Def:

We say that a set A is called uncountable if it is not a countable.

Discussion: Let
1) Binary representation of x:
Divide [0,) into two intervals [0,1/2),[1/2,1). Give numbers 0,1 to these intervals
respectively. Suppose x is in one of these intervals. Let the number associated with the
interval to which, x belongs to x, (so, x is either 0 or 1). Now divide the intervals to
which x belongs into two disjoint left closed right open intervals of equal length and
given numbers 0,1 respectively.
Let x2 be the digit to which x belongs eo one of the intervals.

xn
Consider 0, x1 , x2 , x3 ,......   n
n 1 2

xn 2 1
  n  1
2n 2n 2n 1
  
1 1 1
We know that  n 1   k   n
n 1 2 k 0 2 n0 2

1
We know that 2
n 0
n is convergent


xn
By Comparision test the series 2
n 1
n is convergent.

n 
xk xn
Write sn   k ,So  n  is a partial sum of sequence of
s 2 n
k 1 2 n 1

xn
Now we prove that 
n 1 2
s x
n converges to x. n

1
Clearly sn  0, x1 , x2 ,......xn Clearly sn  n  ; n
2n
1
We know that Lt   ,So Lt sn  x
n  2 n

 1 
 Let  0 choose a  ve int eger n  2n 
 
n  N  s  x  1 1 

 n
2 n
2 N 
 Lt s  x 
 n n 
 
2) Ternary representation of x:
 Divide [0,1) into 3 disjoint
 [0,1/4) [1/4,1/2) [1/2,1)
Partially ordered sets and Lattices:
Let P be a non-empty set . A binary relation  on P is called a partial order relation
on P if the following conditions are satisfied.
1.  is reflexive:  a, a   i.e a  a a  P

2.  is antisymmetric:  a, b   ,  b, a    a  b
i.e a  b, b  a  a  b
3.  is Transitive:  a, b   ,  b, c     a, c   
i.e a  b, b  c  a  c
Def:
Any pair  P,   where P is non-empty set and  is a partial ordered P is called a
partially ordered set.( i.e poset).
Ex: 16. Let R be the set of all real numbers. Define a binary relation  on R by
a  b (a, b  R )  either a  b (in usual addition) or a  b then  is a partial ordering on R.
Sol:
i)  is is reflexive :
For any a  R, a  a and hence a  a
So  is reflexive
ii)  is anti symmetric:
Let a, b  R  a  b, b  a
a  b  a  b or a  b
b  a  b  a or b  a
Suppose a  b So a  b and b  a
This is a contradiction to the law of trichtony.
a  b
 is anti symmetric
iii)  is transitive:
Let a, b, c  R  a  b & b  c
a  b  a  b or a  b
b  c  b  c or b  c
a  b, b  c : a  c
a  b, b  c : a  c
a  b, b  c : a  c
 a  b, b  c : a  c
ac
 is a partial ordering on R.
This ordering is called usual ordering on R.
Ex 17. Let N be the set of all natural numbers define a binary relation  on N by a  b  a
divides b i.e  c  N  ac  b. Prove that  is a partial ordering. This ordering is called
divisibility ordering.
Sol: N be the set of all natural numbers.
i)  is is reflexive :
For any a  N  a  a
a  a  x  N  ax  a x  N
We must have x  1  a  a
 is reflexive
ii)  is anti symmetric:
Let a, b  N be such that a  b and b  a
a  b   x  N  ax  b
b  a   y  N  by  a
 a  by   ax  y  a  xy 
Since x  N , y  N we have xy  N
Since a  a ( xy ) and xy  N
We must have xy  1
 x  1, y  1
 is anti symmetric
iii)  is transitive:
Let a, b  N be such that a  b and b  c
a  b   x  N  ax  b
b  c   y  N  by  c
c  by   ax  y  a  xy 
Since x  N , y  N we have xy  N
Since c  a( xy ) and xy  N
We must have x  1 & y  1
a  c
 is transitive
Ex:
 Let F be a non-empty family of sets. Define a binary relations on F by
 A  B   A  B A, B  F then  is a partial ordering on F. This ordering is called
“contained in” 
Sol:
i)  is is reflexive :
Clearly for any A  F .So A  A
i.e A  A
 is reflexive
ii)  is anti symmetric:
Let A, B  f , A  B, B  A
 A  B, B  A
 A  B (by definition of equality of sets)
 is anti symmetric
iii)  is transitive:
Let A, B, C  F  A  B & B  C
A  B & B  C  A  B, B  C
 AC
 AC
 is transitive

 is a partial ordering on R.

Note:
Thus any non-empty family of sets is a partial ordering set with respect to the ordering
contained in
Def:
Let  P,   be a poset.
i) Two elements a, b  P are called comparable if either a  b or ba
ii) If a,b are in comparable then we write a/b.
Def:
A poset  P,   is called a totally ordered set (or) a simply ordered set (or) a chain if any
two elements in P are comparable.
Ex:1
If the poset  K ,   where K is the set of all real numbers and  is the usual ordering a
chain.
Sol:
 Let a, b  R
By the law of trichonomy we have either a<b (or) a=b (or) b<a
i.e a  b (or ) b  a
So, a and b are comparable.
Thus any two elements in R are comparable.
So,  R,   is a chain.
Prob:2
If the poset  N ,   where N is the set of all natural numbers and  is the divisibility
ordering a chain.
Sol:
Clearly 3,5  N
We know that 3 does not divide 5 and 5 does not divide 3
So, 3 and 5 are incomparable elements.
So  N ,   is not a chain.
Def:
Let  P,   be a poset. Let A  P
i) An element a0  A is called a least element of A if a0  A
ii) An element a1  A is called a greatest element of A if a  a a  A
iii) An element a0  A is called a minimal element of A if  no x in A x  a0
iv) An element a1  A is called a maximal element of A if  no x in A a1  x
v) An element x  P is called an upper bound of A if a  x a  A
vi) An element y  P is called an lower bound of A if y  a a  A

vii) An element x  P is called a least upper bound of A (lub A) or supremum of

A(sup A) if 1). x is an upper bound of A (UB A) 2). z  P is an upper bound of
A x  z

viii) An element y  P is called a greatest lower bound of A (glb A) OR infimum of

A(inf A) if 1). y is lower bound of A. 2). z  P is a lower bound of A  z  y

Note:

Let  P,   be a poset means a  b and a  b

PROBLEMS:
1.Prove that any subset of a poset can have atmost one least element.
Sol: Let  P,   be a poset, let A  P
 Suppose x, y  A are least elements of A
x  A is a least element of A, y  A  x  y
y  A is a least element of A, x  A  y  x
Since  is antisymmetric with x  y
2. Prove that any subset of a poset can have atmost one greatest element.
Sol:
Let  P,   be a poset, let A  P
Suppose x, y  A are least element of A
x  A is a greatest element of A, y  A  y  x
y  A is a greatest element of A, x  A  x  y
Since  is antisymmetric with x  y
3. Prove that any subset of a poset can have atmost one greatest lower bound.
Sol:
Let  P,   be a poset, let A  P
Suppose x, y  A are G.L.B’s of A
x is a G.LB of A so x,&y are L.B’s of A
x is a G.LB of A, y is a L.B of A
x is a G.LB of A, y is a L.B of A
Since  is antigymmetric with x=y
4. Prove that any subset of a poset can has at most one least upper bound.
Sol:
Let  P,   be a poset, let A  P
Suppose x, y  P are L.U.B’S of A
So x and y are U.B of A
x is LUB of A, y is U.B OF A  x  y
y is LUB of A, x is U.B OF A  y  x
Since  is antigymmetric with x  y
5. Let  P,   be a poset .Let A be a subset of P. Prove that following.
i)An element a0  A is minimal element of A  x  A, x  a0  x  a0
ii)An element a1  A is a maximal element of A  x  A, a1  x  a1  x
Sol:
i )  Assume a0  A is minimal element of A.
Let x  A & x  a0
 If x  a0 then x  a0
which is a contradiction due to that a0  A a minimal element of A. so x  a0
: Assume that x  A, x  a0  x  a0
Suppose a0  A is not a minimal element of A.
So  x  A  x  a0 i.e x  a0 & x  a0 a contradiction to that x  a0
 a0  A is a minimal element of A
 Assume that a  A is a maximal element of A
Let x  A and a  x
If x  a then a1  x, a contradiction to that ai  A is a maximal element of A. So a  x
: Assume that x  A, a1  x  x  a1
Suppose ai  A is not a maximal element of A.
So  x  A  a1  x i.e a1  x & x  a1
x  A, a1  x  x  a1 (by our assumption) a to that x  a1
 a1  A is minimal element of A
6. Prove that every least element is a minimal element. Is converse true? Justify your answer.
Sol:
Let  P,   be a poset. Let A  P
Suppose a0  A is a least element of A.
Let x  A & x  a0 .Since x  A and a0  A is a least element of A.
We have a0  x since x  a0
We have x  a0  is antisymmetric 
 a0  A is a minimal element of A.
Hence least element of A is a minimal element of A.
Converse of the statement “least element of A is a minimal element of A is “minimal
element of A is a element of A”
This converse is not true.
Ex: Let X   a, b , a  b

We know that P  X     ,  a ,  b 

We know that  P  X  ,   is a poset where   

 A  B  A  B
 Take A    a ,  b 

Clearly A  P  X 

 a is not least element of A:

Other wise  a   b

i.e  a   b i.e a  b a contradiction

 a is not a lest element of A.

 a is a minimal element of A:
 b   a   b   a and  b   a  b  a & b  a a#
 b   a
7. Prove that every greatest element is a maximal element. Is converse true? Justify your
answer.
Sol:
Let  P,   be a poset. Let A  P
Suppose a1  A is a greatest element of A.
Let x  A & a1  x .
Since x  A and a1  A is a greatest element of A.
We have x  a1
 a1  x  is antisymmetric 
 a1  A is a maximal element of A.
Converse of the statement “greatest element of A is a maximal element of A is “A maximal
element of A is greatest element of A”
This converse is not true.
Ex: Let X   a, b , a  b

We know that P  X     ,  a ,  b 

Take A    a ,  b 

Clearly A  P  X 

 b is not a greatest element of A:

Other wise  a   b

i.e  a   b i.e a  b a contradiction

  b is not a greatest element of A.
 b is a maximal element of A:
 b   a   b   a and  b   a  b  a & b  a a#
 b   a
 b is a maximal element of A.
Discussion:
Let be a poset. Let U be the set of all upper bounds of A. Let L is the set of all lower
bounds of A.
x  lub of A
 i ) x is an ub of A
ii ) z  P is an ub of A  x  z
 i) z U
ii ) z  U  x  Z
 i) x  U
ii ) x  z  z  U
 x  U is the least element of U
U be the upper bound of A
 i ) x is an lower bound of A
ii ) z  P is an lower bound of A
zy
 i) y  L
ii ) z  L  z  y
 i) y  L
ii ) z  y z  L
 y  L is the greatest element of L
L is the lower bound of A.
Def:
A lattice be a poset in which any two elements have both lower upper bound and greatest
lower bound.
Note:
i) Let  L,   be a poset . Let  L,   is a lattice means for any x, y  L both lub  x, y and

glb  x, y exist in L.

ii) Let  L,   be a poset for x, y  L

 We write
x  y  lub  x, y ( x join y )
x  y  glb  x, y ( x meet y )
Prob:
Let be a lattice for any . Prove that the following
1) x  x, x  x  x (Idempotent law)
2) x  y  y  x, x  y  y  x (Complement law)
3) x   y  z    x  y   z x   y  z    x  y   z (Associative law)

4) x   x  y   x x   x  y   x (Absorption law)
Sol:
1.
i ).x  x  x x  L
Let x  L x  x  glb  x, x  glb  x, x  x
ii ).x  x  x x  L
Let x  L x  x  l u b  x, x  x
2.
i ).Let x, y  L
x  y  glb  x, y  glb  y , x  y  x
ii ).Let x, y  L
x  y  l u b  x , y  l u b  y , x  y  x
3.
i ).Let x, y, z  L
Let c  x   y  z  & d   x  y   z
Claim : c  d
Let x   y  z   glb  x, y  z
So c is lb of  x, y  z
i.e c  x, c  y  z
y  z  glb  y, z
So, y  z is a lb of  y , z
So y  z  y y  z  z
c  y  z, y  z  y, y  z  z
 c  y, c  z   is transitive 
 c  x, c  y  c is a lb of  x, y
c x y
c  x  y, c  z  c is lb of  x  y , z
 c   x  y  z
i.e c  d
Similarly we can prove d  c
c  d
 x   y  z   x  y  z
ii ).Let x, y, z  L
Let c  x   y  z  & d   x  y   z
Claim : c  d
So c is ub of  x, y  z
i.e c  x, c  y  z
y  z  u b  y , z
So, y  z is a ub of  y, z
So y  z  y y  z  z
 c  y, c  z   is transitive 
 c  x, c  y  c is a ub of  x, y
 c  x y
c  x  y, c  z  c is ub of  x  y , z
 c   x  y  z
c  d
Similarly we can prove d  c
c  d
  x   y  z   x  y  z
4.
i ).Let x, y  L
x  y  lub  x, y
 x  y is an ub of  x, y
 x  x  y, y  x  y
x  x  y  x   x  y  x
4.
ii ).Let x, y  L
x  y  gl b  x, y
 x  y is a lb of  x, y
 x  y  x, x  y  y
x  y  x  x   x  y   lub  x, x  y  x
Prob:
Let  P,   be a poset. Prove that any two comparable elements in P have both lub & glb.
Sol:
Let x, y  P be comparable.
So either x  y (or ) y  x
Case i: x  y
a)
lub  x, y  y i.e i ) y is an ub  x, y &
ii ) z  P is an ub of  x, y  y  z
if x  y ( given)
y  y (reflexive)  y is an ub of  x, y
ii) z  P is an ub of  x, y  x  z & y  z
 lub  x, y  y i.e x  y  y
b)
 glb  x, y  x
i.e i ) x is an lb  x, y &
ii ) z  P is an ub of  x, y  z  x & z  y
 glb  x, y x i.e x  y  x
Case ii: y  x
By case i y  x  x & y  x  y
x, y  P be comparable x  y (or ) y  x
Prob:
Prove that every chain is a lattice.
Sol:
Let  P,   be a chain.

 P,   be a ordered set.
Let x, y  P since P is totally ordered set.
x & y are compared.
We know that in poset any two comparable elements have both lub & glb
So
lub   x, y  x  y
glb   x, y  x  y
Prob:
Consider the set P   1, 2,3, 4,5 with respect to the usual ordering on P
i) What are the maximum element of P.
ii). With respect to the divisibility on P what are the maximal element of P.
Sol:
i) Let  be the usual ordering on P.
1 2  3  4  5
Clearly 5 is greatest element and also a maximal element of P.
ii). Let  is the divisibility ordering on P.
1 2  4
1 3
1 4
1 5
4 is maximal element of P.
 3 is maximal element of P.
5 is a maximal element of P.
Prob:
.Prove that every chain is lattice we conversely true. Justify your answer.
Sol:
Let- every chain is a lattice
Let  P,   is a chain.

Let  P,   be ordered get

Let x, y  P since P is totally ordered set.
x & y are compared.
We know that in poset any two comparable elements have both lub & glb
So
lub   x, y  x  y
glb   x, y  x  y
  P,   is a lattice.
ii. Every lattice is not a chain:
Consider the following example.
Ex: Let X be a non –empty set
Consider P(X)=The power set of X   A / A  X 
We know that P(X) is a non-empty family of set
We know that P(X) is poset under set inclusion
i.e A  B  A  B

Clearly  P  x ,  is a Lattice

a) A  B  LUB  A, B  A  B A, B  P  X 

Let A, B  P  X 
Claim: AUB=LUB={A,B}
i.e i. AUB is an UB of{A,B}
ii. C  P  X  is an UB of {A,B}

A B  C
i. A  B is an upper bound of  A, B

i.e A  A B B  A B
A  A B B  A B
Which includes form the property of sets

 A  B is an lb of  A, B
ii. C  P  X  is an lb of  A, B
 C  A &C  B
 C  A &C  B
 C  A  B (By the property sets)
 C  A B
 A  B  glb  A, B  A  B

  P  X  ,   is a lattice

 
There for any non-empty set X , P  X  ,  is a lattice

( is the relation contained in X i.e  )

Clearly
 , x  P  X  &   A  X A  P  X 
i.e   A  X A  P  X 


i.e  & X are least and greatest element P  X  ,  
Suppose X contain atleast two elements.
Let a, b  X be  a  b

 a ,  b  P  X 
If  a   b then a=b
Which is contradiction.
If  b   a then b=a
Which is contradiction.
 a  b &  b  a
 So  a ,  b are in comparable element in P(X)

So  P ( X ),   is not a chain

Suppose  x   1 i.e x   a

P  X      a  X 

So   X i.e   X

 
So P  X  ,  is a chain

Hence if X contain more thgan one element .

 
Hence P  X  ,  is not a chain otherwise it is a chain.

 P  X  ,   is always lattice.
Ex:
Let R be the set of real numbers. Let X be a non-empty set. Let R   f / f : X  R
*

Define a binary relation  R* by f  g  f  x   g  x  x  X then 1.  is a partial

ordering on R*

 
2. R ,  is a lattice.
*

A:
1.  is a partial ordering on R*
i.  is reflexive:
i.e f  f f  R*
Let f  R* clearly for any x  X

f  x   f  x  So f  f
 is reflexive
ii.  is antisymmetric:
i.e f  g , g  f  f  g

Let f , g  R* be  f  g & g  f
f  g, g  f
f  x   g  x  , g  x   f  x  x  X
 f  x   g  x  x  X
 f g
 is antisymmetric:
iii.  is transitive:
i.e f  g , g  h  f  h

f  g , g  h  f  x   g  x  and g  x   h  x  x  X

 f  x  h  x x  X
 is a transitive
 is a partially ordering on R*
 
2. R ,  is a lattice
*

Let f , g  R*

Define f  g : X  R and f  g : X  R by

 f  g   x   max  f  x  , g  x  

 f  g   x   min  f  x  , g  x  

Clearly f  g  R*

i. f  g  lub  f , g 

a) f  g is an ub of  f , g 

i.e f  f  g and g  f  g
Clearly for any x  X

f  x   max  f  x  , g  x   & g  x   max  f  x  , g  x  

i.e f  x    f  g   x  & g  x    f  g   x 

 f  f  g, g  f  g
 f  g is an ub of  f , g 

b) h  R* is an ub of  f , g
 f  h, g  h
  f  x  h  x , g  x  h  x x  X

 max  f  x  , g  x    h  x  x  X
 f gh
 f  g is an lub of  f , g 

ii. f  g  glb  f , g 

a) f  g is an lb of  f , g
i.e f  g  f & f gg


Clearly for any x  X , f  x   min f  x  , g  x  
g  x   min  f  x  , g  x  

i.e  f  g   x  f  x &  f  g   x  g  x
f g f, f gg
 f  f is an lb of  f , g 

b) h  R* is an lb of  f , g
 h  f ,h  g
 h  x  f  x , h  x  g  x x  X

 h  x   min  f  x  , g  x   x  X

 h  x   min  f  x  , g  x  
h f g
 f  g is an glb of  f , g 

  R* ,   is a lattice.
DEFINITIONS:
Set:
A set is a collection or aggregrate of such elements considered together or as a whole .
Eg: Set of all natural Numbers.
Set of all real numbers on real line R.
Universal set:
Equality of sets:
Two sets A & B are equal if they consists of exactly same elements. It is denoted by
A=B.
If A is subset of B, each element of A, is also element of B & it is denoted by
If A is the proper sub set of B ,A is the subset of B. A is not equal to B.
Note: the c is usually called as set inclusion .
Finite set: A set is said to be finite if it is empty it consists of elements otherwise it is said
to be infinite.
Function set :let X and Y be two non empty sets A subset F on XY is called a Function
from X to Y if to each , there exist a unique
The other terms used for functions are mapping transformations and operations.
A function whose range consists of just one element is called constant function.
Inverse set: if is both one- one and onto then we define its mapping
Theorem :let X and Y be non empty sets and f mapping of X into Y show the
following
a)f is one- one a mapping g of y into X
b) f is onto a mapping h of y in X

Partitions and Equivalence Relation :

A partition of X is a disjoint class of non- empty subset of X whose union is full set X
itself . the are called partition sets
Binary relation:
A binary relation in the set X is mathematical symbol we denote by
ordered pair of (X,Y) of element of X , XRY= x is related to y.
Equivalent relation :

Empty set :If A set containing no elements is called empty set & it is denoted by
relation contained in i.e
Clearly
Are least &greatest element suppose X contain atleast two elements