CVE 471

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

IRRIGATION

Assist. Prof. Dr. Bertuğ Akıntuğ

Civil Engineering Program

Middle East Technical University
Northern Cyprus Campus

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Overview

„ Introduction
„ Sustainability of Land for Irrigation
„ Land Classification
„ Soil-Water Relations
„ Classes and Availability of Soil Water
„ Extraction Pattern of Soil Water by the Plant
„ Frequency of Irrigation
„ Determination of Irrigation Water Demand
„ Irrigation Efficiencies
„ Irrigation Water Quality
„ Design of Irrigation Systems
„ Irrigation Networks
„ Irrigation System Design

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Introduction

„ To increase agricultural output

„ wise use of land and water resources potentials, and
„ development of effective irrigation systems.
„ In Turkey, 28 million hectare of land is irrigable.
„ About 15% is economically irrigable by surface water.
„ About 2% is economically irrigable by groundwaters.
„ Irrigation is required for productive agriculture in humid areas too.
„ With irrigation
„ Physical conditions in the soil are improved,
„ The excessive salt in the soil is reached,
„ A variety of crops may grow,
„ Multiple cropping may be achieved.

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Overview

„ Introduction
„ Sustainability of Land for Irrigation
„ Land Classification
„ Soil-Water Relations
„ Classes and Availability of Soil Water
„ Extraction Pattern of Soil Water by the Plant
„ Frequency of Irrigation
„ Determination of Irrigation Water Demand
„ Irrigation Efficiencies
„ Irrigation Water Quality
„ Design of Irrigation Systems
„ Irrigation Networks
„ Irrigation System Design

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Suitability of Land for Irrigation

„ Arable land is composed of good quality soil, which is suitable for

cultivation.
„ Irrigable land is arable land for which sufficient moisture is
available by irrigation.
„ Irrigation soil
„ sufficient depth to allow root development
„ ability to store water
„ Suitable soil for irrigation must include certain portions of sand, silt
and clay.
„ Sand: very permeable creates water-retaining problems
„ Silt and Clay: too dense creates permeability problems
„ Sandy loam is ideal irrigation soil.

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Suitability of Land for Irrigation

Land Classification

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Suitability of Land for Irrigation

Soil-Water Relations
„ Soil Texture: The sizes of particles in soil.

„ Soil Structure: The arrangement of soil particles.

„ Soil Tilth: The physical condition of the surface soil

„ Real Specific Gravity, Rs: The ratio of density of a single soil particle
to the density of a volume of water equal to the volume of the particle
of soil.
„ Apparent Specific Gravity, As: The ration of the weight of a given
volume of dry soil, air space included, to the weight of an equal
volume of water.
„ Porosity, n: The ratio of volume of voids to the total volume of soil
including water and air.
„ The relation between n, Rs, and As:

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Suitability of Land for Irrigation

Soil-Water Relations
„ Soil Moisture Tension: The tensile for due to suction and capillarity.

„ Soil Moisture Content, Pw: The ratio of loss of weight of soil specimen
in drying in oven to the weight of water-free soil.

„ Volume Ratio, Pv: Pv = Pw As

„ The depth of water, d, applied on the surface of soil, which saturates a

thickness, D, can be obtained from

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Suitability of Land for Irrigation

Classes and Availability of Soil

„ Soil water can be classified as

„ Hygroscopic Water exist on the surface

of the soil grains in the form of a thin
film.
„ Capillary Water is that part in excess of
hygroscopic water case.
„ Gravitational Water is that part in
excess of hygroscopic and capillary
waters which can percolate in the
downward direction by the action of
gravity.

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Suitability of Land for Irrigation

Classes and Availability of Soil

„ Soil water can be classified as

„ Field Capacity, F.C., is the moisture

content of soil after gravitational water
has been removed.
„ Permanent Wilting Point, PWP, is the
soil moisture content when plants
permanently wilt.
„ Available Moisture, is the difference in
moisture content of the soil between
filed capacity and permanent wilting
point.

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Suitability of Land for Irrigation

The Extraction Pattern of Soil Water by the Plant

„ In a uniform soil, greater root development takes place in the
upper layers of soil than elsewhere.
„ Root development depends on the soil temperature and it does
not grow approximately under 5ºC.

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Suitability of Land for Irrigation

Frequency of Irrigation
„ Readily Available Moisture: The portion of
the available moisture that is most easily
extracted by plants which is 75% of the
total available moisture.
„ In practice, for most of the crops, removing
not more than 25% of the available water
from each sub-root zone will produce
maximum yield. RG: Rate of crop growth,
SM: Soil Moisture
„ Readily Available Moisture, RAM: for any
sub-root zone.

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Suitability of Land for Irrigation

Frequency of Irrigation
„ Rmin will be determine the irrigation frequency, T

„ T: The average time interval in days between two successive

irrigations.

uc,daily: the daily water consumption by plants.

„ Duration of irrigation water application in hours, ta

ic: infiltration rate

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Overview

„ Introduction
„ Sustainability of Land for Irrigation
„ Land Classification
„ Soil-Water Relations
„ Classes and Availability of Soil Water
„ Extraction Pattern of Soil Water by the Plant
„ Frequency of Irrigation
„ Determination of Irrigation Water Demand
„ Irrigation Efficiencies
„ Irrigation Water Quality
„ Design of Irrigation Systems
„ Irrigation Networks
„ Irrigation System Design

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Determination of Irrigation Water Demand

„ To find irrigation water demand:

„ The consumptive use or the evapotranspiration from the planted area is
required for irrigation water demand.
„ Evapotranspiration = Transpiration + Evaporation
„ There are number of method for evapotranspiration.
„ In Turkey, and in many other countries having semi-arid climate, the
Blaney-Criddle (1950) method is widely used for the determination of
consumptive use.
„ In Blaney-Criddle Method
„ The monthly consumptive use value, uc
uc=25.4 k f
k: crop coefficient (k= k1k2) Table 10.3
f: climatic factor t: mean monthly temperature (ºC)
P: the ratio of monthly daytime hours to
annual day time hours. (Table 10.4)
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Determination of Irrigation Water Demand

„ Crop Irrigation Requirement, CIR:

CIR = uc - Peff

where Peff: monthly effective precipitation

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Determination of Irrigation Water Demand

Irrigation Efficiencies
„ The water conveyance efficiency, ec:

where Wf: the water delivered to farm,

Wr: the water delivered from the river or reservoir
„ The water application (farm) efficiency, ef:

where Ws: the water stored in the soil root zone during irrigation
„ The overall irrigation efficiency, e:

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Determination of Irrigation Water Demand

Irrigation Efficiencies
„ The farm delivery requirement, FDR:

„ The total delivery requirement, TDR:

The units of CIR, FDR, and TDR are all in mm/month.

„ The irrigation modulus (water duty), q:
The water requirement of an average unit area at the maximum demand
month on a continuous flow basis from the point of diversion.

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 7. IRRIGATION

Overview

„ Introduction
„ Sustainability of Land for Irrigation
„ Land Classification
„ Soil-Water Relations
„ Classes and Availability of Soil Water
„ Extraction Pattern of Soil Water by the Plant
„ Frequency of Irrigation
„ Determination of Irrigation Water Demand
„ Irrigation Efficiencies
„ Irrigation Water Quality
„ Design of Irrigation Systems
„ Irrigation Networks
„ Irrigation System Design

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Irrigation Water Quality

„ The quality of irrigation water is mainly dictated by

„ the amount and type of soluble salts composed of sodium, magnesium
and calsium,
„ the presence of industrial wastes, and
„ presence of silt.

„ Silt may decrease the porosity of the soil. For soils having lower
porosity, silt creates an unsuitable medium for water intake.

„ High sodium percentage of salt causes binding of soil particles and

decrease in air and water ventilation in the root zone (pH value ↑).

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Irrigation Water Quality

„ The soluble salt concentration is measured by the electrical

conductivity of the saturated soil.
„ The alkalinity (sodium) hazard is due to the presence of high
amount of exchangeable sodium salts.
„ The amount of exchangeable sodium salts is measured by the
sodium adsorption ratio, SAR,

where (Na)c, (Ca)c, and (Mg)c are the soluble sodium, calcium, and
magnesium concentrations in irrigation water, respectively.

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Irrigation Water Quality

High quality irrigation water

„ Irrigation water quality guidelines:

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Irrigation Water Quality

„ Lack of precipitation in arid zones and high evaporation causes the

accumulation of soluble salts in soils.
„ Soils having excess soluble salts may have injuries effects on
plants.
„ Gypsum, CaSO4, can be added to water or soil to leach away the
sodium salts from the soil.
„ The leaching requirement:

Dd: the depth of drainage

Di: the depth of irrigation water
ECi: the electrical conductivity of irrigation water
ECd: the electrical conductivity of drainage water

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Example 10.2

Solution:

Table 10.3 and 10.4

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Determination of Irrigation Water Demand

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Determination of Irrigation Water Demand

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 7. IRRIGATION

Overview

„ Introduction
„ Sustainability of Land for Irrigation
„ Land Classification
„ Soil-Water Relations
„ Classes and Availability of Soil Water
„ Extraction Pattern of Soil Water by the Plant
„ Frequency of Irrigation
„ Determination of Irrigation Water Demand
„ Irrigation Efficiencies
„ Irrigation Water Quality
„ Design of Irrigation Systems
„ Irrigation Networks
„ Irrigation System Design

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Design of Irrigation Systems

„ In the design of any irrigation project, followings are considered

jointly:
„ the operational requirements,
„ types of network, and
„ water application methods.
„ It is relatively difficult to establish standardized and universally
acceptable design procedures.
„ Use of method depends on
„ the local conditions,
„ farming habits,
„ availability of water,
„ availability of technology, and
„ labor.

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation Networks
„ Irrigation water is distributed to the project area by means of one of
the networks such as
„ open channel,
„ canalet,
„ pipeline, and
„ sprinklers.
„ After economic analysis of each type, considering
„ the available technology,
„ labor,
„ materials,
„ water quality problems, and
„ the operational requirements
„ The alternative, which gives the greatest benefit, is chosen.

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation Networks – Open Channel Networks

„ Lined irrigation canals:

„ main,
„ secondary, and
„ tertiary
„ Unlined drainage canals:
„ interceptors,
„ collectors, and
„ main collector.

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation Networks – Open Channel Networks

„ Water is usually withdrawn from tertiary canal.
„ The desired rate of water is given from a tertiary canal to adjacent land
by means of a turnout.

Weir box turnout

(http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/hydraulics_lab/pubs/wmm/chap07_13.html)

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation Networks – Open Channel Networks

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation Networks – Canalet Networks

„ a semi-elliptical flume,
„ made of prefabricated plain concrete,
„ length 5 m,
„ prestressed concrete Æ length 7 m
„ water is withdrawn from a canalet by portable
siphon.

http://www.irrig8right.com.au/Irrigation_Methods/Surface_Irrigation/Picture_Folder_Surface/Furrow_siphons_pics.htm

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation Networks – Canalet Networks

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation Networks – Canalet Networks

„ Advantages of canalets:

„ may be constructed in a short time,

„ required slope can easily be adjusted,
„ defective elements can be changed rapidly, and
„ not affected from the flooding of the area.
„ Disadvantages of canalets:
„ there are many appurtenances used in the
system,
„ expensive through out the cut area
„ stability problem in deep depressions.

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation Networks – Pipe Networks

Advantages
„ do not occupy a space

„ water losses eliminated

„ agriculture area is not wasted

„ evaporation and seepage losses are minimum

„ Less appurtenance Æ less maintenance

Disadvantages
„ maintenance is difficult.

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation Networks – Sprinkler Networks

„ composed of a pressurized feeder.
„ pressure head of 3.5 – 7.0 m.

Advantages:
„ the form of natural precipitation.

„ a wider area may be irrigated with a limited

quantity of water.
„ a drainage system may not be required.

„ good for rolling terrains having steep slopes

and permeable soils.

Disadvantages:
„ excessive wind may restrict the uniform water

application.
„ installation of pumping stations and additional

appurtenances may be expensive

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation Networks – Sprinkler Networks

Sprinkler system may be applicable to two different situations:
1. The main network is composed of open channel, canalets or pipes and
water is applied to the field by means of sprinkler.
2. Irrigation network is composed of pressurized pipes, which are
connected to sprinklers
pressurized main line

pressurized secondary line

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation System Design

„ In Turkey following methods have been used for the design of
irrigation systems:
„ Rotation Method
„ Demand Method
„ Limited Demand Method
„ Unit Area – Unit Water Method
„ Sprinkler Method

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation System Design

Rotation Method
„ After the irrigation, the next irrigation is delayed
by a duration equal to the irrigation frequency.
„ The area is divided into sub-zones according to
the rotation number.
For example:
number of the secondary canal, N = 2
number of the tertiary canal, n = 3
2 x 3 rotation can be applied.
Irrigation frequency, T = N x n = 6 days
At the end of 6th day all the area will be irrigated.

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation System Design

Rotation Method
The irrigation schedule:
Day 1: S1, Area1
Day 2: S1, Area2
Day 3: S1, Area3
Day 4: S2, Area1
Day 5: S2, Area2
Day 6: S2, Area 3
„ The discharge in irrigation canals:
Q = (N x n) qmax AT

where qmax: irrigation modulus

AT : largest tertiary area in one group

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation System Design

Rotation Method

„ Discharge is directly proportional to the tertiary area.

„ In order to transmit almost same discharge for every day during the rotation,
summation of tertiary areas in one group should be as close as possible to
summation of tertiary areas in other groups

ΣAT(1) = ΣAT(2) = . . . = ΣAT(n)

„ The design based on rotation method is not economical.

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation System Design

Demand Method
„ In Turkey, demand method is used for the determination of design discharge
in lined irrigation canals.

„ It is base on continuous watering Æ to supply the necessary amount of water

to every point in the project area.

„ The capacity of the main, secondary, and tertiary canals are determined on
the bases of the assumption that max. water demand in the field is
continuously available in these canals.

„ However, in the operation of the system only the desired amount is given to
the field.

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation System Design

Demand Method
„ The canal capacity:
Q = A F qmax

where Q: canal capacity (lt/s)

A: size of the irrigation area (ha)
F: flexibility coefficient
qmax: irrigation modulus (lt/s/ha)

„ F reflects the probability of meeting

the demand in the filed, its value
depends upon A and qmax.

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation System Design

Demand Method Solution:

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Design of Irrigation Systems

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation System Design

Limited Demand Method
„ In practice it is impossible to meet all demands at the same time in a definite
tertiary.
„ If (the amount of water requirements) > (the supply) : farm turnouts are then
put in an operation and water is delivered in rotation.

„ Each day a different parcel receives irrigation water.

„ In this system, water is given in a limited amount with a delayed schedule.

„ More area is irrigated with the limited quantity of water.

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Design of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation System Design Cotton

Limited Demand Method

„ The max. crop yield is achieved at an
optimum depth of water.
„ Because crops require not only water
but also some air and nutrient for their
growth.
„ If the amount of water is considerably
reduced, the corresponding decrease
in the yield is relatively small.
„ Operation of the irrigation area by the
limited demand method gains
importance when the area to be
irrigated is very large and the water is
scarce.

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