Acids, Bases and Salts

Acids
Substances with a pH of 0-6 are acids. The stronger the acid, the lower the pH number. Acids
turn blue litmus paper red. They turn universal indicator red if they are strong, and orange or
yellow if they are weak.

Brønsted-Lowry Acid Base Theory

• A Brønsted-Lowry acid is any species that is capable of donating a proton – H+.

Re: H+ is equivalent to a proton because the H atom which contains 1 electron, 1 proton and 0
neutrons, loses its 1 electron to become, H+, thereby containing only a single proton.

• A Brønsted-Lowry base is any species that is capable of accepting a proton, which requires a
lone pair of electrons to bond to the H+.

• Water is amphoteric, which means it can act as both a Brønsted-Lowry acid and a Brønsted-
Lowry base.

• Strong acids and bases ionize completely in aqueous solution, while weak acids and bases ionize
only partially. (Notes on this below)

All acids contain hydrogen atoms.

Name of acid Chemical formula of acid

hydrochloric acid HCl - monobasic

nitric acid HNO3 - monobasic

sulphuric acid H2SO4 - dibasic

carbonic acid H2CO3 - dibasic

phosphoric acid H3PO4 - tribasic

Re: basicity tells how many hydrogen atoms are in the formula for the acid.
Strong and Weak Acids
Acid solutions contain hydrogen ions. The pH of a solution is related to its concentration of
hydrogen ions - the higher the concentration of hydrogen ions, the lower the pH and stronger the
acid.

At the same concentration of acid, the concentration of hydrogen ions will be higher in a strong
acid than in a weak acid. This is why the pH of a strong acid like hydrochloric acid will be lower
than the pH of a weak acid like ethanoic acid.

Strong acids are fully ionised but weak acids are only partly ionised in solution. At the same
concentration, strong acids have a higher concentration of hydrogen ions than weak acids.
Acids ionise in water to produce hydrogen ions, H+.

Strong acids fully ionise. For example:

hydrochloric acid: HCl(l) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
nitric acid: HNO3(l) → H+(aq) + NO3–(aq)
sulfuric acid: H2SO4(l) → 2H+(aq) + SO42–(aq)
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid used in laboratories

Weak acids do not fully ionise. Instead, they form an equilibrium mixture, represented by the
reversible arrows in the following equation. For example:
ethanoic acid: CH3COOH(l) ⇌ CH3COO–(aq) + H+(aq)
At the same concentration, strong acids have lower pH than weak acids.

Bases
Bases have a pH of more than 8-14. Substances that can react with acids and neutralise them to
make a salt and water are called bases. They are usually metal oxides or metal hydroxides. For
example, copper oxide and sodium hydroxide are bases.
Alkalis
Bases that dissolve in water are called alkalis. Copper oxide is not an alkali because it does not
dissolve in water. Sodium hydroxide is an alkali because it dissolves in water.
Alkaline solutions have a pH of more than 8-14. The stronger the alkali, the higher the pH
number. Alkalis turn red litmus paper blue. They turn universal indicator dark blue or purple if
they are strong, and blue-green if they are weak.

When alkalis dissolve in water they produce hydroxide ions, OH-. For example, looking at
sodium hydroxide:
NaOH(l) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Ammonia is slightly different. This is the equation for ammonia in solution:
NH3(l or g) + H2O(l) → NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq)
Note that this is why sometimes NH3(aq) is represented by NH4OH(aq).

Salts
Salts are the neutral products made when an acid reacts with a base, metal carbonate, metal
hydrogencarbonate or metal. The name of the salt formed depends on the metal in the base and
the acid used. For example, salts made using hydrochloric acid are called chlorides.

Neutral solutions
Neutral solutions have a pH of 7. They do not change the colour of litmus paper, but they turn
universal indicator green. Pure water is an example of a neutral substance.

Acid Anyhydrides
A carboxylic acid such as ethanoic acid has the structure:
You can make ethanoic anhydride by dehydrating ethanoic acid, that is, by removing a water
molecule.

Naming acid anhydrides

You just take the name of the parent acid, and replace the word "acid" by "anhydride".
"Anhydride" simply means "without water". e.g. propanoic acid forms propanoic anhydride

Reactions of acids

Bases
When acids react with bases, a salt and water are made. This reaction is called neutralisation. In
general:
1. acid + metal oxide → salt + water
e.g. nitric acid + magnesium oxide → magnesium nitrate + water
2. acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water
e.g. hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water

When the H+ ions from an acid react with the OH- ions from an alkali, a neutralisation reaction
occurs to form water. This is the equation for the reaction:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)
If you look at the equations above for sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid, you will see that
there are Na+ ions and Cl- ions left over. These form sodium chloride, NaCl.
Carbonates
When acids react with carbonates, such as calcium carbonate (found in chalk, limestone and
marble), a salt, water and carbon dioxide are made. In general:
1. acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
2. acid + metal hydrogen carbonate → a salt + water + carbon dioxide

The carbon dioxide causes bubbling during the reaction. It can be detected by passing the gas
through limewater (calcium hydroxide), which will go cloudy.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E6QSDEDXvB8
This link shows a demonstration of the experiment to test for carbon dioxide formed from a
reaction between baking soda (sodium hydrogencarbonate) and vinegar (ethanoic acid).

You can also see this reaction if you study the effects of acid rain on rocks and building
materials. To observe the effects of acid rain on marble and limestone (calcium carbonate)—two
building materials commonly used in monuments, ancient buildings, and in many modern
structures—conduct the following experiment:
1. Place a piece of chalk (calcium carbonate) in a bowl with white vinegar (ethanoic acid).
2. Place another piece in a bowl of tap water.
3. Leave the dishes overnight.

The next day, see if you can tell which piece of chalk is more worn away.
This experiment with chalk allows you to see the effect of acid rain on marble and limestone
because chalk is made of calcium carbonate, a compound occurring in rocks, such as marble and
limestone, and in animal bones, shells, and teeth.

Metals
Acids will react with reactive metals, such as magnesium and zinc, to make a salt and hydrogen.
In general:
acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
The hydrogen causes bubbling during the reaction, and can be detected using a lighted splint.
A lighted wooden splint goes pop if it is put into a test tube of hydrogen. This is because the
flame ignites the hydrogen, which burns explosively to make a loud sound.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5RY7fJ0EOUE
This link will show you the test for hydrogen gas.

Examples of Acids in Living Systems

• Farmers use lime (calcium oxide) to neutralise soils which are too acidic.
• Lime juice is used to remove rust stains.
o Citric acid and rust will yield iron oxide, carbon monoxide, water and hydrogen.
▪ C6H8O7 + Fe2O3 → 2 FeO + 6 CO + 2 H2O + 2 H2
• Your stomach contains hydrochloric acid, and too much of this causes indigestion.
Antacid tablets contain bases such as magnesium hydroxide and magnesium carbonate to
neutralise the extra acid.
• Bee stings are acidic. They can be neutralised using baking powder, which contains
sodium hydrogen carbonate.
• Ant bites are acidic as they contain methanoic acid. Soap, which is alkaline can be used
to neutralize this.
• Vitamin C contains ascorbic acid (C6H8O6) which is unstable and easily destroyed during
storage and processing by exposure to oxygen, heat, light, certain enzymes and metals.
This is why real orange juice is stored in opaque packages, and water is deaerated to
make vitamin C drinks.
• Lactic acid – this is released into the muscles when they have used up their normal
energy stores but still have intense energy needs or from lack of oxygen. Small amounts
of lactic acid operate as a temporary energy source, thus helping you avoid fatigue during
a workout. However, a buildup of lactic acid during a workout can create burning
sensations in the muscles that can slow down or halt your athletic activity. As lactic acid
is water soluble, you can drink water and control breathing to break it down and relieve
the burning sensation in your muscles.
• Vinegar is used for food preservation as the low pH prevents bacteria growth.