell to support stresses and loads
applied to it, whereas a semi-monocoque (Fig.3b) structure has an internal "skeleton" of supports
and braces to keep its shape rigid and strong. The vast majority of pressurized aircraft are semi-
monocoque to help distribute stresses equally along the fuselage during flight. However, some
helicopters use monocoque structure to maximize internal space in the flight compartment.
In a monocoque design, the skin is supported by bulkhead and former, hence the riveting pattern
will mostly be vertical. In a semi-monocoque structure, lightweight and high strength longitudinal
cross members known as longerons and stringers support the framework as primary structures. In
a stressed skin construction, the load is also undergone by the skins in the form of tensile stress,
compressive stress and shear. It must be ensured that either of the stress must not exceed the
yielding point of the specific alloy the skin the constructed from, or else it will lead to plastic
deformation of the skin. Advantages of this particular type of construction is that high strength to
weight ratio is achieved, manufacturing/repairing process is much simpler and most importantly,
the geometrical accuracy is within tolerance.

(a) Monocoque construction (b) Semi-monocoque construction

Figure 3: Various types of stressed skin construction techniques.
 - Bonded construction.
Bonding is the process in which manufactured structural members are attached together using a
fastener-less or utilizing minimum fasteners during assembly of the airplane. Bonding composites
is designed to be a permanent joining method. Several important points must be considered in
bonding such as; know how much strength is needed in the joint, the bonding area required, what
type of material must be used to provide the adhesion, and the procedure used to apply the bonding
material. Preparing the surfaces that are to be bonded together is also a very crucial step. Bonded
construction are mostly suitable for composite or nanocomposite materials, where the adhesive is
also a reinforced polymer such as graphene/ carbon nanotubes (CNT) reinforced epoxy. Specific
curing agents will determine the strength of the bonded joint depending on the design
requirements.
Stress and Loads
In a fixed-wing aircraft, there are two individual structural areas (Fig. 4a – red circle) that
withstand the stress induced by thrust and lift loading and these are: - engine attachment; which
carries the maximum stress induced by thrust and, - wing attachments; which withstands stress
induced by lift. Hence, the flexural strength on the wing section and high fatigue life for spars and
engine mountings are the major factors to consider during the design phase.
Contrary to the above statement, in a helicopter, the thrust and lift are produced by only one
component i.e. main rotor and originates from a single point (Fig. 4b – red circle) because the
main rotor acts as a wing and also as a propeller. The principal stress distribution is mainly induced
in the fuselage endo-skeleton of a helicopter and therefore, the entire structure must be able to
withstand high level of principal cyclic stress, shear stress and acoustic loading (vibration).

(a) (b)
Figure 4: Principal load initiation points in a; (a) fixed-wing aircraft and, (b) rotary-wing aircraft.

Landing Theory
For aircraft to land, the motion has to be in two directions (x and y direction) in order to produce
a resultant gradual descending motion. Apparently, helicopters can land with aid of motion in only
one direction i.e. altering the lift or y-direction. In rare circumstances, helicopters have an engine
failure that could result in autorotation or tail rotor failure and this will require landing to be carried
out using similar motion as an aircraft. Hence, the helicopter will move forward and descend
because there will be no power and the sole propulsion will be based on the residual aerodynamics
energy in the rotors. In this situation, the amount of load experienced the skids and the fuselage
structure will be immense. Therefore, this becomes a design consideration when sizing the
structural members of the fuselage and also for the tail boom and skids/landing gears. This is
known as Critical Load Case Scenario.
Vibrations in a Helicopter
Typically, an unusual amount of vibrations in a helicopter is due to a malfunction in the aircraft.
These malfunctions may include loose hardware, out of track or out-of-balance conditions or worn
bearings. Due to the various moving parts and rotor system stress during operation, helicopters
have a high level of vibrations, which left unchecked will cause machine failure or other serious
damage to the aircraft in a short amount of time. There are three major types of vibrations
commonly affecting the helicopters, which are:
- Low to High Frequency
One type of helicopter vibration is a frequency vibration. This type of vibration may occur as a
low, medium or high frequency. A low frequency vibration typically occurs when the revolution
of the rotor is disturbed. A medium frequency vibration is a common rotor system vibration that
occurs due to loose components of the aircraft. A high frequency vibration typically occurs when
the tail rotor gears, tail drive wire and shaft or the tail rotor engine, fan or shaft assembly vibrates
or rotates at an equal or greater speed than the tail rotor.
- Ground Resonance
Ground resonance is a type of vibration that is the most destructive and dangerous of the vibrations
and can destroy a helicopter within seconds. Ground resonance never occurs during flight and only
affects grounded helicopters with turning rotors. Ground resonance is often the result of
unbalanced forces in a rotor system that causes an aircraft to rock on the landing gear when the
helicopter is at or near its natural frequency. Other causes of ground resonance are incorrect tire
pressure, defective rotor blade lag dampeners and incorrect adjustments to landing gear shock
struts.
- Lateral and Vertical
Lateral and vertical vibrations are also a type of vibration that can affect a helicopter. Lateral
vibrations are often the result of worn, loose or cracked parts or a lateral imbalance such as a span-
wise imbalance, a chord-wise imbalance or a combination of both. Vertical vibrations typically
occur when a rotor blade is out of track.
Anti-Vibration Devices
Nowadays, there are a variety of vibration attenuating components and it can be as simple as a
rubber damper and spring loaded mass to a more sophisticated Active Vibration Control Systems
(AVCS) which works on algorithms programmed to simultaneously manipulate the produced
vibrations in real-time. In a AVCS, the accelerometers measure aircraft vibration levels and signals
are sent to a centralized computer. The computer is running a software algorithm that interprets
the signals and sends commands to force generators located throughout the aircraft. These force
generators create “anti-vibration” counteracting waves that stops the progression of vibration due
to the main rotor. The force generators are configured to create linear or circular control forces
(Fig. 5).

Figure 5: Linear control force generators (left) and circular control for generators (right)

Helicopter Structural Anatomy

As seen below in Figure 6, the structure of the helicopter can be subdivided into 6 major sections,
starting from:

Figure 6: Exploded view showing major structural components of

a helicopter.
 1. Canopy
The canopy or also known as cabin of a helicopter is the central control unit, determining all
activity of the helicopter. The pilot will sit in the cockpit with a co-pilot; helicopters not requiring
2 pilots can have another person in the front seat. There are four main controls a helicopter pilot
must use in flight: cyclic, collective, anti-torque pedals, and throttle. The canopy structure is
constructed using composites which are known for their superior strength to weight ratio and
streamlined surfaces. The doors and the door mounting stud are usually made of high-toughness
materials such as aluminum alloy. The canopy is bolted to the cabin floor and body structure
bulkhead.

2. Body Structure
Body structure (Fig. 7) is the main structural member of the fuselage. The structure comprises of
front tilted bulkhead, rear bulkhead as it contains the fuel tank enclosed within the structure and
the transmission assembly is mounted on the top surface/transmission platform. It not only carries
the lift and thrust load transmitted by the main rotor, but also withstands compression load during
landing due to the weight of the heavy transmission assembly that is already mounted on top of
the transmission platform.

Figure 7: Structural members of body

structure.

3. Bottom Structure and Cabin Floor

The bottom structure is attached in front of the body structure, but at a lower elevation i.e. two
cantilevered beams extrude from the lower diagonal corner of the body structure, which then
extends towards the cabin section and then the bottom structure and cabin floor are mounted on it.
Figure 8 shows how the bottom structure will be mounted onto the two beams The red circles
represent the node from the corner of the body structure where the cantilevered beams extrude
from and the red arrow represents the aforementioned cantilevered beam on which the bottom
structures are assembled. In between the bottom and body structure, there is a tilted bulkhead that
enhances the structural integrity and also divides individual compartments.

Figure 8: Bottom structure assembly

4. Rear Structure
Rear structure (Fig. 9) consists of three frame connected by multiple beams and is mounted to the
body structure’s rear bulkhead. This frame is covered with a stainless steel firewall because the
top surface of this structure is the engine deck, and therefore excessive heat will be produced in
this region. The baggage compartment is located inside this section. Eventually, the tail boom will
be connected to the rear frame of the rear section.
 Figure 9: Rear section assembly

5. Tail Boom
Tail boom (Fig. 10) is the structure that connects the tail rotor to the fuselage. It is mainly subjected
to the pitching moment and torsion. Because it is long to obtain enough distance between the tail
rotor and the main rotor, the materials used for manufacturing the tail boom needs to be a
lightweight material. Tail booms are constructed in a semi-monocoque pattern to achieve a high
rigidity to withstand high torsional load and also be able to sustain high cyclic loading (vibrations)
incurred by the tail rotor, tail rotor gearbox and rotating drive shaft.

Figure 10: Tail boom assembly

5.1 Tail Unit

Tail unit consists of horizontal stabilizer, fins and tail rotor. The horizontal stabilizer and top fin
are of an asymmetrical profile because they provide downward force to maintain stability during
flight and the fin produces anti-torque, respectively. The horizontal stabilizer is slotted into the tail
boom and bolted. The fins are mounted to the tail boom through its leading edge spar section.
Hence, these control surfaces were typically meant to be fixed in a desired position and could not
be controlled as it does with aircrafts. However, in newer rotorcrafts, the orientation of the fins
and horizontal stabilizer can be controlled in order to maintain an optimal aerodynamic stability.
 6. Landing Gear
A rotorcraft possesses a unique ability to autorotate in a case of engine failure. Some helicopters
are very unforgiving in the event of a pilot error and also do not auto-rotate well. Additionally, a
tail rotor system strike resulting in loss of yaw control can cause it to crash if appropriate
procedures are not correctly and immediately implemented. Hence, energy absorbing landing gears
play a key role in meeting helicopter crashworthiness design goals of reduced crash injuries,
fatalities, and material losses. There are two types of landing gears for rotorcrafts; - oleo strut
landing gear and, - skid landing gear.
The oleo-strut landing gear (Fig. 11 right) with wheels offers advantages of initial taxi and take-
off run capability but at the cost of design complexity. The wheeled type of landing gear is complex
and heavy. The design features include, tires, wheels, braking devices, oleo struts and other
hydraulic equipment. Energy absorption takes place through brakes and shock absorbers. These
types of landing gears also have to accommodate retracting mechanisms which further complicate
the design.
Skid landing gears (Fig. 11 left) on the other hand this solution offer simplicity in design and
reduction in empty weight (WE). Currently skid landing gears are manufactured from metal alloys
such as Aluminum 7075. The elasto-plastic properties of such metals offer significant energy
dissipation capabilities during plastic bending.

Figure 11: Landing gears; skid system (left) and oleo-strut system (right)