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Occurrence of plastic waste in the environment: Ecological and health risks

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DOI: 10.30638/eemj.2016.073

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Environmental Engineering and Management Journal March 2016, Vol.15, No. 3, 675-685
http://omicron.ch.tuiasi.ro/EEMJ/

“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, Romania

OCCURRENCE OF PLASTIC WASTE IN THE ENVIRONMENT:

ECOLOGICAL AND HEALTH RISKS

Elena - Diana Comăniță1, Raluca Maria Hlihor1, Cristina Ghinea1,2,

Maria Gavrilescu1,3
1“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection,

Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, 73 Prof. dr. doc. Dimitrie Mangeron Str., 700050 Iasi, Romania
2Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Faculty of Food Engineering, 13 Universitatii Str., 720229 Suceava, Romania
3Academy of Romanian Scientists, 54 Splaiul Independentei, RO-050094 Bucharest, Romania

Abstract

Environmental threats posed in the environment by plastic production and plastic wastes continue to be a major problem today,
closely connected with the increase of plastics consumption by the population. Moreover, little efforts are involved in some parts
of the world associated to plastic waste collection, recycling and reuse. Considering all these prerequisites, the identification and
discussion of risks generated by plastic production and waste in the environment are performed in this paper and some measures
for plastic waste reduction were proposed. Although plastic polymers are not considered toxic, some residual monomers
contained in the materials can be hazardous. Also, many chemical compounds used in the plastics manufacturing as additives, in
particular plasticizers are dangerous to human health and the environment, along with some degradation products that may be
released during the plastic life cycle.
Bearing in mind the potential impacts and risks generated by these products in the environment and for humans, the paper
highlights that the current requirements and tendencies are to reduce the need for plastic, the enhancement of recycling and
recovering the waste, simultaneously with the replacement of plastic from fossil fuel with a continuous widening spectrum of
biodegradable polymers. Bioplastics began to be recognized as a positive and important invention of chemical and plastics
industry, providing many and varied opportunities for environmental impacts and risks abatement.

Key words: bioplastics, ecological risk, human health, plastic waste, recovery, risk analysis

Received: August, 2015; Revised final: February, 2016; Accepted: February, 2016

1. Introduction group of materials. While the rubber became

1.1. Plastics production and consumption
Plastics are known as synthetic materials
produced from synthetic or semi-synthetic organic
polymers derived from petro-based chemicals, able to
displace traditional natural polymeric materials
(wood, stone, ceramics etc.) (Groot, 2014).
Plastics together with rubbers have an
interesting history of their development, to when the
modern life cannot be considered without these two

Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed: e-mail: comanita_elena_diana@yahoo.com; mgav@ch.tuiasi.ro
indispensable at the beginning of the 20th century, the
plastic industry started its major growth since 1930
(Brydson, 1999; Rosato and Rosato, 2013), with four
major groups of thermoplastics which included
polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, polyolefins and
polymethilmethacrilate (Fried, 2003).
Nowadays, the plastic industry continues to be
deeply integrated with the oil industry, with that is
developed in parallel, so it can be considered that
they are in a high degree of interdependence. It is
largely accepted that plastics can be considered as
 Comăniță et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 15 (2016), 3, 675-685

key catalyst for progress with a relevant contribution
to the development and growth of life. According to
data from the association PlasticsEurope, world
production of plastics amounted 280 million tons in
2011 (PlasticsEurope, 2012), of which:
- 235 million tons of primary materials (used
in the production chain);
- 45 million tons used to produce the coating,
welding, spraying, painting and varnishing; this
represents an increase of 3.7% of world’s production
of plastic from the 270 million tons in the year 2010.
Fig. 1 illustrates the production of plastics
worldwide since 1950 until 2014, when the global
production of plastic attained about 311 million tons.
From this amount, almost 60 millions tons were
produced in Europe (PlasticEurope, 2014). It is
estimated that annually, around the world a quantity
of more than 100 million tons of plastic is produced
(PlasticEurope, 2008). This trend of plastic
production followed the consumption of these
materials in different quantities, depending on the
region location in the world (Fig. 2).
From Figs. 1 and 2 it is evident that plastics
production and consumption increases around the
world, knowing dozens of types of plastics. Of these,
six types are used in the manufacture of packaging,
while over 20 classes are applied in the manufacture
of other consumer goods, automotive, construction,
machine building industry etc., with the dominant
position of packaging (Fig. 3) (Jayaramana, 2011;
PlasticsEurope, 2015).
Plastic is one of the materials present in our
everyday life, since it is used for a variety of
purposes as it is inexpensive, versatile, lightweight
and durable. According to data from PlasticsEurope
(2012), represented in Fig. 4, the first in terms of
consumption of plastics in 2011 is Asia with 43 %,
followed by China with 23%, Europe 21%, Japan 5
%, South America 3 % and former Soviet States and
Middle East and Africa with 7%. By 2016, the global
consumption of plastics will increase by 4 % each
year (Plastic Europe, 2008).

Fig. 1. Plastics production worldwide (dark blue) and in Europe (gray) during 1950-2014
(adapted upon Statista, 2016)

Fig. 2. Plastics consumption in the world and by regions in 1980, 2005 and 2015 (adapted upon PlasticsEurope, 2015)
(CIS countries included, in 2015, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine (www.xprimm.com); NAFTA group includes: USA, Canada, Mexic)

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 Occurrence of plastic waste in the environment: Ecological and health risks

Fig. 3. Distribution of plastic uses in 2014 (adapted upon PlasticsEurope, 2015)

Fig. 4. Worldwide plastic consumption in 2013 (adapted upon PlasticsEurope, 2014)

In a short period of time, according to a study
of Plastic Europe (2008), we can expect to a
reconfiguration of the markets in the Asia-Pacific
region because of the states considerable economic
growth rates. For example, from 2011 to 2016 is
estimated an increase of about 5.5% (2 to 3% higher
than the average in the world) of plastic
consumption.
1.2. Plastics in the environment
Plastics consumption generates large volumes
of very persistent waste. There are seven types of
plastics with large applications and use (Tachwali et
al., 2007):
- Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) - of which
plastic bottles, fast food containers, plates, cups are
made;
- High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) - used for
manufacturing of colored plastic bottles, fabric
softener, engine oil;
- Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) – used for bottles and
glass dish detergents, plastic mats;
- Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) - of which
juice bottles, cans mustard, beer bottles, other
packaging systems are made;
- Polypropylene (PP) - used for bottle of syrups,
yogurt jars etc.;
- Polystyrene (PS) - of which egg cartons, plastic
cutlery, Petri dishes, plastic tubes etc.;
- Other type of plastic of which bottles and other
plastic packaging are made.
The world plastic demand is dominated by the
thermoplastic polypropylene, polyethylene and
polyvinyl chloride (Table 1) (Lithner, 2011;
PlasticsEurope, 2008). Plastic packaging is easy to
carry and use, but plastic is a strong pollution factor,
since today we are surrounded by plastic objects
(Jayaraman, 2011; Knight, 2012). Moreover, a non-
renewable natural resource - oil - is needed for plastic
production (almost 4% of world oil consumption is
used as raw materials for plastic production), while
the finished material is not biodegradable (Lithner,
2011).
The introduction of “green” plastics to the
market has created a number of issues that need to be

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 Comăniță et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 15 (2016), 3, 675-685
addressed. One important question concerns the
potential risk of contamination of the collected
conventional plastics (Soroudi and Jakubowicz,
2013).
Table 1. The hierarchy of plastic demand in the world
(in 2007, adapted upon PlasticEurope, 2008)
Plastic type % water quality have stimulated the development of a
thermoplastic types polypropylene 21
low- and linear low-density polyethylene 18
polyvinyl chloride 17
high-density polyethylene 15
polystyrene and expandable polystyrene 8
polyethylene terephthalate (excluding 7
fibres)
thermosetting plastic polyurethane 6 environmental threats. Besides the high percent of
Plastic polymers are not considered toxic, but
plastic materials contain some residual monomers.
Also, many chemical compounds used in the plastics
manufacturing as additives, in particular plasticizers
are dangerous to human health and the environment,
along with some degradation products that may be
released during the plastic life cycle (Jayaraman,
2011; Lithner, 2011). People, animals, plants and
microorganisms can be exposed to several hazardous
substances which may be released during the life
cycle of a plastic product. Many of these substances
don’t pose a threat to health in low concentrations,
but added up, even for small periods of time can lead
to serious effects for human and environmental
health (Al-Salem et al., 2009; Lithner, 2011; Zhang
et al., 2007).
Plastics in the environment also mean
uncontrolled problems due to plastic consumption,
since they can persist in the environment a very long
time. Rio+20 Summit emphasized the need to
continue efforts to reduce the incidence and impact
of plastics in the marine environment, but not only
(UNCSD, 2012). Although plastic is a fully
recyclable material, only a small part of the plastic
waste is currently recycled (Brunori et al., 2015;
Ghinea and Gavrilescu, 2010; Ghinea et al., 2014),
since the largest plastic waste fraction is discarded to
landfill (an average of 50% for Europe)
(PlasticsEurope, 2009). A better recycling would
contribute to the objectives of the roadmap adopted
in 2011, towards an efficient resource use; it would
facilitate the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
and reduce imports of raw materials and fossil fuels
(COM, 2013; Corabieru et al., 2014; Ghinea and
Gavrilescu, 2010).
The objective of this paper was to perform an
overview on the contamination of the aquatic
environment with plastics waste. We studied the
types of risks affecting the environment and human
health, risks caused by plastic waste discharged in
water. Moreover, we have identified some measures
for the abatement and prevention of these risks,
addressing both existing plastics and new
environmentally friendly plastic products.
678
2. Impact and risk caused by plastic production
and consumption
Environmental risk is the result of the
interaction between human activities developed in an
unsustainable way and the environment (Babut et al.,
2002; Pogăcean et al., 2014). Increasing concerns
over preserving environmental quality, in particular
variety of technologies for reducing the
environmental impact of human activities on the non-
renewable and vulnerable resource (Gavrilescu et al.,
2015; Hlihor et al., 2014, 2015; Kümmerer, 2009).
In this context, plastics production and waste
continue to rise numerous problems and
plastic waste which is landfilled in Europe (around
50%), it is difficult to recycle plastic waste due to its
heterogeneity during collection (Brunori et al., 2015;
Lithner, 2011). Incineration of plastic waste can be
applied for energy recovery, but plastics combustion
can generate emissions which contribute to global
warming, while some can be toxic and hazardous.
Besides these practices, the recovery of chemicals
such as monomers and gases could be done by
thermal degradation, such as thermolysis, but under
controlled conditions (Al-Salem et al., 2009; Lithner,
2011).
Since a significant fraction of plastic waste
finishes its life as refuse in the terrestrial and aquatic
environment, it was found that marine environments
are especially exposed and have been most widely
studied. Each year, water is polluted by the
equivalent of 100,000 truckloads of plastic (waste
bottles, disposable cutlery, bags) that are thrown into
rivers and end up in the oceans. Water is acting as a
mechanical force causing damage to plastics by the
impact with rocks or waves. This action can turn the
plastic into pieces which have the size of a grain of
rice (debris and micro-debris) (GESAMP, 2015).
Currently, the density of the plastic waste is
almost 100 times higher than 40 years ago. The main
impacts and risks caused by plastic waste on aquatic
environment consist in: changing habitats of aquatic
species, change the hydrological regime of water and
sediments, destruction of plankton and
phytoplankton. Therefore, ocean pollution affects the
ecosystem on many levels. Risks caused by discharge
of uncontrolled wastes such as plastics in water are
presented in the following sections.
2.1. Human health risks due to plastics in the
environment
Plastic debris represent a worldwide problem,
since they can affect all underground and surface
water bodies, with imprevisible and negatively
impacts and risks on wildlife, ecological habitats,
health of coastal communities.
Plastic particles in surface water columns are
photodegradable, becoming increasingly smaller (up
to molecular level). Toxic substances resulting from
 Occurrence of plastic waste in the environment: Ecological and health risks
plastic degradation (such as bisphenol-A, styrene,
phthalates) are then consumed by plankton, thus
becoming part of the food chain, reaching humans in
the end. It is important to know the impact of
absorbing plastic toxins on human health, because
plastic microfragments could be swallowed by small
fish, which are the link between plankton and
vertebrates (Deng et al., 2014).
These small fish are eaten by commercial fish
such as tuna and swordfish, and substances such as
bisphenol A, styrene, etc. could get into the body,
hence affecting human health. Bisphenol A and
styrene, which are neurotoxic and carcinogenic
compounds, can generate disorders to human health
(Fig. 5).
2.2. Threats on aquatic/marine species
Large amounts of plastic waste in the marine
environment create physical hazards for wildlife
because of ingestion or because they become trapped
in these waste (Derraik, 2002; Gregory, 2009).
Plastic is accidentally swallowed by fish, turtles and
other animals and can affect reproductive organs or
cause death due to toxic chemicals. Many marine
species die tangled in fishing nets, or tangles of gout,
thrown irresponsible (Sheavly and Register, 2007;
Thompson et al., 2009).
Polystyrene nanoparticles resulting from
plastic degradation modify the properties of the cell
membrane and the activity of certain proteins. The
plastic used in general packaging, represents a
significant part of the waste thrown into the sea.
2.3. Imbalances in food chains
Plastic is degraded by the action of water,
small particles that result being easily confused with
representatives of plankton. Animals like
Phoebastria nigripes (an albatross specie) or sea
turtles, die from plastic objects ingestion. These
species can be prey to larger organisms and could
possibly contribute to secondary ingestion by
seabirds (Besseling et al., 2013; Verlisa et al., 2013).
2.4. Landscape destruction
Larger plastic waste (like containers - plastic
bottles, buckets etc.) floating in water, can train the
marine life, to other habitats. Plastic, a relatively
inexpensive and versatile material has many
industrial uses, which explains the exponential
growth of the last century, a trend that will likely
continue (Moore, 2008). Therefore the pollution
caused by this material is unprecedented.
Plastic bags are one of the most important
pollution sources of the planet. After sun exposure,
plastic is fotodegraded into smaller petro-polymers
which contaminate the soil and oceans (Amin, 2013).
2.5. Actions for risks abatement
At the local level, countries must take action
by environmental ministries to replace plastic with
alternatives that do not harm nature. In Europe, steps
against free distribution of plastic bags began in
2002, with Ireland. In Romania, plastic bags
provided free by shops were banned since 2008.
Another important measure is the recycling of plastic
which can be integrated into municipal programs
transformation of plastics commodities. Another
solution found to reduction of problems caused by
waste discharged into the marine environment is the
production of bioplastic and bioenergy from waste
(McQuarrie and Boltz, 2011). Therefore, various
solutions can be applied for diminishing some risks
posed to human and environmental health by plastics
in the environment. They can include sustainable
supply chain management and material reduction,
eco-design of processes and products to ensure end-
of-life recyclability and enlarged recycling capability
(Table 2).
Table 2. Methods to reduce wastewater pollution with
plastic waste
Method References
Recycling of plastics Gennaro et al. (2013);
Kyrikou and Briassoulis
(2007); Sadat-Shojai and
Bakhshandeh (2010)
Improvements in the Gómez and Michel
production and consumption (2013); Sarkady et al.
of conventional plastic (2012)
Incineration of plastics for Xiong (2010)
energy recovery
Increasing production of DiGregorio (2009)
bioplastic
Although there are relatively few basic types
of plastic (polymers), the plurality of additives used
in the production of plastics, can be a major barrier to
plastic recycling, or cause secondary recycling rather
than to recycling throughout the life cycle. Reduction
of hazardous substances in plastic would increase the
possibilities of recycling. Phasing of these
substances, both new products and the recycled,
would also reduce the risks associated with their use.
The Roadmap on Resource Efficiency
suggests that by 2020, all relevant substances posing
particular concern must be entered in the list of
REACH (Regulation on Registration, Evaluation,
Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals) which
would allow capturing plastic additives (COM,
2011). To ensure sustainability of production and
consumption of plastic products, and avoid loss of
non-renewable natural resources, plastic products
should be designed to maximize durability.
There are several factors that prevent the
manufacturing of sustainable plastics, such as old
equipment, which cannot generate products with a
harmonious design or products, with low economic
technical and environmental impact.
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 Comăniță et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 15 (2016), 3, 675-685

Fig. 5. The action of plastic chemical compounds in association with human health (adapted upon Gong et al., 2010)

Although, the production of plastic market is
still dominated by petroleum-based plastics (99%),
there is a growing market represented by bioplastic
which is produced from renewable resources
(O’Brine, 2010).
The enlargement of bio-based feedstock,
combined with various policies to diminish plastic
waste as well as the application of green chemical
processes can help in risk minimization and
implementation of revised risk assessment
approaches (Muelhaupt, 2012; Stevens, 2002). An
important element to increase the sustainability of
plastic production and consumption is the design
stage. Sustainability is a characteristic or state,
whereby the needs of the present and local
population can be met without compromising the
ability of future generations or populations in other
locations to meet their needs (Gavrilescu, 2008,
2011). These actions would gain in effectiveness by
combining them with the involvement of public,
industry, scientists and policymakers in risk
management plans (Halden, 2010; Thompson et al.,
2009).
3. Bioplastics from biomass and organic waste - a
solution for the minimization of potential
environmental impacts and risks
aerobic conditions. Recently, the term biodegradable
plastic product has been almost completely replaced
by the term bioplastics.
Bioplastics do not form a single class of
polymers, but rather a family of products with very
similar properties. Biodegradable plastics were
introduced in the 1980s as a way to produce non-
petroleum-based plastics, as well as to reduce the
environmental effects because of the increased
landfill (Gironi and Piemonte, 2010).
Bioplastics are composed of natural polymers
and additives, processing additives, stabilizers,
coloring etc. The development of this area is still at
an early stage, and for this reason it is not yet
possible a long-term production of plastics from
100% renewable resources or totally biodegradable
(Luengo et al., 2003).

3.1. Bioplastic characteristics

At present, there is a suitable context for

biologically degradable polymers market, especially
those produced from biobased raw materials
(biomass, organic waste). In a general context,
bioplastics are considered to be manufactured from:
- renewable raw materials (biodegradable or
non - biodegradable biomass or waste).
- either renewable or fossil raw materials.
PlasticsEurope (2012) makes the difference
between two concepts, highlighting that bio-based
plastics are not always biodegradable and that
biodegradable plastics are not always bio-based (Fig.
6). Depending on the manufacturing process, the
great advantage of biodegradable bioplastics consists
in that they can be degraded in both anaerobic and
Fig. 6. Source of materials and biodegradability of
bioplastics (Niaounakis, 2013) (PA – polyamide; PBS -
polybutylene succinate; PBSA - polybutylene succinate;
PC – polycarbonate; PCL – polycaprolactone; PE –
polyethylene; PEA - polyethylene adipate; PEF - biobased
polyethylene furanoate; PES - polyethylene succinate; PET
– polyethylene therephtalate; PHA –
polyhydroxyalkanoates; PLA – polylactic acid; PP –
polypropylene; PS – polystyrene; PVC – polyvinyl
chloride; PVOH - polyvinyl alcohol)

680
 Occurrence of plastic waste in the environment: Ecological and health risks
Intensive development of new biodegradable
plastics with properties always improved, led to the
appearance on the market of many new products.
Although research into bioplastics began several
decades ago, the products made from these materials
have appeared on the market in the past decade.
While a vast majority of bioplastics are
biodegradable, some are not, the so called
“unsustainable”. Plastic product based on traditional
fossil resources, such as polyethylene, is not
biodegradable.
Some traditional modified plastic products are
sometimes called “degradable”; for example, they
may contain additives able to facilitate the
degradation of plastics in the presence of oxygen,
under ultraviolet light. They are known as
“photodegradable plastic products”. Others may
incorporate additives which can initiate plastics
degradation in particular conditions of temperature
and humidity. In this case, the plastic is renowned as
oxo-biodegradable, while the degradation process
can be initiated by microbial actions (Fig. 6).
Given the premise of the 7th Environmental
Action Programme, which addresses the concept of
“turning waste into resources”, researchers have
conducted several studies on pathways and processes
for bioplastic manufacturing (Decision 1386, 2013).
Bioplastics can be produced from various resources
(Peelman et al., 2013; Siracusa et al., 2008):
- PLA (polylactide), a biodegradable thermo-
plastic polyester is produced from renewable
resources (lactic acid, a naturally occurring organic
acid obtained by chemical synthesis or fermentation)
and used as a substitute for low-density polyethylene
(LDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE),
polystyrene (PS) and polyethylene terephthalate
(PET).
- starch is a natural resource, biodegradable,
easy to be used for obtaining materials such as
plasticizers.
- polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are
biodegradable thermoplastic polymers, produced by
bacterial fermentation of various sugars or lipids
(glucose, sucrose; vegetable oil, glycerine from
biodiesel production), used as substitute for many
conventional polymers.
- cellulose is a naturally occurring polymer
which can be dissolved in a mixture of sodium
hydroxide and carbon disulfide to obtain cellulose
xanthate, and then reformed to a solution of sulfuric
acid to make a film of cellophane.
Jiang et al. (2012) studied the possibility of
producing polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) by microbial
enrichments on paper mill wastewater.
Bioplastics can be also obtained from
different vegetable plant proteins (soy protein, wheat,
corn) and converted into plastics by crosslinking with
formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, or other chemicals
(Pallos et al., 2006; Woerdeman et al., 2004). Given
the above data, bioplastic can be made from recycled
raw materials such as biomass, which decompose
under the action of microorganisms. Most of the
bioplastics for packaging are those obtained from
corn (Thakor et al., 2005). Besides corn, potato,
wheat, rice and beets can also be exploited. The
packaging obtained from bioplastic can be used as
plastic bags for packing fruit and vegetables, garbage
bags, plant pots etc.
Natural, organic polymers such as wood flour,
starch, coconut fibers, and natural cellulose fibers are
abundant, inexpensive, renewable, and fully
biodegradable. They can be blended with plastics to
produce materials that are more biodegradable while
retaining the more desirable features of conventional
plastics (Wu, 2009). According to European
Bioplastics (2013), the production capacity for
bioplastics is predicted to increase from
approximately 700,000 tons in 2010, to 1.7 Mtons by
2015 (Soroudi and Jakubowicz, 2013).
The life-cycle of bioplastics is represented in
Fig. 7. Organic waste is collected and passed in a
biodegradation process. The next step is represented
by the photodegradation process of biomass and
agricultural waste (branches, leaves, stalks, shoots,
stems). It continues with extraction and processing
until the final product.
Life cycle assessment shows that bioplastic
from organic waste products can bring considerable
savings in energy consumption and emissions of
greenhouse gases compared to petrochemical
polymers or biopolymers (Kurdikar et al., 2001).
Fig. 7. Life-cycle of bioplastics
3.2. Environmental benefits of bioplastics
The major advantages of bioplastics are that
they can reduce carbon dioxide production and are
biodegradable or compostable, leading to the
reduction of the waste amount sent to landfills
(Barnett, 2011). By using renewable resources for
production instead of petroleum, bioplastics can help
to reduce dependence on petroleum (Kurdikar et al.,
2001). Biodegradable plastics contribute to avoid the
problem with destruction of plankton and
phytoplankton and waste disposal.
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 Comăniță et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 15 (2016), 3, 675-685
The harmful substances (such as bisphenol A
or styrene) are avoided in bioplastic products
manufacturing. For obtaining these products, a
variety of formulas are used in order to produce them
without involving toxic substances that can cause
environmental and human health risk (FAQ, 2012).
Bioplastics can be also made from biomass, which is
a completely renewable resource.
Plastics processing industry supports the
company offering innovative bioplastics and plastics
value chain, a range of additional opportunities,
including:
- new areas of business, including niche
products;
- possible reduction of fossil carbon during the
life cycle of a product, even when recycling or reuses
are not feasible;
- additional benefits for the functioning of a
product through biodegradability when this feature is
feasible; sales promotion for specific products such
as organic food packaged in compostable packaging.
Bioplastics offer new potential directions for
the agricultural industry: food products used in
agriculture (renewable) and food waste have an
important role in making bioplastics. Bioplastics can
find significant application in different areas such as
agriculture, food industry, packaging etc..
3.3. Some disadvantages of bioplastics
Considering that vegetable wastes are used for
bioplastic production, this action would require crops
dedicated to the production of bioplastic packaging.
Hence, genetically modified plants could be also
used for obtaining bioplastic.
Bioplastics are usually not recyclable, being
designed to be composted.
3.4. Specific biopolymers: polyhydroxyalkanoates
(PHAs)
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are bioplastics
made from particular polyesthers (Fig. 8), with
thermoplastic and elastomeric properties, which are
naturally synthesized as intracellular inclusions by a
wide variety of bacteria. Obruca et al. (2009) defined
the bacterial polyesters of PHA type as a group of
hydroxyacid polyesters that are accumulated in the
form of intracellular granules by a wide variety of
bacterial strains that use PHA as carbon and energy
storage material.
Fig. 8. General chemical structure of PHAs
(Endres and Siebert-Raths, 2010)
The biological production of PHA is carried
out in two stages (Keshavarz and Roy, 2010;
Khardenavis et al., 2009):
682
- the first stage includes the production of
volatile fatty acids (VFAS) by an anaerobic process
using carbohydrates such as glucose, sucrose, but
also vegetable oil, glycerine from biodiesel
production as raw material for the fermentation,
carbohydrates such as glucose and sucrose can be
used, but also vegetable oil or glycerine from
biodiesel production as raw materials;
- in the second stage, PHA production takes
place in an aerobic process.
In spite of the difficulty in treating this waste,
it can serve as a low cost carbon source for
commercial synthesis of biodegradable polymers
such as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) due to the
presence of high concentration of sugars in the waste.
They are produced under different conditions
such as (Ojumu et al., 2014):
- low limiting nutrients (P, S, N, O);
- carbon excess;
- a variety of bacterial species such as Bacillus
megaterium.
Polyhydroxyalkanoates are of various types,
the most famous being Polyhydroxybutyrate,
produced by a very large number of bacterial species
(Table 3), including Bacillus megaterium (discovered
in 1926), Bacillus subtillis, Alcaligenes eutrophus,
Ralstonia eutropha, Alcaligenes latus. These
polymers accumulate intracellularly (by a few
bacteria, including Aeromonas hydrophila,
Thiococcus pfennigii), reaching a content of up to
90% by weight in dry cell under conditions of failure
of an essential nutrient and the presence of excess
carbon source (Chen, 2011). They are stored in the
form of granules inside cells and act as carbon
reserve of the organism in question.
Polyhydroxyalkanoates can be produced using a
large diversity of substrates such as (Table 3):
renewable resources (cellulose, starch, sucrose,
triglycerides), by-products (molasses, whey,
glycerol), chemicals (propionic acid, 4-
hydroxybutyric acid) (Gao et al., 2011).
Polyhydroxybutyrates, which are
polyhydroxyalkanoate type polymers (3-
hydroxybutyric acid) have the disadvantage that they
are brittle, with low thermal stability. Researchers are
trying to obtain copolymers that have better
properties. Thus, by the addition of propionic acid to
the culture medium a poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-
hidroxivalerat) can be obtained with better flexibility,
which has been produced at industrial scale and has
been used in the manufacture films, foils, paper,
bottles, bags etc. (Jianga, 2012).
Some of the benefits of
polyhydroxyalkanoates are (Cavalheiro et al., 2009;
Song et al., 2008):
- they are aliphatic polyester that does not
require synthetic processing;
- the production process uses bacteria/
enzymes.
The shortcoming of these PHAs consists in
that this area of research is currently in the initiation
phase and requires significant effort to develop
 Occurrence of plastic waste in the environment: Ecological and health risks

technologies that will be implemented on an Contract 265/2011 and by a strategic grant

industrial scale. POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652, co-financed by the European
Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational Program
Table 3. Methods for obtaining polyhydroxyalkanoates Human Resources Development 2007 – 2013.

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