Machinery Installation

Machinery Installation
Table of Contents
Chapter One: Introduction:

Chapter Two: General Requirements for Piping Lay Out
Chapter Three: Pumps Piping Arrangements
Chapter Four: Piping Acoustics and Noise
Chapter Five: Piping Dynamics
Chapter Six: Supports
Chapter Seven: Compressors Piping Arrangements
Chapter Eight: Grouting of Baseplates, Soleplates and Pipe Supports
Chapter Nine: Steam Turbine Piping
Chapter Ten: Piping Elements Maintenance, Reliability and Availability
Chapter Eleven: Overview of API RP Standard 686 Requirements
Chapter Twelve: Local Fabrication
Enppi Copyright © Enppi 2016 Page 1 of 150
Chapter One
Introduction
Chapter One; Introduction:
- What is the purpose of This Material,

API RP 686 Standard is a very comprehensive document covering
Machinery Installation Requirements and Recommendations. The Analyses
included in the API Document is based on cumulative practice and
industry experience and can be rated as highly accurate and to the point.
The Application Engineers in Design, installation, and Construction need to
have a good back ground to be able to understand and apply the
recommendations efficiently.
Plant Piping is the concern of this Document. Special portion of the
Plant Piping is related to Machinery Equipment. Pumps, Compressors, Gas
Turbines, Steam Turbines, Blowers, Compressors, Gas Engines, Diesel
Engines, etc., are the hurts of the Plant such that should they do not exist
or they are in trouble, the entire Plant Process Facilities become dead.
Piping are the way all media in the Petrochemical Facilities would be
transported and conveyed to realize the intended function of the facilities.
The inter-relationship between Machinery and Interconnecting
Piping is very critical to the trouble-free operation of the entire Facilities
for the intended design life time of the Facilities.
This document is inter-related to API RP 686 to explain, clarify,
detail, add, show some applications, etc., for further understanding and
better utilization.
- Types of Piping Services,
There are Process Piping, against Utility Piping, there are Fire Water
Piping, Pneumatic Piping, Gas Piping, Hydrocarbon Liquid piping, chemical
services, etc.,
Two or three phase piping need very special design procedure,
Slugging Flow Piping take place when the Gas Phase volume Flow to
the Liquid Phase Volume Flow is within a certain ratio range. If Slugging
Flow takes Place, it has to be treated by a special piping design, and it is
better to be intercepted by a Slug Catcher, or Slug Attenuator; as

applicable.
Liquids or gases containing sands, proppants, sludge’s, or any type
of solids, need very special piping layout and velocity range to contain
their erosion or accumulation effects.
Hydrocarbon liquids under pressure which shall change to gas
phase upon pressure release or liquefied gases subject to cryogenic
cooling which transform to gas phase upon heat infiltration, need special
piping layout, too.
Hot service, cold service, cryogenic service, need special insulation
and pipe support design; and require thermal expansion stress analyses
due to the large change in temperature from ambient to operating
temperature and the reverse process.
Blowdown, flare piping, or cold flare piping which experience
transient temperature changes, need special considerations in design.
Steady services like for Cooling Tower Water Circulation Services, is
different from Reciprocating Gas Compressor or Reciprocating Pump, or
positive displacement Pumps, in general, services.
Metallic piping versus non-metallic Piping; they are different in most

of the design issues,
Metallic piping with inserted inner non-metallic Piping are different
in fabrication practices,
- Theoretical Background, Energy Equation or Thermodynamic

First Law, Second Law of Thermodynamics, Newton’s Laws
for Equilibrium and Motion, Equations of State, Bulks
Modulus of Elasticity, Liquid Thermal Expansion Coefficient,
Liquid Phase Change, Viscosity, Speed of Sound in a Liquid,
First Law of Thermodynamics states simply for an open system like

a Pipe Spool or any Piping Configuration System that Rate of Work Done
on the Fluid by the Friction on the Pipe Walls, Heat Loss, or Heat Gain
equals the Rate of Change of Enthalpy (for Liquids it is better to call it the
total energy per unit mass) of the Fluid, the mass flow rate of liquid
throughput multiplied by the change of Enthalpy (total Fluid Energy per
unit mass); in a steady condition. Liquid Enthalpy is defined to be Internal
Energy plus flow energy, plus the Kinetic Energy, plus its Potential Energy
referred to a certain elevation Datum; Cv*T +p*v + V2/2 + g*z= C*T +
p*v + V2/2 + g*z= H
Here C or Cv is the Liquid Specific Heat at Constant Volume; for
Liquids, Cp is the Specific Heat at Constant Pressure, does not differ from
the Cv or C, that is why one Specific Heat Value is Considered, p is the
liquid absolute pressure, v is the liquid specific volume which equals 1/ρ;
ρ being the mass density. V being the Velocity of the Fluid Stream at the
considered Location.
SI units are applied; then consistent units of all terms shall add up;
C in Joule/(KG* oC), T in oC or oK which makes no difference for Liquids, p
in Pa which is 10-5 of the Bar, ρ is in KG/M3, V is in M/Sec, g is in M/Sec2
(9.81 is the fixed standard acceleration of gravity in most locations in the
world; and is correct for Egypt), z is elevation in the vertical direction, in
Meters, relative to reference datum to be defined for each location.
The equations of State for normal fluids can read: ∆ⱱ= ev*ⱱ*∆T
Where ∆ⱱ is the incremental change of the liquid volume, ev is the
volumetric Coefficient of Thermal Expansion per degree per volume.
Such Equation of state for Liquids deals with Volumetric Volume
Expansion rather than Linear Expansion because liquid cannot be treated
as linear;
∆ⱱ=eⱱ * ⱱ *∆T
Where; ∆ⱱ is the incremental change of Liquid Volume; eⱱ is the
Volume Coefficient of Expansion per degree per volume,
It is better to deal with liquids as volumes not as linear because the
phenomenon is volumetric.
A Third Equation of State for Liquids can be:
β= - (∆p/∆ⱱ)* ⱱ = Bulks Modulus of Elasticity of the Liquid.
∆p stands for the compression Stress acting on a volume Element,

∆ⱱ/ⱱ stands for the volumetric strain as expansion
(positive)/contraction (negative) ratio of the volume (volumetric Strain).
This is very useful relationship for calculating the Speed of Sound in

the Liquid;
as = √(β/ρ)
For gases using the same above relationship in isentropic process

yields the sonic speed in the form:
as = √(z*k*R*T)
where: z is the compressibility factor, k being the specific heat

ratio, R is the Gas Constant in J/(KG*oK), and T is the Absolute
Temperature in oK, T=t+273, t is the gas temperature in oC.
The Energy Equation in one degree of freedom or one dimension is

simply applied and had been proven to represent the changes of
thermodynamic variables in a reasonable accuracy.
The type of Process through the Piping can be defined as ideal with
some losses. Some internal turbulence, friction, eddies, heat, etc., are
associated with the flow through pipes; causing a loss in the pre-described
total fluid enthalpy or energy.
Reasonably sized piping system with acceptable velocities normally
cause less than a meter of head losses each 100 meter equivalent pipe
run. This is for liquids; however, for gases the loss per one kilometre of
pipe length is around a fraction of a Bar (0.1 Bard). The above Frictional
losses imply some power losses to transport the fluids through the piping
system; which is inevitable everyday energy losses. It represents the
irreversible Pumping/Gas Compression process as the outcome of the

intent of the second law of thermodynamics which states that real
processes tend to increase entropy and consequently cannot be reversible.
In other words; heat transfer process cannot be reversible, energy
transfer from one type to another cannot be reversible, and accordingly
transfer of products through piping system is irreversible, etc.,
Second Law of Mechanics (Newton’s Second Law) is applicable, in
its simple form, angular form, or Momentum Form for Fluid Flow.
Please note that Potential Energy for liquids due to Gravity is now
dominant in the total energy of pumping as well as Pressure or Flow
Energy relative to internal energy because liquid density is quite
appreciable. Kinetic Energy within Piping is negligible leading to ignoring
dynamic pressure in most of gas or liquid transfer systems calculations.
Kinetic energy impact is very pronounced in exit Nozzles of Fire
water Monitor, in high speed liquid lines, in spray nozzles to extinguish
building fires, and in pump suction nozzles because Excessive Velocity can
lead to poor flow pattern which can result in loss of pump priming.
Effect of Liquid Velocity and Viscosity are integrated in one

dimensionless Parameter called the Reynolds Number; Rn= (V*D*ρ)/µ
It is deciding the range of the laminar flow then the Turbulent Flow;
the value of the internal pipe friction factor.
V is the average Velocity within Pipe Sectional Area, D is the Pipe
Nominal Diameter, ρ is the Liquid Density, µ is the dynamic coefficient of
viscosity, in Kg/(M*Sec) in SI units.
cP is centi-Poise is the normally used viscosity unit and it is 0.01 of
the unit Poise; which is Gram/(Cm*Sec). This yields the conversion
relationship of: cP= 0.001*KG/(M*Sec).
Example: water is flowing in a pipe at 5 m/sec speed, diameter is
24 inch, viscosity is 1.0 cP at ambient temperature. Then Rn is equal to
(5.0*24*.0254*1000)/(.001*1.0)= 3.0*106 which exceeds the
transformation value from laminar to Turbulent Flow (which is about
10,000 or 104) then the flow is Turbulent. The inside friction coefficient
depends on the internal pipe material surface roughness which depends

on the selected material and process of fabrication.
Further; to visualize the Water Momentum at such operating

Conditions; Mm= Momentum= mo*V= ρ*(π*D2/4)*V*V= 1000
KG/M3*(3.14*(24*0.0254)2/4) M2*(5.0 M/Sec)2= 7.3*103 Newton’s/9.81
M/sec2= 0.743 Metric Tons.
In other words; sudden stopping of this flow rate requires a force of
0.743 Tons to do. A turn through an elbow of 90o means same force
acting at both incident and outgoing pipe directions of the same
magnitude.
Now if the speed is raised to 10 M/Sec, the force is multiplied by
the square of the speed change ratio; 4 in this example. About 3.0 Tons
Momentum force has to be dealt with.
This shows why manifold speed limits are normally less than 4.0-to-
5.0 m/sec. Pump Suction Line Velocity limits are less than 3.0 m/sec.
This is not accounting for frictional losses! In reduced speeds within
the above limits, each 100 m length of Pipe, the pressure drop is still
within 1.0 meter in Head Units. If you exceed the above speeds few meter
drop is expected for 100 m pipe length. Recall that one Bar pressure
differential is about 10 meters in head units.
- Various Phenomena experienced while moving through pipe

elements,
- Pressure or Head Losses,
It is a fact of life that piping system has to cause pressure drop per
meter run along the passage; as straight run or an equivalent straight run
like elbows, reducers, or other types of fittings,
- Flow Separation on Short Radius Elbows,
Abrupt changes of directions, several pipe fittings with sharp

successive changes of directions entry to vessels or tanks, exits
from vessels or tanks, etc., can cause the flow stream reluctant to
follow exactly the ideal theoretical pipe walls tending to flow
separation and local circulation and eddies,
- Sedimentation of fine dust or Sludge in pipe traps,
For very slow velocities and pipe runs tending to form low elevation
traps, sludge or dust can drop and left to accumulate causing
further reduction in flow area. In straight long piping Velocities
below 0.3 to 0.5 m/sec can be a cause of a solid particle loss of
buoyancy leaving it to drop on the lower pipe wall (bottom of pipe).
This phenomenon is attributed to Stock’s Law.
Sludge flow should be gravity flow to enhance motion of the heavier
density solid particles.
- Velocity Increase through nozzles,
This requires a relative area ratio reduction to force a change of

total energy of fluid from pressure to kinetic energy. Exiting to
atmospheric pressure is a good reason to make this change. Orifice
restrictions are other common reasons for increasing Velocity. For
closed piping some total fluid energy can be recovered; i.e. not all
the kinetic energy change is lost in the form of heat or turbulence.
- Slight Pressure Rise and flow separation, turbulence through relatively

diverging pipe diameter increase; Diffuser Effects,
Divergent Diffusers effects in Gas Dynamics can be close to the

theoretical model in some cases like convergent divergent nozzles;
applied in Jet Engines. However, even in such cases shock waves
can interrupt the flow causing severe losses and unsteady flow
conditions; not to mention severe acoustic waves (noise). Diffuser
Effects are generally unsteady, associated with boundary layer
separation, flow separation, turbulence, vortex shedding, and losses
in liquid or low speed gas flows. A large pipe increase from for
example 6” up to 12” is a typical example of such situations. Piping
designer should avoid this Diffuser Effect!
- Polymerization due to cooling,
Like what happened in the Egyptian Styrene Factory Polymer

solidified several times within the Pump Casing causing catastrophic
failure of the pump bearing and casing. Any service where liquids in
the piping would polymerize and solidify is a pending catastrophe
which can be avoided by good heating jackets, good insulation,
short pipe runs, avoiding dead legs, dead long drain pipe,
stagnation flow condition, and by emptying the piping inventory as
soon as the process is tripped.
- Crystallization due to cooling of high concentration Liquid Solutions,

Caustic Soda Solution Crystalizes below 28oC and normally is kept

above 40oC to ensure pump-able fluid which can move through
piping. Heating is the good attitude to keep above crystallization
temperature.
If a certain concentration should not be exceeded to avoid
crystallization, then a positive monitoring of mixing and dilution
should be ensured.
Provision for recovery from actual crystalized condition has to be
part of the piping system design.
- Vaporization due to static pressure decrease against dynamic pressure or

potential energy (vertical Head) increase,
This is a common everyday phenomenon; liquid changes into vapor

phase in a pocket of piping where trapped vapors increase in
volume blocking the liquid passage. In a pump suction, if piping
layout is made to elevate the piping close to 10 meters then returns
to ground level to inlet to pump suction, and if the liquid (water)
originally was at low pressure, then the vertical head rise has to be
deducted from the static pressure reaching the vapor pressure;
causing water to vaporize. It will be a steady state phenomenon
resulting in a vapor lock of the Pump Suction Pipe.
In many other cases the liquid velocity increases in a certain

location of the piping; deducting from the static pressure bringing it
down to vapor pressure; resulting in vaporization.
- Two phase flow generation,
Per the above analyses two phase flow generation from liquid phase
transportation is common.
As well, if gas transportation is associated with liquid condensation,
two phase flow is the result.
New twin screw Positive Displacement Pumps are intentionally
applied to pump two phase natural well production through a
relatively long flow line or pipeline.
Two phase piping needs to be designed for different criteria than
the single flow piping.
Pipe fittings, isolation valves, control valves, pipe wall thickness due
to erosion, corrosion, liquid hammer, possible formation of slugs,
pipe supports, fatigue consideration due to continuous change of
acting forces, etc., have to be rated for higher strength and with
additional material as corrosion allowance.
- Slug Flow Generation,
Slug flow is an intermittent passing of a liquid lump filling most of

the pipe sectional area for a certain length of several diameters
(tens of diameters, hundreds of diameters, then few diameters,) for
a small time period followed by a gas bubble flow filling the entire
pipe section, ten by a different fluid lump, then repeating this
unsteady pattern.
Slugs or fluid lumps normally move at higher than the average flow
Velocity. The intermediate gas is a varying volume bubble
compensating for the unsteady flow velocity of the surrounding
Slugs. Gas bubble expansion means less pressure, and its
compression means a little higher pressure. The result is a
continuously rippling static pressure at all locations of the pipe
along its center line.
Liquid Slug momentum is very large value compared to gas portion
momentum; resulting in rapid change of pipe bend/elbows acting
forces along the continuous operation; which is a continuous fatigue
due to impacts on all pipe portions.
Slug Flow can be from the original source of Liquid Flow; such as
two Phase Well Production; at initial phase, or after wells have been
depleted.
Slug Flow can be due to poor piping design causing successive
vapor generation, collection, accumulation, then releasing, with the
main liquid flow.
- Flow Surge,
In a theoretically liquid flow in a long pipe or a pipeline, sudden

closure of shutdown valve, a control valve, sudden stop of a pump,
or any transient uncontrolled phenomena can cause sudden
increase of pressure due to pressure wave travelling and
strengthening by reflecting waves, reaching excessive values
beyond the maximum allowable pressure of the pipe system.
- Liquid Hammer,
Surge and Hammer are two Synonyms for the same phenomenon.
- Flow Lamination,
Very low speed of transportation of liquids or gases can cause

segregation of higher specific gravity components to bottom of
piping against lighter component to float on top of pipe cross
section.
It can be more distinct in vessels, or sumps when liquids are stored
for long periods.
- Solidification,
Transform of some of the liquid phase or components to its solid

phase. This is associated with sub-cooling of the liquid where the
liquid has to give up its latent heat of melting, and solid phase is
smaller in volume than the liquid phase (except for pure water
which decreases in specific gravity when frozen).
- Chemical Reaction,
Chemical Reaction shall not intended to take place in a pipe system.

Mechanical mixing is made in an inline mixer; designed to effect a
certain degree of mixing of known streams; i.e. even mechanical
mixing requires its dedicated process equipment.
The chemical reactions spontaneously taking place within a piping
system and which were not intended to take place are those
mentioned in this paragraph; i.e. due to miss-happening transient
conditions.
Some examples can be: change in PH number while moving within
piping,
Free oxygen reaction with biological material,
Sedimentation of salts due to acid/alkali reaction in trace amounts,
CO2/water acid corrosion action in carbon steel pipe, which is
treated as corrosion below,
- Erosion,
Proppants, dust, sand, metal powder or similar erosive material

moving at high velocity through the pipe shall remove material, by
mechanical erosion,
It reduces the pipe wall in a period of time,
The products of erosion add to the erosive agent to block strainers
or damage machinery internal parts,
- Corrosion,
Corrosive agents like CO2, HCL, H2SO4, etc., need water solution
to be active chemical consuming most piping material.
Lower internal velocities or complete stagnation promotes corrosion
process,
Free Oxygen increases rate of corrosion,
Presence of air medium on top of liquids moving within pipe
increases corrosion rate,
- Heat transfer,
Hot piping with jackets, electric/steam tracing, with insulation tend

to lose heat in a long run of piping.
Cold or cryogenic streams in piping with cold insulation tend to gain
heat; this is law number three of thermodynamics, Entropy is
always increasing in any natural process.
It is the duty of the engineering Contractor to minimize these losses
but not to absolutely prevent them.
- Thermal Growth,
Thermal growth of the liquid medium inside the piping system

expands appreciably when its temperature is increased few tens of
degrees Celsius. If a certain volume is trapped between two closed
valves then a thermal safety valve has to be fitted to the enclosed
system to relieve the excess liquid volume to avoid pipe system
failure. Size of TSV is very small; ½” or ¾” because it relieves
gradually few letters of expanding liquid over a long time interval.
In the same time, Metallic Piping Expand subject to the same
temperature increase; however, at smaller scale. It is absorbed in
flexible pipe loops, sliding supports, spring supports; based on the
temperature increase and the piping layout as well as the affected
machinery or equipment.
- Dynamic Loads due to Momentum Change in Direction,
Steady flow shall impact a steady change of momentum force in

two perpendicular directions on any 90o , 45o, or any angle elbow.
Steady forces are easily contained and balanced by the standard
pipe elbow but has to be checked for its effect on the pipe support.
Slug Flow unsteady Momentum has internal and external piping
forces because of pipe elasticity, and lag effect of dynamic forces.
Control valves are subjected to unsteady momentum forces which
are not balanced within piping because, they are dynamic,
momentum in is not equal to momentum out of the valve. Valve
supports must be designed for the sudden momentum force upon
full opening or closing of the valve; for both liquid and gas flow.
- Dynamic Loads due to Pipe system Resonance, or Vibration,
Piping System has its natural frequencies based on its supporting

system, mass and stiffness distribution, each natural frequency can
be excited by motion of flow within, transmission of vibration from
other piping systems or equipment connected. Each natural
frequency is associated a mode of vibration following its Eigen
Vector vibration Amplitudes. A piping system can vibrate at any or
all natural modes of vibrations if excited continuously or transiently.
Vibrations can be transient, or short term for a certain time period,
or continuous.
Vibrations must be within limits of acceptable displacements or
vibration Velocities.
Above all the must not cause fatigue stresses exceeding the
material Endurance limit.
A pipe attachment such as an instrument with its connection piping
may experience a resonance at its local natural frequency. It may
be a reason for piping system vibrations.
- Acoustic Resonance due to Standing Waves,
Reciprocating Compressors, Reciprocating Pumps, Positive

Displacement Compressors or Pumps produce intermittent flow
pulses in the suction and discharge sides at running speeds and

multiple of running speeds. Pulsation suppression Vessels at suction
and discharge reduce the ripple percent compared to mean
manifold pressure, but cannot completely dampen the acoustic
pulsations of the same frequencies.
Such acoustic waves reflect from each elbow or vessel in the
passage, and in many cases the incident and reflecting waves can
be in phase causing their superposition to be magnified many
times; such case is called the standing waves; which are a case of
resonance of the system, causing amplification of noise and
vibrations.
More over; any piping component having its natural frequency close
to the acoustic wave frequency can undergo a resonance
mechanical vibration state at high amplitudes.
Failures of some piping components did happen in many sites due
to the above-mentioned scenario.
- Pipe Spool Sag When Filled with Liquid,
Static design soft-wares do check the acceptance of the static

sag/deflection of piping between adjacent supports before studying
the dynamic system behavior. Gas piping filling with water for the
purpose of hydro-testing after erection is a separate design
condition needs to be checked, if it would be allowed by the project
design bases. Piping, supports, or concrete may be the bottle neck
for this requirements.
- Pipe Support Strain or Failure due to Excessive Loads,
Static and dynamic piping system design should recognize the

health condition of the pipe support for all agreed upon load
combination scenarios.
- Advancements in Piping Material and Design in the Last

Decades,
- GRP Material for Corrosive Services
Glass Reinforced Polymer (plastic) was developed for high pressure up to 20

Barg, high temperatures up to 80oC, and was successfully applied for saline
water services including fire water systems. Key-lock flanges are rather
sophisticated, need for purchasing exact isometric design fittings is another
drawback increasing its budget.
Its chemical resistance is the main advantage.
- HDPE application for sewage, water treatment, and general utility

services,
High Density Polyethylene provides light weight and easy to weld by fusion
heating, achieving low cost material and installation. It is suitable for
underground sewage system, potable water system, buried hydrocarbon
service.
- Polypropylene Flexible Piping Application to Most Building Potable

Water Networks,
The State of the Art of all types of Buildings nowadays is the application of
polypropylene flexible piping to all plumbing work. It is connected by fusion
(heat) welding, it has standardized fittings with built-in threaded ends (Copper
alloy), light weight, short time to erect. It is available at lower cost than
galvanized piping (tubing).
- PVC piping application to municipal drain systems,
It is glued to its fittings, standardized, commercially available with its glue,

easy to apply, providing sanitary service with no internal fouling.
- Non-Metallic piping with special Fiber Glass reinforcement for

relatively high pressure,
They are available for buried hydrocarbon services at pressures reaching 80

Barg, to avoid their vulnerability to fire risk if left above grade. Heavy
equipment such as trucks or loaders can damage them if left above grade; as
a second reason for not applying them in accessible areas near industrial
plants/sites.
- Fitting Non-Metallic Piping Sleeve into Metallic Casing,
Inner piping provides the chemical resistance, outer metallic casing

provides the strength. Spools and fittings can be welded internally then
externally by proper protection of non-metallic internal sleeve, or the
piping assembly is made by flanged connections.
- Duplex material is standardized,
Piping, fittings, valves, etc., in Duplex have become available at commercial

prices to solve the problem of sea water and saline water in addition to other
corrosive services. They replaced Cupper Nickel alloys as more strong and of
better resistance to corrosive agents. In machinery, Duplex is better applied in
place of Nickel Aluminium Bronze Alloys which were difficult to cast or weld.
- Super Duplex Alloys are now standardized,
The case is similar to Duplex piping and fittings, available for higher degree of
resistance to corrosion, at higher temperatures, and higher strength.
- Hyper Duplex is introduced,
It provides less material and lower budgets for challenging services such as
Deep Water Installations with long piping, umbilical transmission pipeline,
submerged equipment. It is available subject to thorough techno-economic
study to prove its feasibility.
Chapter Two
General Requirements for Piping Lay Out
Chapter two: General Requirements for Piping Lay Out
The discussions shall be biased to machinery equipment but are

applicable to general piping system layout in a Petrochemical Plant
Facilities.
- Simplicity
The piping designer in most cases has a wide space to rout and
laydown his piping. Except for offshore facilities and brown field facilities
the above statement can be true. Simplicity may contradict with other
important criteria; however, if kept in the Piping Designer mind, it can be
achieved to a very Practical Degree.
- Minimization of Pipe Fittings and Elbows in Particular,
Why would a pipe turn to the right or left, to up or down, if it can be left
straight. In other words, turn only if you need to turn for a good
mandatory reason.
- Flexibility,
Internal pipe forces, piping forces acting on equipment Nozzles,

forces on the pipe supports, etc., have to be optimized. Static and
dynamic forces due to thermal expansion and vibrations can be due to
flexibility, but have to be optimized by proper flexibility.
Flexibility is achieved by pipe shape or loops, pipe supports, flexible
elements, optimized size,
- Reasonable Identification of Design Parameters, Limits,

or Criteria,
Enppi Piping Technical determines design pressure and temperature in

reasonable way; it is not exaggerated.
It is related to the normal operating conditions not to the upset transient

conditions. It can survive the upset transient conditions.
Enppi Technical and Stress Analyses need to be more reasonable with the
thermal expansion temperature rise or decrease!
Practically the piping system is fabricated and tested at one of the year
seasons; where piping system assumes the prevailing ambient
temperature with some Solar Radiation effect.
During operation the piping system shall be subjected to normal fluid
temperature, with some excursions to transient peak temperatures.
Transient peak temperature duration normally is not cause for the highest
temperature to prevail!
It is not true that piping is subjected to the upset highest temperature
difference referred to the lowest possible ambient temperature!
If it is set that piping system shall be clamped to initiate operation at an
average ambient temperature, or average operating temperature. It can
be in a form of instruction to be checked after commissioning by the
Piping Leader.
Then the thermal expansion for design load calculation can be based on
average normal steady operating temperature difference from the
maximum normal operating condition.
Peak transient temperature excursions, or lowest ambient temperature
are not taken in the above calculations, but can be checked as limiting
ultimate value against some acceptable failure condition.
- Non-Metallic Piping, need reasonable design temperature to be able

to apply. Exaggerating the margin will push non-metallic piping out
of the feasibility of application. For instance; potable water service
operating conditions are 4.0 Barg at 15oC-to-25oC around the year
seasons. If the Process Leaders decides 40oC operating and 70oC
design temperatures, then Non-Metallic Piping of all types cannot
be applied.
- Solar Radiation Neutralization, can be done by routing of piping in
shade, or covering piping by simple inexpensive means. It is a fact
that liquid filled piping shall assume the liquid temperature and
cannot be warmed by direct Solar Radiation; because thermal heat

capacity of the liquid is too high for the Solar radiation to impact it.
- Painting pipe with light reflecting layer can mitigate the Solar
Radiation Heat Gain. Black body temperature reached due to Solar
Heat Radiation require several supporting conditions: body is
painted in black absorbing material, there is no back radiation,
there is no touching equipment or surfaces that can conduct heat
away of the black body, and there is no convection currents in the
surrounding ambient air. That is why it is not easy to collect Solar
Heat to warm utility water for heating water service.
- For information; the black body temperature in the Egyptian Desert
is normally specified to be 80oC maximum.
- Slopes for Liquid drainage (Descent) and Vapor

ascending,
In other words; no vapor pockets and no dirt traps should ever

exist in the Piping System.
Liquid piping emanating from a vessel or a storage tank should
always be sloped down to ensure liquid going to destination and vapors
climbing back to vessel or tank again.
Gas piping emanating from a vessel or a storage tank shall slope up
to ensure liquid drainage back to vessel.
Liquid piping running horizontally shall not be lowered then
returned back to the original course to avoid continuous trapping of the
dirt’s or sludge in the lower portion (which is called a trap).
Liquid piping running at high level shall not contain a high portion
returned back to the main course. This is called a vapor pocket; it will be
filled of vapors over the time. It is called vapor pocket.
- Pipe Weight Balancing over the Pipe Supports,
Pipe system with all fittings, valves, strainers, filters, instruments,

etc., shall be supported by the dedicated suitable type supports. No
overhung weights are due to supported by equipment or machinery

nozzles.
Simple supporting of pipe bulk weights is better than leaving them
to induce moments and piping bending.
- Accessibility
Main road then branch roads up to near equipment accessibility is to be

taken into account.
Each equipment needs to be installed (constructability; crane to lift needs
area for anchoring and manoeuvre during lifting), needs to be serviced
(maintainability), and needs to be replaced when expired (end of Life
Time). Each bulky valve or strainer needs servicing. Internals of vessels
and tanks need to be removed. Accessibility is a joint responsibility of
equipment specialist or Originating Discipline and Piping Leader, in
addition to all other discipline leaders to care about electric, instrument,
control, safety equipment, light poles, drain lines, vent lines, safety
valves, etc.,
A pipe or equipment shall not be removed to allow accessibility to other
equipment,
An equipment shall not be tripped to allow accessibility to other
equipment,
Pipe racks should not be in the way to lift main part of the machine or
equipment, but the Hoisting Crane shall have a line of sight to the
serviced equipment,
The lifted equipment shall not pass by any type of equipment during
moving to drop area or truck to be loaded,
Auxiliaries of a machinery shall be accessible similar to main machinery,
- Automatic Self-Priming of Piping System,
The meaning is automatic system filling with the process liquid is a basic
criterion rather than the need to drain and vent from several locations to
ensure system filling.
This can be achieved by gravity flowing from the starting vessel to various
parts of the system as long as there are no pockets, traps, and ther are
proper sloping of all pipe runs in the system.
- Respect the Ten Meter Rule for Liquids,
Atmospheric ambient pressure for is equal to about ten meter static

column head of water,
For hydrocarbon liquids of specific gravity of 0.9, atmospheric
pressure equals about 11.0 meters static head of this liquid.
Less specific gravity makes an atmospheric pressure head of about
13.0 meters, increasing up to 15.0 meters as specific gravity decreases.
The rule is simply: Atmospheric Pressure in Vertical Static Head equals
10.0/(Liquid Specific Gravity); where Liquid Specific Gravity = Density of
the Liquid at the operating temperature/(Density of Water at the standard
sea level temperature).
Every ambient air equivalent Static Head when the liquid is elevated
vertically, a one Atmospheric or one Bard is lost. If the original pressure in
the bottom is always higher than the atmospheric pressure, then there is
no fear of reaching a critical low pressure less than the liquid vapor
pressure boiling the liquid changing its state (phase) to vapor instead of
Liquid. Water vapor pressure at ambient temperature is about 0.02 meter
and as temperature increases it reaches gradually few meters up to 10
meters at 100oC (Boiling Point in atmospheric ambient Pressure).
Hydrocarbon Gases can have their vapor pressure at ambient
temperature close to ambient or higher than ambient pressure.
Modify the ten meter rule to be above liquid vapor pressure, and
ensure this margin is kept as far as practical.
- Avoid Passing Over Equipment,
Suction, discharge, minimum flow or auxiliary Piping must not pass

over the Machinery or its driver while still in the Equipment Area. This
hiders the maintainability of the equipment.
- Lifting Maintenance Weights,
A Compressor Rotor or Inner Bundle must be retracted from the outer

barrel, connected to its spreader bar, lifted over the compressor skid, and
loaded to truck or trailer, without any need for process, auxiliary, fire
water piping to be removed!
This simple objective could not be met in several projects made by Enppi
recently or in the last two decades!
- Drop Areas
All types of equipment need a nearby small size area to contain maximum
maintenance object or part in the life cycle of the equipment. It is
normally termed Drop Area. It has to be nearest to access side by roads,
recommended to be upwind of the equipment served, having clear line of
sight to equipment.
- Involve the Equipment Originator or Specialist in its

Associated Piping Design,
Piping Leader has the Knowledge of Piping System and the Technical Rules
and data base for all related parts; he is the decision maker about many
details. He has to approach every equipment originator explaining to him
the details of the design, and the constraints he has to abide with; then
hear from the specialist the clear design requirements and conditions
coming from the equipment manufacturer and Enppi previous similar
installation practices.
Mutual interchange of knowledge in a transparent way is deemed required
between all project leaders. The objective is not that certain specialist has
to rule out the options and make the decisions; but to have clear mutual
understanding of all concerns.
The final target is trouble-free operation of the equipment and its
neighborhood equipment, valves, controls, and instrumentations.
- Three Dimensional Model Review is a Serious Action
It has to take sufficient time for discipline to see all hidden details. Senior
(old of long experience personnel) specialists from outside project task
force have to be involved in the review.
All issues need to be scrutinized and explained to all participants then left
to the concerned discipline leader to make a report about various feasible
courses of action to be the road map for the discussion in the next
session.
- Pipe Model Under Review, Needs to be Most

Comprehensive,
If the three dimensional Model misses a utility system, or a

auxiliary system, or an equipment, then the review bases is wrong. The
review outcomes are meaningless!
Fire-fighting piping, extinguishers, Bottles, tubing, cabinets, light
poles, utility station, drain sump, drain piping, and any minor details
occupying a small piece of the space must be shown.
Otherwise; the outcomes of the review are meaningless!
- Reasonable Pipe Straight Runs When Deemed

Mandatory,
Straight run of piping upstream pumps and compressor nozzles,

flow elements of special types, temperature measurements in special
cases, control valves, and per equipment manufacturer recommendations,
is sometimes deemed required!
The reason for the straight run is to ensure uniform flow within the
pipe at inlet to the downstream equipment or device, for better
performance, more accurate measurements, or better controllability by
avoiding non-steady flow behaviors such as Vortex Shedding, Formation
of Two-Phase Flow, Flow stratification, Temperature variations, etc.
Practically this is required to be achieved without sacrificing more

important functional system requirements or over implementation.
Example is the flow measurement for anti-surge control for a Centrifugal
Compressor. Straight run upstream a flow orifice can be 30 times the pipe
diameter followed by 20 times downstream the orifice; for the
achievement of 0.2 % instrument accuracy, for instance.
Practical solution is 7 diameters upstream and 4 diameters
downstream! The accuracy can be within 2% to 5% of flow measured.
This is quite satisfactory for the functioning of the system because:
- Accuracy of measurement is not the hurt of the objective, but the
compressor protection against surge condition is the main
objective,
- The flow readings are not for fiscal metering, but for anti-surge
protection,
- The Anti-Surge System Protection with the measurement piping and
recirculation valve and piping are tuned at site by actual detection
of surging points. Whatever error involved in the flow measurement
shall be repeated and included in the actual tuning process. In
other words, the system is calibrated as a whole integrated devices
and piping, to open the anti-surge valve to overcome getting
compressor into surge. Errors of measurement of flow or pressure,
errors in controller gain to open valve, errors in valve response in
time of opening, etc., are all calibrated as one integrated system to
avoid compressor surge.
- Respecting the superfluous accurate flow measurement shall
introduce very big piping volume between the compressor suction
scrubber and compressor nozzle, resulting in delay of flow transfer
from suction scrubber to compressor to bring it from a pending
surging condition,
- Compressor normal and transient operation shall be delayed by
time of sucking gases through a long piping between scrubber and
compressor nozzle.
- Long piping runs shall add condensation problems in piping,
Five diameters straight run of suction piping at Overhung (end-

Suction) type of pumps is a legitimate requirements because the uniform
flow admission to impeller eye is mandatory to avoid NPSHR increase due
to Hydraulic Unbalance.
It can be achieved simply by making the straight run of pipe of
same size of the Pump Suction Nozzle. This reduces the distance required
to do the straight run, reduces the exerted pipe load on pump nozzle, and
saves in installation cost.
Five diameters straight runs requirement for top/top or double

suction pumps is superfluous! Two or three diameters can be sufficient if
the elbow upstream is large radius elbow; because the internal passages
within the pump are yet there to condition the flow before admittance to
impeller eye. Five diameter straight run for all pumps including this type is
definitely an advantage, on condition that it can be feasibly availed
without sacrifice of more important criteria such as pump NPSHA.
- Instrument and Control Devices Requirements,
Temperature Measurements Thermo-Wells need an enlargement in

the small piping (1” and 2”) to reach 4” for good insertion and low speed
of fluid passing by the Thermo-Well.
In machinery auxiliary systems such as Lube Oil or Cooling Water
Systems this requirement is normally ignored inserting the measuring
element directly into pipe to increase its sensitivity and reduce the time
delay to sense the actual temperature.
All temperature and pressure sensing elements need single phase
turbulence free flow to survive the otherwise undue hammer and erosion
which would be encountered.
Pump minimum flow recirculation valves require their piping free
from vapor packets or liquid traps.
Control valves and flow elements require non vaporizing liquids and
non-condensing gases for their proper proportional functioning.
The above real example belongs to ETHYTCO Utility Plant, where

the blue nozzles belong to three Effluent Water Vertical Turbine Pumps
(RUHR) pumping from the large concrete sump to the drain canal few
Kilometers away and at an elevation less than the pump nozzles by about
8 meters below. The top pocket made is at more than six meters above
grade.
Three plants deliver their effluent water at the common discharge
piping downstream the shown piping to the left; making the back pressure
varying depending on the flow rates. Any plant off pumping results in
water flowing by gravity without any need for pressure down to the drain
canal (El-Karnack). Such gravity flow at a velocity creates vacuum on the
top of pocket because static pressure is minimal and kinetic energy takes
of the total energy. Water cannot fill the top piping of the packet in most
turn down operation conditions.
There is a flow meter at grade level downstream this pocket;
obviously it does not function because it sees two phase flow!
Because the top of Pocket is under vacuum, automatic air release is
useless, because it suck air instead of getting rid of air!
The only practical solution is to replace the pocket by buried piping;

no vacuum would exist, gravity flow at least pumping power is legitimate,
flow meter shall read smooth flow, there is no hammer.
A back pressure control valve at outlet to drain canal is another
mandatory flow element; to keep the entire line full of water all the times;
to prevent corrosion due to the presence of air and water; the two
elements maintaining biological life and corrosion! It will prevent
hammering of water due to high speed in empty piping in the way to the
canal.
Another solution which may or may not be feasible instead of the
back pressure control valve is a vertical riser of 10 meters then a
downward pipe exiting water into the drain canal, in concrete pit to resist
erosion due to exiting water velocity. Water must be clean to avoid
accumulation of dirt’s upstream this vertical riser. A small size drain pipe
from the bottom can be open all the time; e.g. if the main drain pipe is
20”, a 1” drain pipe can clean the main pipe all the time.
If the pocket has to stay, then a back pressure control valve has to
be installed downstream the pocket at grade level to maintain at least one
Barg in the bottom piping upstream the Self-Control Back Pressure Valve.
This control valve has to be downstream the flow and temperature or
pressure measuring elements.
The terminal end back pressure valve is mandatory in all pipeline
schemes.
A Check valve has to be installed upstream any side stream tie-in
point to prevent back flow to the facility not pumping effluent water while
other facilities would be pumping.
The above mandatory requirements must be shown in the
Governing P&I D Drawings which needs all discipline to go to site to agree
on the Pipeline Routs before issuing any drawings.
- Provisions for Hydro-Testing and Leak Testing,
Top vent valved and bottom drain valved connection are obvious
requirements, with the necessity to be able to execute full venting and
complete draining by elimination of vapor pockets or liquid traps in their

ways!
This simple requirement is not achieved in most piping isometrics!
It caused lots of critical and hazardous situation with large scale
machineries!
Connections to introduce hydro-testing water, nitrogen gas for
preservation, nitrogen gas for leak testing, shall be clearly indicated on
the P&ID and isometric Piping Drawing.
- Provisions for Flushing, Air Blowing, or Chemical

Cleaning,
The sequence of flushing or air blowing is by isolating largest

manifold the cleaning it, then moving to the second largest, then to the
third, then, etc., the idea is to avoid plugging of a smaller pipe by the
dirt’s of a larger pipe.
This must be thought of being feasible and possible by looking
thoroughly and by following the actual execution procedure while
reviewing the three dimensional model. Equipment Specialist, Piping
Specialist, Pre-Commissioning Specialist, and others must be involved in
this mission.
Chemical Cleaning normal practice is by loose pre-fabricated piping
spools connected together and laid on the grade level, then finishing all
steps of chemical cleaning up to neutralization, passivation, then drying,
then re-instating of piping assemblies.
The disconnecting flanges for this purpose must be well identified
on the P&ID and Isometric Drawings. The accessibility for the removal of
piping, the simple procedure of disassembly, etc., must be verified on the
model.
- Respect the Functioning of Different Equipment,
A Compressor Suction Scrubber is to scrub any liquid condensate

from the coming gas stream, provide the compressor with steady flow,
respond to transient excessive flow demands to avoid pending surging

conditions, to protect against sudden drop of suction pressure, to avail a
surge volume for trapped condensates, to receive practically liquid free
gases free of uncontrolled liquid slugs, receives a mixture of recycled flow
from discharge and coming flow from upstream process section.
The above mandates a well sized vessel, as close as possible to the
compressor suction nozzle, piping to compressor is sloped down back to
vessel to drain any liquid in the vessel, upstream piping is not causing any
liquid slug formation.
The photo below shows how two phase flow from intercoolers is
brought to below scrubber vessel inlet; accumulating liquid and enforcing
slug flow into the scrubber from time to time. This does not mate with the
intended function of the scrubber.
- Reasonable Minimum Spacing Between Equipment,
Equipment Manufacturers specify the minimum spacing’s and open

area required for disassembly of biggest part of the equipment. Air cooler
bundle extraction space is to be provided. Above these requirements
should determine the minimum plot area sufficient for the installation of
this equipment or several similar equipment aside.
The question is: why piping lay out adds more and more space to
the above?
The second question: on a Platform offshore, the same piping
designer leader can save lots of space without sacrificing any hazardous
requirements, maintainability needs, or piping layout essential details.
Why is it possible here and not possible there?
- Rules for the Prevailing Wind Directions
Guidelines in setting the equipment relative to each other

considering prevailing wind directions:
- Air Intake Filters for Engines and Gas Turbines or Air Compressors
must be upwind any hazardous gas containing equipment, piping,
- Air intakes must be upwind any exhaust stacks or effluent release,
- Fired heaters or boilers must be upwind all types of utility or
process facilities,
- Operating equipment must not be downwind any other equipment
emitting hot air used for cooling of upwind equipment such as
radiator warm air of an engine, vertical air cooler, electric motor or
generator cooling air exhaust,
- Control Room or substation Buildings cannot be downwind of any of
the above mentioned equipment or facilities. Special care must be
given to Intake Air for the Building HVAC System.
- Valves and suction strainers may not be on Grade Level,
There is a conviction in Piping Design that Equipment Isolation Valves

and particularly Machinery or Pumps, need to be on grade level. This
makes complex piping design introducing many pockets; resulting in
malfunction or damage to the machinery rescuing the facility reliability
against a maintainability benefit which is not very mandated for a large
plant safe design.
Manual or shutdown valves can be put at piping elevation supported by
piping supports. They can be operated from grade, using simple slightly
raised standing deck, or chain operated, or if higher than three meters
can be serviced by a simple platform.
Maintenance can be aided by Mobile Cranes, Fork Lift Cranes,
temporary scaffolding, hydraulic personnel lift, as available and as
suitable for the complexity of the Facilities.
The main objective shall be the trouble free and reliable operation of
Machinery per its intended design details. Suppose the piping lay out
provided the easier maintainability of yard valves, the optimum
flexibility of the piping system, and the least pump flange loads; but the
pump loses suction and trip most of the time! The installation then has
failed!
- Service Platforms are Only Needed for Items Above 3.5

Meters from Grade,
Items requiring service platforms can be a suction strainer, a shutdown

valve, a flow element, or an item agreed per project bases to be served
by a Platform. It can be agreed otherwise to use mobile hydraulic
Platform to be movable from a location to the other. Not all instrument
devices need very frequent recalibration. Many valves may need
annual servicing.
Now in case it is agreed and decided to avail a service platform, then
per most Engineering Company Standards and Operating Company
Practice, only items having their bottom elevation higher than 3.5
Meters above paved grade level are deemed to have permanent
Service Platforms; intended to serve several users in the same
location.
Lower than this elevation can be served by Hydraulic Platform,
temporary Scaffolding, or a simple steel ladder, as permanent
platforms would need supporting steel structure, which would block the
area underneath, preventing installation of piping or equipment,
accessing any valve or equipment, minimizing the head room, etc.,
limiting the utilization of the space, causing more troubles than it saved.
- Machinery Piping Have to Exceed 40/40s Schedule,

API Standards Covering all Heavy Duty Equipment mandates this
requirements for Process and Auxiliary Piping; for robustness, and
strength. Machinery inherent Vibrations particularly for Reciprocating
Pumps and Compressors, and the Fatigue stresses acting throughout the
life time of the Equipment. Schedule 30/30s, 20/20s, 10/10s are
absolutely prohibited.
Chapter Three:
Pumps Piping Arrangements
Chapter Three: Pumps Piping Arrangements
- Introduction
Pumping system is the concern of this document and API RP 686. Health of the
pump alone, piping mechanical design, control valves, suction vessel, or any
individual portions of the system is a necessary but not sufficient for the health of the
integrated system. Health of the integrated pumping system means normal and upset
operation without undue transients which if repeated would break any part of the
system.
Pumping system is the suction vessel or tank, the suction piping, the discharge
piping, minimum flow piping, suction and discharge valves, check valves, control
system, and safeguarding system, pipe supports belong to the piping system, Pump
driver, Electric or Fuel Supply, Equipment Base Plate, Concrete Foundation and
Grouting for equipment and Piping Supports.
All the rules surveyed in previous chapter have to be respected. Compromises have
to be decided by Equipment Originator, Piping Designer, Process Specialist, Civil
Engineer, Electric and Instrument Engineers; as Applicable.
- Horizontal Over-Hung Pump Case
The following example of an overhung type (end Suction) pump seems to have
satisfied all the dreams of the Piping Designer; valves are put near the ground, pump
is not very far from the suction tank, sufficient flexibility of both suction and discharge
piping has been achieved, plot area is not exaggerated, etc. the pump will be
automatically filled when both manual suction and discharge valves are opened!
However, if there is an automatic air release valve (in case of handling potable or
process water to ensure that pumpage spray is not harmful to the Operators), or a
small top piping of small bore and a restriction orifice (3.0 mm opening orifice in a ½”
or ¾” pipe) returning back to the vapor space of the tank, would have achieved the
complete self-priming condition of the system.
Note that the remainder of the discharge piping is not evaluated as it is unknown in
the photo!
Eccentric reducer in the suction can be either to or bottom flat because vapors and
air can go either way; back to the tank or to be pumped by the pump!
Suction piping must be sloping downwards (1:100 up to 1000) from the tank to the
pump.
If the discharge piping are elevated after few meters, why it was elevated once it left
the pump from the first beginning? Discharge Isolation Valve and Check Valves could
be installed either in the vertical rising pipe or on the high horizontal pipe afterwards.
The suction pipe support could have been at the elbow where the larger size pipe is
still there, to have better mass balance and least nozzle load because its thermal
growth or retraction or moment will be less as it is far from the nozzle.
This support is supposed to be sliding not Fixed (Bolted) as it is apparently made!
- Vertical Pump Case,
The next example is for vertical type pumps, it is operating with the following
which could have been optimized:
Automating venting from the top manifold by a small pipe and restriction
orifice, back to the suction sump,
Sliding supports for each pump discharge pipe to allow for thermal movement
of the elbows away or towads the pump nozzle,
The above piping for three vertical pumps is providing better flexibility for the
individual pump discharge pipe. It does not provide automatic priming of the piping
system!
- Top/Top Pump Story,
The following case is for a top/top Pump nozzle configuration where piping flexibility,
access to all valves and strainers from grade, and pipe designer dreamed of criteria
have been satisfied; however, the pump hydraulics were not part of the objectives of
design! The Pump failed to continuously operate until the fatal error(s) was/were
removed.
The optimum pipe flexibility was made by introducing the reducer at grade level
downstream the suction strainer which is optimally supported and accessed from
grade level, the entire inverted U connected to suction nozzle is made of same
suction nozzle size.
The superfluous straight run condition was made excluding any portion of the elbow
or the pump nozzle; per the rules of the book!
Per Piping Leader Convictions; the created suction pipe pocket was safe because it
was below the liquid level in the three phase separator being the suction vessel!
The inverted U or the perfect pocket created plus the perfect straight run upstream
suction, made the pump capable of strong suction of crude in case there is any liquid
in the suction pipe; leading to creating sufficient transient vacuum to release gases
from crude liquid; leading to hammering of the discharge pipe because of intermittent
high frequency of building pressure due to successful suction of flow followed by
losing suction due to vacuum which in turn drops the discharge pressure suddenly.
Add to this the flow control was based on a pressure control valve about 600 meters
away of pump discharge nozzle, causing the pump to operate outside its end of
curve, demanding higher NPSHR which could not be achieved by the Perfect Pocket.
Add to this the pump was over rated for very high viscosity value (about 1200 CP)
while the actual crude viscosity was not reaching 200 CP.
The pump Electric Motor Driver was overrated for the actual site conditions!
The red suction piping was executed to remove the Perfect Pocket and try to
operate the pump after a long series of trials to live with it; which could not
override the rules of Nature or physics.
Service platforms are superfuous as the height of serviced valves is below 3.5
meters.
The suction pipe of individual pumps is not taken below the manifold to avoid
trapping of vapors!
The control system was not corrected!
It was very difficult again to push the button to start the pumps in a simple
way!
The five D straight run is maintained although it is superfuous for a top/top
pump configuration. Enppi had many of this type runing with less the two D
straight runs, and some of them just make a large radius elbow to fit the pump
nozzle; operating trouble free eversince.
- Vertical Can Type Pump Solves the Problem of Crude Separator,
This is a straight forward application of Vertical Can Pump Type for crude
shipping; manifold from two sides of the separator sloping down to pumps. It
meets most of the piping design criteria presented so far.
- Top Nozzle Pump at Extreme High Pressure,
The above two photos for El-Quasr Condensate Pumps where the perfect
pocket has been repeated again. The top of pocket can be vented to
separator liquid with a large pipe. This is a sort of flooded vent working as an
auxiliary or supplementary suction pipe not passing through a strainer or an
isolation valve. Apparently this made the pumps work as pumps.
- Self-Priming Pump Piping
Suction lift pumps must have an elbow at suction nozzle receiving vertical
pipe from the sump. No runs horizontally, no isolation valves, no common
suction headers, no air pockets, etc. the original design as shown in the
coming photos was completely wrong. No reducers should be used;
suction pipe has to be of the same size of the suction nozzle. The last
photo shows one pump after correcting the situation.
- Reciprocating Pumps
The below typical installation is generically applicable. Pulsation damper

needs to be directly fitted to pump head or on the discharge nozzle. Being
that away of the pump per the drawing attenuates its effect.
Operation of the Reciprocating Pump is associated with Flow Pulsations at

pump running speed and its multiple Harmonics. Piping lengths have to be
checked to verify that their lengths from vessels to elbows or elbows to
elbows are not certain multiples of the wave length of the propagating
acoustic waves such that standing waves can take place. Standing waves
are a sort of fluid resonance which yields magnified amplitude waves
causing higher noise and mechanical vibrations. Such Acoustic Waves can
be real cause of pressure fluctuations of large enough amplitude to cause
pump loss of suction Flow. This is because original calculations of NPSHA
and Acceleration Heads become invalid.
From the external side of piping system, dynamic system study yields a
set of natural frequencies with associated modes of vibrations, which have
to be detuned away of the Running Speed Harmonics; to avoid severe

Mechanical Resonance resulting in Piping System possible Fatigue failure.
- Safety Valves
Positive Displacement Pumps require Safety Valves accommodating full

flow set at the Maximum Allowable Working Pressure or less to protect the
Pump from Self Destruction in case of blockage of downstream Facilities
for any Reason.
At least a 15 to 20 % margin between maximum operating discharge
Pressure and Safety valve Setting have to be arranged to prevent Cyclic
Pressure Pulsations from Reaching the minimum Margin of 10% causing
Frequent popping out of the safety Valve preventing continuous perfect
seating of valve trim on its seats causing erosion of the seats leading to
continuous leakage of valuable process medium.
However; Pump Driver has to be rated for Continuous Operation at Safety
Valve setting once it is open for a finite interval of time.
Pilot operated safety valves may have to be applied in case downstream
Blow Down Facilities may experience variation in back pressure leading to
significant accumulation and increase in the actual set point if simple
design valve is applied.
As a rule, Pump or Machinery in General have to be over rated above
downstream system, as it has to overcome any deflection, distortion, or
any kind of partial failure to achieve long life time and maximum
operational availability.
- Check Valves
Reciprocating Pumps are Fitted with a sort of non-return Valve in the

suction and discharge of the Cylinder Head. External on Piping Other
Check Valve has to be installed to cover for partial or complete failure of
Pump Cylinder Valves! A Piston Type non-slam check valve or equal has to
be applied, to prevent fluttering of the valve internals.
- Hydraulic Safety Valve

For Hydraulically Operated Diaphragm Type Reciprocating Pumps or

Metering chemical Injection Pump, there is an internal Hydraulic Safety
Valve to open upon hydraulic oil pressure reaching the maximum
allowable working Pressure of the Pump. It is equal in function to the
external safety valve installed on discharge piping by Purchaser; such that
external safety Valve can be Saved/eliminated.
Hydraulic System Features an internal safety valve, a bypass valve to spill
back oil upon pump diaphragm reaching the end of the pressure stroke,
and setup to depressurize the hydraulic oil at start of pressure stroke to
allow full stroking of the Pump to give full capacity proportional to the
Plunger Stroke. Such features are prone to some malfunction with any
dirt’s in the hydraulic oil, any moisture, any change of oil specifications
from the manufacturer standard recommended oil brands. At start-up
phase and when some pump performance is not correct, start by checking
the set points and proper functioning of these features, or replace them
by new factory set parts!
- Pump Mechanical and Hydraulic Diaphragms
Hydraulic Oil Systems are very sensitive to Dirt’s or any deviation from
installation recommendations of the Original Manufacturer. Diaphragms
when double must be adhering to each other, to the degree that some
manufacturers recommend using a sort of vacuum pump to do that.
Diaphragm Failure Detection Device monitors the pressure rise between
the two Diaphragms by a simple pressure indicator or a pressure
Transmittal (switch if Project specifications allow). We do not wait for
Process Fluid to attack the Hydraulic Reservoir to declare Pump
Diaphragm failure, or wait to lose hydraulic oil leaking into the Process
Medium.
Hydraulic Systems always require a Higher Caliber of Operating and
Maintenance Crew, or special attention with a degree of education of the
pump Theory and Construction.
- Double Diaphragm Air Operated Reciprocating Pump
This pump is used for intermittent filling of clean liquids such as lubricating oils,
chemicals, potable water, or emptying dirty sumps, oil reservoirs, storm water
collection pits, etc. they sometimes are stationary installation or fixed on a mobile
trolley. A discharge pulsation damper is recommended to reduce the shaking forces
to ensure long life time expectancy.
The same rules for a self-priming type pump apply when the pump sucks liquids from
a sump or a pit. Each pump must have its own suction hose or pipe which has to be
reinforced to resist collapse.
- Sludge Type Pumps,
Their purpose is to elevate sludge to be introduced from the top of the downstream
transfer piping to resume their motion by gravity.
Sludge flow cannot be forced by differential pressure because sludge itself shall
accumulate in the inlet transfer pipe.
No check valves, no isolation valves, but rather intermediate transit sump with
another lifting sludge pump is needed every reasonable sloped horizontal run
dictated by the code of practice.
Pumping against upward sloped grade has to obey the same above rules.
- Vertical Inline Pumps,
This type of pumps needs to be treated similar to a control valve being a part of
piping system, floating in most installations with piping, having upstream and
downstream piping supports and sliding on a special fixed Soleplate. The mounting
bolts, if deemed necessary to keep the pump standing alone after disconnecting of
suction and discharge flanges, would be allowing pump horizontal displacement bur
preventing the pump from tilting over causing damage or accidents.
One fixed baseplate to pump sliding on another soleplate fixed to concrete
foundation can be the mounting way for many pumps. For flexible piping design,
pumps may have to be tightened to the concrete foundations.
- Liquid Pipeline System,
Pumping Liquid Fuel Into a Pipeline is different from pump application in a refinery,
gas plant, or a petrochemical plant. To demonstrate the main features of liquid
pipeline service, consider the example of pumping Jet A1 Fuel to an Airport for a
distance of 20 Kilometer across a high elevation terrane reaching 200 meter above
sea level where the initial location of the pumping station and final location of
receiving station are at low elevation; about 5.0 meters above sea level.
- The pump should be capable of covering the frictional losses in the pipeline
length; reaching for example about 10 Bard,
- The pump must be capable to pump liquid uphill requiring 20 Bard,
- The terminal pressure must not exceed 2.0 Barg to be able to bet introduced
to storage tanks without any troubles,
- The liquid fuel pressure midway on top of elevation must not be allowed to get
below 3.0 Barg to prevent liquid vaporization and initiation of severe
hammering condition both ways of the pipeline,
- To reach midway of the pipeline the required pumping head shall be 50% of
the total pipeline friction (0.5*10.0)+ Static Head (20.0)+ Margin (3.0)= 28.0
Bard,
- To complete the second portion of the pipeline the available Head (23 Barg)
shall be reduced by the friction (5.0) and 2.0 Barg to e remaining at terminal
station; resulting in 16.0 Bard remaining and not required; which would cause
damage and can increase when flow is reduced by the amount of friction
spared; i.e. can reach 26.0 Bard,
- A Back Pressure Control Valve has to be installed at terminal location to
maintain the top elevation pressure at 3.0 Barg or above; but not exceeding
5.0 Barg,
- Pipeline system needs to be 300# flange rating to maintain a margin above
the minimum allowable working pressure of 33.0 Barg, unless further surge
scenarios prove higher pressure is possible,
- Possible surge scenarios are not limited to: sudden closure of Terminal
Receiving Station, Sudden Pumping Station Tripping, Vacuum Taking Place
in the top Elevation midpoint.
Chapter Four:
Piping Acoustics and Noise
Chapter Four: Piping Acoustics and Noise

- Introduction,
All type of machinery and static equipment produce piping system noise while they
do their normal functioning, themselves emit noise because of the flow passages and
associated turbulence, vaporization, condensation, momentum changes, creation of
standing waves, resonance of internal components due to fluid flow effects, acoustic
wave transmission from remote equipment through fluid or solid piping elements,
incident Acoustic wave transfer to mechanical vibration (Acoustic Induced
Vibrations), etc.,
API RP 688 Standard; Pulsation and Vibration Control in Positive Displacement
Machinery Systems for Petroleum, Petrochemical, and Natural Gas Industry
Services, provides a very comprehensive survey of the state of the art knowledge
and collected experience related to these topics.
There are proven soft-wares which calculates details of the acoustic waves and
induced mechanical vibrations, then the fatigue stresses as a result of the vibrations
then compare with the endurance limits. As the phenomenon involves combined
static stresses and dynamic stresses, it is solved by the S-N Data Base Charts made
by actual material Fatigue/static load Testing. S being the mean stress and range of
change of stress superimposed on it, N is the number of cycles of the range of stress
is applied/changed in order to cause failure.
- Equivalent Static Load Approach for Dynamic Loads,
ASME section VIII sets rules for investigating the nature of the applied loads on a
vessel (or a Piping System as analogous to Vessels, as a first guess) to determine if
fatigue analyses is due or not.
Changes such as: Pressure, temperature, thermal expansion cycles, day and night
effects, process flow rate changes, mechanical vibration loads, wind loads, etc., are
investigates to estimate the range of change of the associated load/stresses, as a
percent of the normal operating condition mean (or Average) Load. When this ratio
exceeds a certain value then Dynamic Fatigue Analyses has to be executed.
When the load is a transient one, acting in a very limited number of cycles, such as
starting load of an electric motor (normally large motors are started every few
months), or seismic load, or short circuit loads, or similar type of a load, sometimes
seasonal thermal expansion load is treated as one of these transient loads, then the
concept of equivalent static can be applied. The peak load is multiplied by a factor
(normally equal to 2) then is introduced as a static load.
Repeated cyclic loads of a frequency several times per hour, day, weak, month, and
sometimes per year but a sizable value of load range, have to be inspected
according to the criteria set up by the applied Code Charts of S-N curves.
As a rule, it is better to apply the S-N charts criteria in few minutes (up to couple of
hours) than to decide without pre-calculation to go to static load design criteria, or to
equivalent Static Load Criteria.
- Burullus Phase V Repeated Thermo-well Failure,
Process Loading Data for Instrument Design was 110% of Normal Flow; although per
API 617 Standard Compressor Performance Charts are covering up to 130 % of the
rated flow as such higher flows are experienced at start up, over capacity operation,
and transient change of number of operating units. Thermo-well natural frequency
was excited for a long time causing fatigue failure.
The same process loading data were used to purchase a replacement of the
Thermo-wells, resulting in a subsequent short time failure!
- Safania Slugging Problem for Aramco Job,
Three phase flow of crude, water, and associated gas at a Gas to Liquid Ratio known
to promote slugging Condition to be handled by Enppi Piping and Three Phase
Separator. On-Spec as a third party made an Olga Soft-Ware calculation with clear
severe Slugging Conditions,
Piping isometric showed a very pronounced rise of pipe elevation, from 2.0 meter
from grade up to 14.0 meter from grade, followed by a drop of elevation about 7.0
meters to get into the three phase separator vessel after several sharp elbows then
to go through double elbows inside the separator vessel.
Velocity of average mixture of the three phases was selected higher than 6.0 m/sec!
Actual slugging liquid velocities reached 20 m/sec, per On-Spec Calculation Results,
Process did not declare a state of Danger to other disciplines,
Piping used the Equivalent Static Load Approach for the design; passing very low
loads to Civil to design the supporting Structure,
Civil applied a steel structure of elevation higher than 12.0 meters at a lateral width of
3.0 Meters!
The result is obvious; severe vibration, clear failure of pipe supports and anchor point
support, steel structure failure,
Corrective action currently under execution: lowering the level of piping,

strengthening of steel structure, undertaking fatigue analyses, increasing the size of
piping, increasing the strength of the concrete foundation, changing the nozzles of
the three phase separator, searching for the vessel internals,
Chapter Five
Piping Dynamics
Chapter Three: Piping Dynamics
- Piping System Natural Frequency Analyses,
Please refer to API 618, RP 688, 675, 676 descriptions of this

analyses. It is an Eigen value Matrix Iteration Solving discretized
piping system Dynamic Vibration Problem. System Natural
Frequencies with their Eigen Vectors defining the Mode Shapes of
Vibration Motion are called Critical Speeds for a Piping System
because they are excited by the set of Synchronous forces such as
the Reciprocating Pump or Compressor Running speed or its
harmonics as the shaking forces act in these frequencies. The
piping system vibration is associated with appreciable increase of
vibration amplitude as the Excitation frequencies coincide or get
very close to the natural frequency of the piping system.
For a new piping system or absolutely any minor modification of the
piping system supports, the Engineering Contractor shall conduct a
Natural Frequency Analyses to predict all possible values, then start
to detune any of them in the range +/- 20% from all possible
excitation forces from Pumps or Reciprocating Compressors.
- Forced Response of a Piping System Subject to established

system of shaking forces,
A Fatigue Analyses utilizing the estimated fluctuating force

component, and estimated material endurance limit are the only
way to qualify safe operation of such piping system.
Reciprocating Compressors or pumps normally require Piping
System Dynamic Analyses to be executed to qualify the robustness
and indefinite life of the piping system components. Enppi and all
Engineering Companies own Soft Ware packages that are able to
execute such analyses in few minutes for such a large scale piping
system once its features are introduced systematically as MTO of
piping elements associated with their ANSI Specifications (elbow,
long radius, schedule, size, material of construction, welde or

flanged, etc.
- Acoustic Fatigue Resonance Phenomenon,
Intermittent flow made by a reciprocating compressor or pump

emits flow pulses in the discharge and cause pulsating flow in the
suction. An acoustic wave of the frequency of these pulsating flow
travels by the rules of wave propagation, reflection, rarefaction,
strengthening, or weakening each-others, and causing standing
waves in certain circumstances. Resonance or Standing Waves
magnify the amplitude of the pressure wave, increasing its resulting
value of shaking forces. Such strong shaking force can excite one of
the natural frequencies of the piping system or a discrete natural
frequency of an instrument device supported on the piping system.
Fatigue induced by the shaking forces in the weakest point of the
piping system may exceed the Endurance Limit; causing pre-
mature failure of this vibrating component. Such details of
vibrations may only be found out at site after commissioning
requiring a resolution; a de-tuning of natural frequency away of the
excitation frequency; for instance. Natural frequency can be
changed by stiffening of the component or increasing its mass; one
increases and the other decreases the natural frequency, basically.
Preventing the standing waves from the first place is a design rule
by selection of pipe lengths that do not cause reflecting waves to
magnify incoming (incident) waves.
Refer to API RP 688 for very useful details and explanations for the
entire subject.
- Vibration Monitoring System,
There are no permanent vibration Monitoring System deemed

necessary for piping systems. As per the criticality of the piping
vibrations measurements can help in diagnosing the severity or the
cause of vibration. There are limits for each section of piping

depending on the service, and there are extreme limits set by API
618 and RP 688 as a guideline for any piping system. Please
acknowledge that each equipment or machinery dictates a peculiar
behavior on the adjacent piping system. There should not be a
general rule! The extracted chart is from API 618 Standard shall be
used only as a guideline.
- Sources of Vibrations Within or from Outside the Piping,
Unbalance from any rotating parts is the first and most influential
source of vibration, acting at running speed of any machinery
equipment,
Misalignment at synchronous and twice synchronous speed and
mainly acting in the axial direction, is the second of importance,
Blade Passing Frequency at Running RPM multiplied by the number
of blades,
Gear Meshing Frequency, at Running RPM multiplied by the number

of teeth,
Oil whirl and or oil whip within the sleeve bearing, at 40- to 50% of
Running Speed,
Rubs of internal components due to strain or temperature growth,
Looseness of any part/component,
Resonance of some machine part or piping element, or structural
member,
Transmitted vibration from nearby equipment or piping through
foundation, baseplate, piping, steel structure, etc.,
Pump Cavitation,
Process instabilities,
Beat Phenomena,
Acoustic Resonance and Flow Induced Vibrations,
Electric Equipment Instabilities,
Instrument and Control Induced Vibrations,
For Reciprocating Pumps; Shaking Forces, Acoustic Pulsations,
Pressure Pulsations, at Pump RPM and its multiples and
multiplied/divided by the Number of Pump Heads.
For screw type pumps, the screw lumps frequency, which is the
product of running speed by the number of screws in a male or
female screw,
As mentioned earlier; Liquid hammer, liquid sloshing, liquid

turbulence, etc., are all existing within pump internals inside and
outside impellers, causing most of the vibration and noise
associated with any pump normal operation.
Piping system suffers from transmission of noise and vibrations

from one source (normally one equipment) to the other.
Piping suffers from internal flow pulses causing external dynamic
vibrations and external incident acoustic or dynamic vibrations
inducing internal flow disturbances.
- Piping System Noise Sources, and Allowable Limits per

Egyptian Environmental Law,
Flow noise in pipe,

Flow noise in control valves such as discharge pressure control
valve or minimum flow control valve,
Mechanical Noise within machinery Casing; e.g. pump Wearing
Rings partial rub or flow leakage noise,
Gear Meshing Noise,
Blade Passing Frequency Noise,
Air Cooler Fan Noise,
Lube Oil Pump Noise,
Egyptian Law For Environment specifies limits dependent on
Operator Exposure Time. 80 dB(A) for individual Machinery
Equipment which can be applied to piping system, are generally
acceptable at one meter distance from equipment or piping
perimeter and at about 1.2 m height from grade level, based on
eight hour operator exposure/attendance time every day.
Higher limits can be accepted if exposure time is less,
Pulsating noise can be tolerated at higher levels but for short
durations being pulsating in nature,
Noise lagging, noise enclosures, noise barriers can be applied as
applicable to abide with the required noise limit,
Chapter Six
Supports
Chapter Six: Supports

- Various Types of Supports
- Spring Hangers and Spring Supports
Spring elements
To compensate for slight vertical displacements in the piping, spring components are
used as supports. The functioning of these components is based on preset helical coil
springs which exert a variable supporting load over the whole range of movement
corresponding to the given spring characteristics.
Load variations resulting from this are limited through corresponding specifications based
on stress calculations for the piping - this depends on the sensitivity of the system.
The fundamental principles relevant for the function of the spring components are found
in the MSS SP 58 and VGB R 510 L guidelines.
LISEGA spring hangers

Various versions of spring elements, ideally suited to whatever structural requirements exist, are available. The
optimum choice depends on the installation situation.
Spring hangers, type 21 Spring

This type, the one most frequently used, is fitted with an upper connection
for suspension. It is installed wherever the surrounding location offers a
hangers,
suitable connection point and sufficient space. The upper connections can type 22
be universally adapted with standard components to any given situation.
Like type 21,
but for higher
loads
Spring hangers, type 25 Spring

This type is frequently used for its simple installation, just hangers,
seating it on the existing steel. The connection is made by a type 26
rod passing through the unit.
Like type 25,
but for
higher loads
Spring supports, type 29 Spring

If the installation location does not permit suspension, then supports,
this model is a suitable alternative as a "prop" support. type 28
Like type 29,
Where there is considerable horizontal displacement of the but for
support load, and steel slides on steel, lateral forces can higher loads
under certain conditions have an adverse effect on the
operation of the support system.
To take precautions against this, the use of PTFE bearings

is recommended. In this case the counter bearing should
have a stainless steel surface.
Angulating spring supports, Sway

type 20 braces,
Unlike the spring support type 29, horizontal displacement type 27
can be taken up almost free of lateral forces by this design.
This way that constraining frictional forces are completely These
excluded at all levels of movement, vertical and horizontal. particular
components
act both in
tension and
compression
and are
used to
stabilize the
piping and
other plant
components.
An
additional
damping
effect is
obtained at
the same
time. The
connection
parts
correspond
with those of
Product
Group 3.
Spring hanger trapezes, type 79
Load setting and blocking

Spring hangers and supports are preset at the works to the installation load and blocked
in both directions of movement. Blocking is necessary to take up additional loads during
pickling, flushing, or hydrostatic tests. The factory settings are carried out on
electronically controlled test benches:
 with spring hangers, values set at the factory are stamped
onto a riveted name plate.
 the installation position is marked on the travel scale.
 cold and hot settings are marked on the travel scale
with a white and red sticker respectively.
 the blocking device can be blocked in any position.
The blocking pieces can be reinserted in any required position.
Spring hangers and supports should be set in such a way that the spring load and the
piping weight correspond with the cold load position. The corresponding hot load position
results from the theoretically determined pipe movement (travel) and the spring rate. The
load difference between the cold and hot positions acts on the piping as a reaction force
and is limited by the relevant design specifications. Generally, the max. permissible load
deviation amounts to 25% of the operating load.
Design related advantages:
 no welding (types 20, 21, 27)

 fully galvanized surfaces
 specially pre-relaxed springs
 integrated tightening devices
 adjustable blocking system
 variable connection possibilities
 TÜV suitability test
 a wealth of experience from over a million applications
- Clamped Supports,
Clamps resist loads in all directions in static and dynamic

conditions. If they are loosened they would permit movement due
to thermal growth in their axial directions. Their tightening normally
allows for such great thermal expansion loads to move pipe throw
their axial direction.
Pipe Support with Neoprene
- U-Bolts
These are a type of clamps.

- Cryogenic Supports
The Manufacturer normally offers a complete service including

design, manufacture of clamps and steelwork, manufacture of High-
Density Polyurethane Foam (HD PUF), testing and assembly.
Anchors and stops can be supplied with fitted spools, ready for
installation on site.
The Manufacturing facility is equipped with 4 modern high-pressure
foam injection machines, each equipped with an isocyanate tank
and two polyol tanks enabling to switch between densities very
quickly, ensuring maximum production flexibility. Chemical
specialists could develop a range of chemicals that enable to
produce rigid high-density polyurethane in densities ranging from
100 to 600kg/m3 . The chemical is completely CFC and HCFC free
and gives extremely low thermal conductivity combined with good
compressive, flexural and tensile strength properties.
Standard supports are available, but in many cases cryogenic are
designed and manufactured in accordance with customers' precise
requirements. The following are examples from one reputable
manufacturer standard models.

Part CS01
Part CG02 G0

Cryogenic support design

using ANSYS
Manufacture of High-
Density Polyurethane
Foam (HD PUF) on
high-pressure foam
injection machine
HD PUF segments
Part-assembled cryogenic
anchor support with fitted
spool
Completed anchor supports with f

Hot
H


- Hot Pipe Supports,
Hot Shoe
- Slide Supports,
- Support Stiffness,
The Beam carrying the type of Support is responsible for the

support stiffness in three dimensions as well as its moment stiffness
as applicable.
Chapter Seven
Compressors Piping Arrangements
Chapter Seven: Compressors Piping Arrangements
- Introduction
The centrifugal and reciprocating Compressors share basic

requirements in their piping layout for the health of their operation.
Associated gas compressors handling rich gas of high molecular

weight must be scrutinized searching for any conditions promoting
condensation or trapping of condensates. The above below photos are
for a reciprocating compressor where piping downstream inter-stage
coolers are made below coolers and next stage scrubber causing
(actually forcing) condensates to accumulate inducing slug flow into
scrubber from time to time when condensates fill the pocket.
The common practice is to have the piping downstream coolers
continuously sloped down to scrubber to smoothly transfer any
condensates as soon as it forms to the bottom of the suction scrubber
where it should be.
- Avoid making traps upstream main (first Stage) suction scrubber

itself, to avoid slugging flow to the scrubber,
- Suction scrubber has to be as close as possible to the compressor
suction nozzle; to be effective in vacuum avoidance and to reply to
transient compressor huge needs of flow at any upset condition.
Transient process interruption of suction or discharge flow, eminent
surging condition for centrifugal compressor, or vacuum condition
for reciprocating type compressor.
- Any condensation in the piping interconnecting suction scrubber
and compressor suction nozzle has to find its way back to the
suction scrubber by proper sloping.
- Recirculation line must merge with the large suction pipe upstream
suction scrubber. A check valve has to be installed upstream this
merge point to ensure no back flow upstream and that all recycled
flow is introduced into suction scrubber,
- Recirculation line take off has to be from the top of discharge piping
close to discharge cooler to achieve fast response in emergency
cases,
- Recirculation line take off must be followed by a check valve to
ensure that only gases coming through the compressor casing is
that gas being recycled,
- Hot gas bypass valve to avoid surging during fast stop has to be
from the compressor discharge upstream any cooler to compressor
suction upstream scrubber if not mandated to be downstream
scrubber,
- The recycle valve (Anti-Surge Control Valve for a Centrifugal
Compressor must be axially supported to mitigate the sudden
momentum force upon sudden opening of the valve in emergency
condition,
- Compressor manual and shutdown discharge valves must be
installed downstream a check valve to prevent back flow when they
are open and the compressor is still unloaded to the discharge
manifold prevailing pressure,
- All tie-ins to flare or closed drain system must be provided with a
check valve,
- All Nitrogen inlet tie-ins must be fitted with a check valve to
prevent back pressure to flood the Nitrogen system; hazardous gas
and over pressure condition,
- ASORC VRU Compressors
- GASCO C2C3 Man Turbo Refrigeration Compressor
- GASCO ACMTC Expander Piping
- Qasr Compression Station,
Chapter Eight
Grouting of Baseplates, Soleplates and Pipe
Supports
Chapter Eight: Grouting of Baseplates, Soleplates and Pipe Supports

- Introduction
Grouting of equipment or Pipe Supports Baseplates or Soleplates is

an essential step in erection of plant equipment. It has to be done prior to
releasing the operating loads or aligning piping or equipment together.
Firstly in order to bear loads on grout layer to transmit them uniformly
down to the concrete foundation; to get the best bearing reaction from
the supporting system. Secondly, limit the deflections or sagging of the
baseplates and/or soleplates. The right support stiffness and no sagging
are very critical to the correct support functioning.
Grout material interfaces with Steel Base and Concrete top surface.
It has to be compatible with steel temperature changes and its expansion
and contraction over the day period. Roughened concrete surface is
necessary for optimum adhesion and homogeneity of the bond between
concrete and grout material.
The objective is a load carrying system which resists oils,
hydrocarbons, rain, moisture, water condensation, soil temperature
variation over the day and over the seasonal changes, without cracking or
bolt loosening for the intended life time of the facilities.
- Selection of the Type of Grouting Material,
Cement Mortars are the simplest and least budget, to be applied in

low load intensity equipment or piping bases. Additives to achieve smaller
pores and better bond to steel surfaces are always required.
In areas where oils or condensates would wet the foundation, it is
mandatory to paint entire concrete surface with epoxy of sufficient
thickness to stop penetration of any liquids the solid foundation affecting
their properties and corroding the steel rebar’s.
Cementitious type ready-made filled bags to be mixed with fine
sands and water to be used instead of normal cement provides more
bonding strength to steel, more strength of the cured grout, finer grain,
better homogeneity, smaller pores, and higher bearing strength for larger
pipe supports, higher support loads, and better resistance to oil or liquid
spills. Most important characteristic is that it is non-shrinking upon curing
to keep filling voids and adhering to internal steel surfaces.
Epoxy grout is the best from all above respects, and most
expensive; optimum chemical resistance, compressive strength, bearing
strength, adhesion capacity to steel surfaces, resistance to heat and direct
solar radiation, heat/temperature variations, tolerance to impact or
dynamic loads, easier for the applications of any type or configuration;
thin spaces, be injected into thin cracks, etc.,
- Criteria and Considerations in the Grout Application,
Grout Manufacturer Recommendation and Instructions have to be

followed,
Selection of the Grout Material should be based on Equipment
Manufacturer Recommendations; especially Reciprocating Compressors or
large scale Turbo-Machinery Skids,
Fluidity or pour-ability of grout material can be controlled to
infiltrate through thinnest part of the grout passage,
Handling/working time can be controlled, or at least well known for
the operators pouring the grout material,
Maximum thickness to be poured at one time has to be respected,
to control the curing temperature, the gas released, the shrinking degree,
Grouting application must allow for easy air venting and complete
filling of the intended space to be filled,
Levitate the item being grouted then lower it on the grout mat after
partial curing to ensure perfect bearing on the grout,
Unscrew all jack bolts after the proper application of grout,
Grout material has to cover at least 50% of the bottom plate
thickness bearing on the grout,
Tighten the anchor bolts after partial curing of the grout material,
Final torque tightening of anchor bolts shall be after full curing of
the grout layer,
Any hair or major cracks have to be analysed to know the root

cause of their existence, and the right way to cure,
Chapter Nine
Steam Turbine Piping
Chapter Nine: Steam Turbine Piping
- Steam trap
A steam trap is a device used to discharge condensate and non-condensable

gases with a negligible consumption or loss of live steam. Most steam traps
are nothing more than automatic valves. They open, close or modulate
automatically. The three important functions of steam traps are:
- Discharge condensate as soon as it is formed.(Unless it is desirable to
use the sensible heat of the liquid condensate)
- Have a negligible steam consumption.(i.e. being energy efficient)
- Have the capability of discharging air and other non-condensable
gases.
- Basic operation
The simplest form of steam trap is a disc or short solid pipe nipple with a small
hole drilled through it installed at the lowest point of the equipment. Since
steam condensate will collect at the lowest point and live steam is about 1200
times greater in volume than this hot liquid, condensate is effectively removed
and steam is blocked. However, the vast majority of steam traps in current
operation are of the mechanical or thermostatically operated design.
Mechanical and thermostatic steam traps basically open when condensate
and inert gases need to be removed, and close when all the condensate is
removed. The process repeats when new steam is condensed again and
ready to be drained.
Steam traps work best when sized specifically for the application they are
used on. Generally, it is better to oversize, as they will still discharge
condensate when present and close or obstruct for live steam. However an
over-sized steam trap may wear quickly, waste energy (use steam), and if
drastically over-sized can cause process issues.
- Types
Steam traps can be split into four major types:
1. Mechanical traps.
They have a float that rises and falls in relation to condensate level
and this usually has a mechanical linkage attached that opens and
closes the valve. Mechanical traps operate in direct relationship to
condensate levels present in the body of the steam trap. Mechanical
steam traps have a typical service of life of 3 years. Inverted
bucket and float traps are examples of mechanical traps.
2. Temperature traps.
They have a valve that is driven on / off the seat by either expansion /
contraction caused by temperature differ from mechanical traps in that
their design requires them to hold back some condensate waiting for it
to cool sufficiently to allow the valve to open. In most circumstances
this is not desirable as condensate needs to be removed as soon as it

is formed. Thermostatic traps, Bi-Thermostatic traps and bimetallic
traps are examples of temperature operated traps.
3. Thermodynamic (TD) traps.
Thermodynamic traps work on the difference in dynamic response to

velocity change in the flow of compressible and incompressible fluids.
As steam enters, static pressure above the disk forces the disk against
the valve seat. The static pressure over a large area overcomes the
high inlet pressure of the steam. As the steam starts to condense, the
pressure against the disk lessens and the trap cycles. This essentially
makes a TD trap a "time cycle" device: it will open even if there is only
steam present, this can cause premature wear. If non-condensable
gas is trapped on top of the disc, it can cause the trap to be locked
shut.
4. Venturi Nozzle traps.
Venturi Nozzle steam traps work by utilizing the basic physics of two-
phase flow for the effective removal of condensate from steam
systems. Steam and condensate pass through the Venturi nozzle
steam traps by a series of staged steps. "The denser liquid
(condensate) throttles the Venturi nozzle, which keeps the steam from
escaping. Erosive eddy currents are eliminated and any contamination
is carried away with the condensate. Because condensate is created
continuously in a working steam system, the condensate continuously
chokes the nozzle from losing steam as condensate is removed
continuously". Venturi Nozzle traps require expert engineering and
precise sizing in steam systems.
- Requirements for Steam System Piping,
- Hot Insulation Requirements,
All steam piping up to steam traps and condensate drain piping need
insulation for either heat conservation or personnel protection. Even for steam
jacketed piping transferring other heated process fluid, they need to be
insulated to keep steam and process fluid above a certain temperature and for
heat conservation. Jackets do need hot insulation.
Chapter Ten
Piping Elements Maintenance, Reliability and
Availability
Chapter Ten: Piping Elements Maintenance, Reliability and

Availability
10.1 Basics of System Reliability, Probability
If a Pump is coupled to an Electric Motor served by a Lube Oil System,

Mechanical Seal System, with instrumented suction tank or vessel, Bypass
Valve and lots of Shutdown Valves, Manual Valves, Control Devices,
Instruments, etc., then the Pumping Station Will operate trouble free if all
the above mentioned equipment and devices are in healthy operable
conditions.
If the probability of continuous uninterrupted operation of the Electric
Motor alone for a period not less than five years is about 0.999 or 99.9%;
i.e. 0.001 or 0.1% failure probability, and if the Pump has a corresponding
figure of .98 or 98%, then both units will have a probability of running
together of 0.999*0.98 = 0.979 or 97.9%.
Auxiliary System Reliability shall be assumed better than above
equipment because redundancy of small machinery, controls and
instrumentation is usually applied. Two out of three voting system of
transmitters is also applied; to achieve 100% Auxiliary System Reliability.
Process Package is designed with reasonable duplication of devices and
instruments to achieve not less than 0.999 or 99.9% as well, resulting in
a total Pumping System Reliability of 0.978 or 97.8%.
This is a typical example of one system comprising several equipment and
components. The rule is that: when several components of a system need
to operate in the same time to achieve system running condition; then the
overall system reliability (probability of successful operation) equals the
Product of individual system component Reliability.
Redundancy of the Pump-Driver train shall increase overall pumping
system reliability approaching very close to 100%; however at a very high
budget in Millions of Dollars.
As a rule, sparing or having a standby unit would bring the overall system
Reliability to almost 100%!
In the above analyses, the piping system including shutdown valves,

manual valves, strainers, etc., all Probability, Reliability and Availability
ratings for the entire Piping System are considered 100% unless there is a
special concern of medium or pressure.
Maintenance of shutdown valves are assumed done during operation by
opening a bypass line or equal provision.
Now consider two Gas Turbine Driving Centrifugal Pumps as two

independent Pumping Trains to fulfil a flow rate less than rated flow and
can be covered to good per-cent by one unit operation. The Operating
Company shall run two units in parallel and when any one fails will
increase the throughput of the second running alone unit. One or two unit
running is considered successful running condition.
Now the Turbo-Pump Train Reliability is known to be 96.5 % maximum;
based on statistical data.
Zero running conditions means neither one train would be running, i.e.
both have failed. Probability of failure of one unit is 100-96.5= 3.5%.
Probability of both units failure in the same time is the product of
0.035*0.035= 0.001225 then the Probability of successful running of two
units= 1.000-0.001225= 0.998775 or 99.8775 %.
From a reliability point of view (not Operational Availability!) such hot
running conditions of two units has very high reliability!
The Rule is: if any one unit of several units, in the same facility, is
sufficient for a reliable system operation, then the combined failure per
cent is calculated then subtracted from 100% assumed successful
operation to get overall system reliability. This is called parallel system
where the former one can be called system in series!
Consider the two gas turbine driving Centrifugal Pumps where failure of
one unit shall leave the other unit handling only 50% of the Plant
Throughput. Then calculation of the Reliability of the plant shall be as
follows:
- Failure of one unit has a percentage happening of 3.5% associated
with 50% loss of the production,
- Failure of two units has a probability of 0.001225, 0.1225% where

the Plant Production is Zero.
- The annual Production Scheme based on the above is (0.998775-
.035*.5*2) =0.963775 or about 96.38% reliability when using
2*50% units each of 96.5% reliability.
10.2 Reliability of Starting and of Operation
Reliability of Equipment as used is defined to be the per cent reliable

trouble free time related to total time the equipment is required and made
ready for operation. It is a statistical figure collected from similar
equipment historical data. Trouble-free means without any unforeseen
failure of major or minor component to cause equipment shutdown!
Repair Time, Testing Time, Trying a modification, trying after assembly,
etc., are excluded of the conditions the equipment is supposed to be ready
for operation.
For a repaired and well inspected and maintained equipment, the number
of successful starts divided by the total number of start attempts is
defined to be the starting reliability. It is a statistical figure collected over
years for similar machinery.
Unless there is a peculiar phenomenon such as crystallization or

Polymerization of the Process Media requiring steam jacketing, or some
chemical injection, piping system starting reliability from hot or cold state
is considered 100%!
10.3 Operational Availability of a Process Piping Station
Operational Availability differs from Reliability in that it includes figures for

non-availability of equipment for mandatory Inspections, Maintenance,
repair, Replacement of failed components. It is statistical as well for the
similar equipment and type. It is defined to be the Successful operating
time in a long period divided by the sum of the outage time due to non-
reliability, the time to conduct mandatory scheduled or conditioned
inspections and testing, periodic inspections; if applicable, major

equipment overhauls, time for any running test without the load,
compressor washing time off load for example for a gas turbine, in
addition to unaccounted time of unforeseen breakdown, plus the
successful running time; i.e. the absolute total time of the interval. This
excludes the standby periods when the equipment is in healthy conditions
but not called for operation.
Another equivalent definition: The absolute relatively long time interval
covering most types of down times for any reason minus the downtime
periods, divided by the absolute relatively long time interval.
It is obvious that Availability Figures have to be less than Reliability
Figures; for instance for a motor driven Centrifugal Pump the Operational
Availability Figure can reach 96-97 % and to a Turbo-Pump Station it can
reach 93-94%.
Piping system for clean fluids is assumed to be 100% of the time available
for Operation.
10.4 Condition Monitoring and Predictive Maintenance
Equipment Budget Justifies full Compliance with API 610 Standard

Requirements with the Condition Monitoring System; Process, Auxiliary
Systems, Mechanical, and Vibration Systems. This enables continuous
monitoring, comparing with Historical Conditions, Prediction of Trends,
Diagnostics, early detection of malfunctions, corrective operating
conditions to reduce or eliminate risk of breakdown, etc.,
For instance, Oil Sampling and analyses every few months had many units
running for three and more years without need for oil replenish!
Many units having Electric Motors Driving Centrifugal Pumps could run
uninterruptedly for more than three to four years without any shutdown
for any kind of seals replacement or balancing of rotor.
Condition Monitoring allows for predictive Maintenance which achieves
planning for short duration shutdown to correct for the malfunction;
increases reliability, operational availability, minimizes un-necessary down
times, maximizing profitability of the Pumping Station; i.e. Total Life Cycle
Cost minimization versus Commercial Production time.
Equipment monitoring implies automatically piping system monitoring; as
cleanliness, health condition of supporting system, valves and strainers
are in good sustainable condition, etc.,
Erosion and corrosion of piping system wall thickness and internal parts
can be monitored visually during facility maintenance, or externally by
periodic Ultra-Sonic Inspections, for instance.
10.5 Scheduled or Periodic Maintenance
This is rather conservative, spare and time consuming. Irrespective of

machine load, machine condition, some inspections and some parts shall
be replaced at prefixed intervals. Downtime and spare cost are larger than
predictive maintenance policy. Apparently it may increase the reliability
and decrease Operational availability. However extensive disassembly and
reassembly may introduce some uncertainties related to main casing and
parts failure due to minor scratches, errors in the work, wrong assembly,
etc.,
10.6 Un-scheduled or Corrective Maintenance
Operate without condition monitoring or predictive maintenance until

some component has failed, shut down the machine to correct for the
failure then restart!
The failure scale cannot be expected or limited/contained!
The downtime can be extensive!
The cost of replacement or repair can be exaggerated!
For expensive heavy duty large scale equipment no one can dare to go on
with such unpredictable maintenance/or failure scheme.
10.7 Run to Failure Maintenance
This can only be applied in Military Equipment during Combat. It can be

the last resort for a producing Petroleum Field if there is no alternative
way to service the equipment train! It can also be feasible for a Fire
Fighting Pump Package when there is real fire condition!
It is a policy to be decided by the Owner of the Facilities when it is
deemed obligatory.
10.8 Insurance-Type Spares
Shutdown Valve Internals; Stem and disc individual or assembled, a whole

spare shutdown valve or manual valve assembly, are typical Examples for
Insurance Type Spare Parts; high budget, long fabrication and delivery
time, if it breaks, the entire unit shall break! However; it is not subject to
failure in almost all well designed Equipment. In another respect,
changing the inner parts or the entire valve assembly is a complete
revamp or retrofit of the piping system; i.e. it cannot be adequate for
operating conditions or liquid analyses change.
For several identical valves an inner parts spare kit can shorten the time
to do a major overall for any unit!
10.9 Consumable Spares
O-Rings, Gaskets, valve packing, valve seats, strainer or filter elements,

are either usable for one time, consumables, or liable to damage, or have
limited life time, etc., and are purchased under the title Consumables.
Operating Company usually have a policy regarding Maintenance and
Spares Inventory Holding; Budgets, Expected Usage Time, Coverage
Periods, when to order additional Spares, etc., to be applied.
10.10 Standard Tools versus Special Tools
Standard Tools are available in the local Market and in the Manufacturer
Catalogues. They must be availed at site as basic requirements for
undertaking a maintenance job. Special Tools made by the Manufacturer
of the valve; for instance, to enable working on the valve; such as and not
limited to: valve seat Removal Kit, valve packing Disassembly/assembly
tools, Inner parts Removal/assembly Tool, etc.,
Some special Electric, Electronic and Calibration Tools can be standard or
special type based on the specialty of the design or assembly; they need
to be available in the hands of the Maintenance Crew to do their
diagnostics and checking jobs. Paint Thickness Meter, Electric Resistance
Tester at High Voltage, Specialized Analyser Calibration Kit, etc.,
10.11 Maintenance Supporting Equipment
Monorail and Overhead Cranes Hydraulic Jack Carts, Fork Lift, Hydraulic
Cranes for Passengers, Temporary Scaffolding, Hydro-Test Pump Kit,
Pneumatic Hoses, Hydraulic Hoses, Hydrostatic Test Hoses, Vacuum
Pumps, Drying heaters, Industrial Large size Ventilation Blowers suitable
for classified areas, Sunshade tents, etc., available as per Company
Policy!
10.12 Maintenance Contracts
Contracts to Hire external third Party to undertake the responsibility of

servicing and repair of some or all Facility piping system can be made at
several levels and for part of the equipment.
At the end, if the intention is to have Owner Personnel managing the
contracts rather than participating in the site activities, is the extreme
policy at the highest budget and cannot fit the Egyptian Operating
Companies commercial Budget. Let us go through a feasible matrix of
Responsibilities for Maintenance activities at a large scale Gas or Refinery
Plant:
- Operation of Facilities within Equipment Design Limits is the first
and Basic Activity of Maintaining Equipment Performance as new
condition; to be undertaken by Owner Operating Crew,
- Follow up of condition Monitoring Systems, ascertain good

operating conditions, trouble shooting, Diagnostics of pending
troubles or failure; has to be undertaken by Owner Operating Crew,
- Periodic Vibration Survey via installed vibration monitoring system
or hand held acquisition vibration devices, should be handled by
Owner Vibration Specialists,
- Periodic Thermal Image Monitoring, Vessel Thickness Surveys,
Visual inspection of corroded parts, chemical analyses of corrosion
products, using Magna Flux or Radiographic surveys as applicable,
shall be by Owner dedicated Inspection Department,
- Replacement of Instruments, Transmitters, Panel Mounted Devices,
etc., as revealed by Trouble shooting of Owner specialists; shall be
handled by Owner Specialists,
- Simple pumps and Machinery disassembly for replacement of parts
or internal repairs, can be done by Owner Maintenance Specialists,
- All types of work and maintenance for a type of manual or
shutdown valve can be executed by owner Maintenance Crew under
direct Supervision of Original Equipment Manufacturer for the first
time, then can be led by the Senior Engineers of the Owner. A
Critical Large Scale Valve Representative can be invited to
supervise most of the major work if deemed necessary by the
Company Top Management Policy, however; this is not mandatory
for most valve scales, size, and flange ratings,
- Critical Equipment Manufacturers may be engaged in a maintenance
Contract to pay monthly visits to site to inspect the plant facilities,
plan for any maintenance, help in ordering required spares, then
supervise execution of the repair,
- Some maintenance contract get deeper and leave the responsibility
of the main machinery in the hands of the original Equipment
Manufacturers. Such Maintenance Contracts target a certain
Equipment Operational Availability and the rates and budgets of
such contracts are higher than the former ones explained-above,
10.13 Some Typical Maintenance Activities
10.13.1 Alignment,
Putting all piping flanges on the same straight line when reaching their
operating temperature at full load, is the target of making alignment. No
soft foot should be left after alignment, i.e. piping on its supports should
not be distorted by tightening of any anchor or mounting bolts. There are
Alignment Indicators to be mounted on coupling hubs by special rigid
brackets, there are Laser Alignment Kits, there are Optical Alignment
measurement tools to measure the thermal growth due to
equipment/machine/piping heating up from cold condition up to stabilized
warm operating conditions.
10.13.2 NDT of Valve Body or Pipe Spool,
As part of Major Inspection Activities mandatory NDT (Non-Destructive

Testing) have to be executed on Valve Casing, Valve Internal Discs,
Casing, rotation sleeves, and valve packing housing; if separate from
valve casing, which can be done by rented devices or third party qualified
per the ASME/ASTM Standards.
10.13.3 Thermal Image,
Taking a thermal image by infra-red Camera for several locations and

parts of the piping system for reference and diagnostic purpose can help
to visualise the new out-of-norm conditions had they taken place.
10.13.4 Periodic Vibration Surveys and Spectrum

Analyses,
At least every month in normal conditions and more frequently in case of

suspicion of pending malfunction, a spectrum analyses using all existing
probe signals on the train line and additional portable vibration monitoring
device, when it is decided to be deemed useful for reason by the

Maintenance Crew.
10.13.5 Trouble Shooting,
To trouble shoot a problem in any Equipment and its associated piping

system, one needs to know fundamentals of its design, Construction,
Theory of Operation, Historical Operating Conditions, history of Inspection
and Testing, Records of Condition Monitoring, and any information about
vibration and noise trends. Then one can establish the out-of-norm
condition to be analysed.
- First step in Trouble Shooting is to recognize what went wrong.

Sometimes a change in load can show different noise and vibration
behaviour, but this can be quite normal for the type of the
Equipment or Machinery!
- Second Step is to look for direct reasons for the out-of-norm

condition. Survey and exclude any direct reason of the list when
logic and measurements prove it is irrelevant.
- Third is to look for higher order causes of the trouble, which may
need extra inspections, testing, small scale disassembly of parts,
then exclude or confirm the reason.
- Fourth step is to look for the root cause which originated and
initiated the cause of the breakdown.
- Set a plan for corrective action; schedule, when it is too late to

repair, timing of the shutdown for replacement, associated repair
work, qualifying inspections and testing for the soundness of the
corrective action.
- Conclusive Report: Did one solve the root cause of the problem? Is
there a mandatory modification or upgrade of the Equipment to
avoid the occurrence of the same trouble?
Example:
Process Crude Pump loses suction and trips frequently.
Basic Knowledge about the Pump: Three Phase Separator is upstream

pump, crude emulsion foaming is evident when any part of the process
piping is vented to atmosphere. Minimum system Operating Pressure is
the suction pressure ranging from 1.5-to-2.5 Barg.
- First Step: there is a real situation of the Pump losing suction

Pressure.
- Step two: possible Direct Causes:

Poor Pump Performance not per original design requirements, this
has to be crossed out because pump was tested and when the flow
is within its range it generates proper pressure. It sometimes
causes hammer in the discharge piping because of frequent loss
then regain of the flow.
- Wrong NPSHA-NPSHR margin, Static Calculation shows adequacy of
the Margin. When pump gets away of the proper operating
conditions only it loses suction. So if the control system can
maintain pump operation within healthy range it performs well. It
has to be excluded as static condition is satisfied. Dynamic
Behaviour has to be investigated further.
- Varying Crude Properties, this has to be excluded because pump
operates effectively when within operating range and the static
suction head is that matters. Liquid phase inside pump insures
proper operation.
- Something wrong within the Separator, Improvement of the
Separator Performance can help, but pump sometimes operate
efficiently for steady and elongated time then suddenly loses

suction.
- Something Wrong with the Suction Piping, Yes this is true; there is
a perfect Pocket in the Suction line!
- Pump operates below minimum flow or outside its Performance
Chart, Apparently and per site data measurements pump gets into
minimum flow and sometimes outside the performance Charts.
- Step Three: the control system and suction piping seem to be the
root cause of the problem.
The example is a real problem at one of Egyptian Sites. The efficient

handling of such problem needs some supporting Parameters which may
not exist in the Egyptian culture:
Unbiased collection of data,

System cooperation,
Neutral evaluation of all aspects of the problem,
Systematic approach not stressing on solving by a certain course of
action,
“Only one player is to score the goal” will certainly result in no Goals!
“twisting the success to a parameter and ignoring important other
parameters” shall solve this problem but shall fail in many others,
Admitting errors or mistakes in design and start to solve them: is the key
attitude to solve any problem!
Rules for Trouble Shooting and Tables including most of the

troubles associated with possible causes are included in the
Equipment Operation Instruction and Maintenance Manuals.
Chapter Eleven
Overview of API Standard 686 Requirements
Chapter Eleven: Overview of API Standard 686 Requirements
11.1 What is the definition of a Code of Design, a Dedicated

Standard Specification, Recommended Practice, Company
Specifications, Design Guides, Engineering Instructions,
ASTM; the American Standard for Testing of Material, is a Compilation of

World Experience of casting, forging, Powder Metallurgy, Extrusion of
Material, Inspection and Testing, Chemical Analyses, Heat Treatment,
Welding, etc., of millions of Material Grades, Metallic, or non-Metallic. It is
the bible of Material Application.
It is an international Code of Material comprising thousands of Standard
Publications.
Other examples of Codes are not limited to ASME, ANSI, BS, DIN, JIS,
API, AGMA, AFBMA, ASHREA, etc., they are very generic and containing
thousands of more specific Standard Publications.
Countries and International Engineering Companies can have their own

Codes such as BS Standards of UK, Din Standards of Germany, or can
have their own General Standard Specifications for Individual Types of
Equipment, Services, Commodities, etc.,
Recommended Practices offer optimum procedures proven to be more

conservative, less risky, energy saving, easier to apply, etc., and form
parts of the Standard Publications of all above groups of standards.
Engineering Companies have their own Standard Specifications for

minimum requirements of individual Equipment, Packages, Services, etc.,
their internal Design Guides to remind the Engineer handling a certain
Commodity of all details and important Parameters of the equipment
handled, Company Engineering Instructions defining Scope of Parties,
Interface of Speciality Groups, etc., to be part of the Company
Management Systems.
Management Systems are relevant to ISO 9001, 14001, 18001, 50001,

and their Addenda.
11.2 API Standard Specifications
American Petroleum Institute Standards are an International Code

covering Minimum Requirements for Heavy Duty Equipment to be applied
for the Gas Plants, Refineries, and Petro-Chemical Plants. This class of
Industries require reliable trouble free, low risk, fail safe, maintainable
long life time expectancy, high Operational Availability Type of Equipment.
That is Why and How API Standards were introduced.
API Committee Undertaking the Responsibility of making new Standards,
Making Periodic Revisions of Existing Standards, handling Customer
Comments on its Publications, consists of Industry Representatives,
Experts Representatives and Institutes representatives to combine their
experience in the issued standards.
11.3 Certifications, Inspections, Testing, etc., per API Standard,

are Fabricator/Purchaser Affairs,
For some few Commodities, API has set some rules to enable certification
of Fabrication Facilities, and of its Products, and to have a Monogram
Symbol attached to the Product Nameplate to Certify the Product. This is
applied to quite a few Equipment such as Pedestal Cranes, similar to ASME
qualified Vessel Fabrication Shops and ASME Nameplate, and ASME U- or
R- Stamps.
This is not the case for most of other Products. API 610 Standard
Requirements for Heavy Duty Centrifugal Pumps sets guidelines for
Design, Inspection, Testing, Material Selection, etc., however API
Committee does not have an inspector to qualify the factory, attend the
inspections or testing, or evaluate the Product Deviations from API strict
Requirements.
This is left to the Fabrication Shop Own Quality Standards and to the
Purchaser or its Representative. Previous Experience List and
Manufacturer Reputation are of prime Role in this Context.
11.4 Heavy Duty Requirements as Stipulated by API Standard

Requirements,
Every Paragraph in the API standard targets stronger, More Rigid, Higher
Strength Margin, Higher Speed or Power Margin to achieve robust
equipment and ancillaries to tolerate excursions in operating conditions
and errors in maintenance and sometimes negligence of the Maintenance
or Operating Crew.
Some API standard Pumps have been running in Egypt for the last 35 to
50 years and still having excellent reliable and operational Availability
running Performance.
11.5 Manufacturer Standard Proven Designs,
API standards do not preclude or forbid Purchaser and Fabricator from

applying relatively less budget manufacturer standard designs having
outstanding deviations relative to API standard requirements. Example is
the proven Refrigeration Compressors made to fit the service with major
deviations to API Standard Specifications. Heavy duty water pumps with
their high efficiency smart designs cannot comply with API 610 Standard
Requirements. Some manufacturer standard Compressor Designs such as
Solar Stacked Rotor Design were not accepted by old revisions of the API
standards; but now they are recognized and approved by new Revisions of
the Code. Their main Deviations to previous API 617 Standard were:
Stacked Rotor in lieu of one piece shaft with thermally shrunk on
Impellers and Balance Drums,
Capsulated Bearing, radially Split in lieu of Axially split for in-place
inspection by removal of the top cover then bearing pads,
One piece Diaphragms in lieu of two half designs which were needed for
one piece rotor assembly,
High speed of Operation as some standard Solar Compressors have very

small impeller diameters allowing for excursions in speed. Clean Steady
Service is a mandatory requirement for such High Speed Operation!
As can be judged, the deviations are actually advantages in easier

maintainability, more robust bearing Capsule, and more rigid Diaphragms.
Solar Compressors can be Revamped and retrofitted by a new inner
Bundle to give new Performance in few hours at site. Other API designs
cannot, and new complete bundle has to be fabricated in at least a year
time to accomplish the revamp required!
11.6 API Standard as a Guideline,
Some Engineering Companies seek low budget fit for the Purpose Heavy
Duty Pump Design but not fully complying with the strict Requirements of
API standard Specifications.
Such conditions puts the API Standard to be used only as a guideline for
reference to know the deviations and evaluate them.
11.7 Reading Through API RP Standard 686.
Chapter Twelve
Local Fabrication
Chapter Twelve: Local Fabrication
12.1 Historical Back Ground-Local Fabrication
Local Fabrication in Egypt of Piping Networks for Refineries, Gas Plants,

and Petro Chemical Plants has been going on over a Century! The
fabrication of some valves and some piping sizes has been going on over
decades. Reverse Engineering Repair of large Valves has been in parallel
to above. Casting of Valve casings, casting of Valve internal parts,
machining of forged stems, auxiliary piping fabrication, have been going
on. Assembly of pipe fittings imported from USA and European
Community as well as other parts of the world is the main bases for pipe
network design, stress analyses, fabrication, inspection and testing.
Building plumbing of any scale and size is made by professional
fabricators who gathered reasonable high standard experience of making
designs, material take-off, fabrication and testing.
Plumbing piping for potable water and sewage services are available in
local fabrication or imported from many foreign countries.
HVAC system Chilling network, refrigerant network, Air Duct Networks,
their control fittings, etc., are all Egyptian designed and made per
international Codes such as NFPA, UL , etc.
Reverse Engineering Fabrication of any Part of any type or size of valves
had been going on and still going on before and along the above-
mentioned Valve Fabrication Factory.
Reverse engineering was applied basically for repair of imported valves
when one of its components is worn out or broken. Reverse Engineering is
more difficult than making a new Pipe Fitting or Valve Product. It is similar
to Car/Vehicle Repair after a major accident; which is going on
everywhere in Egypt; as a very challenging and based on real industry
criteria without being supported by Factory Machines or equipment; in
simple words; it is more difficult than assembling a new car major parts as
is going on in the Egyptian Automobile Industry.
Valve Factory and Pipe Factory in Egypt for fabrication of Coded Valves
and Seamless Piping per ANSI standard are in business for over few
decades.
12.2 Rules for Reverse Engineering
Maintenance work for all types of valves or equipment mainly depends on

reverse engineering techniques as long as original spare part is not
available, very expensive, or the failed part is a major part of the
equipment. Most drives are economical to save the cost of major
maintenance.
Personnel involved in reverse engineering work have to be very
experienced and knowledgeable about the equipment they repair, its
strength, its operability needs, its functionality, its criticality, etc.,
They need to develop exact dimensions and fabrication tolerances of the
broken part to be manufactured,
They need to know the suitable material to use,
They have to upgrade the component to overcome the root cause of early
failure, if it happens,
Specialized machining shops have to be involved to fabricate a product
equal to the as-new original product,
A fabrication associated with non-destructive testing (NDT) procedure has
to be implicitly improvised and applied,
It is a real industry operation by external of shops personnel taking full
responsibility of the Quality of the Product.
12.3 Fabrication of a broken Stem
Exact stem dimensions at bearing location, valve internal disc; for

instance mounting end, packing mounting sleeve, axial distances,
tolerances of fittings, thread details, metallurgy specifications, key way
exact location and details, etc., have to be established from the broken
part, the eroded surface, the damaged ends, from the mating bearings,
from the mating new discs, from the remaining parts and components of
the valve or equipment.
It is similar to repairing an ancient monument based on good technical
guessing!
For a knowledgeable maintenance designer or leader, it is better to set his
target to make a stem that can achieve the valve job, rather than creating
an identical to original stem! Simply the latter objective is almost
impossible as the details cannot be compiled!
Fabrication drawings with detailed dimensions and tolerances can then be
made!
However; in Egypt it is better to provide the old piece with a responsible
person to supervise and lead the fabrication job. For instance; having a
new sleeve in hand is the only way to machine the stem to fit to this
sleeve!
Anyway, fabrication of the stem is yet a more straightforward than the
other pieces of the valve!
12.4 Casting the Valve Casing
From a worn original casing you have to make a casting pattern

considering:
Extra material for further machining at important interface surfaces,
Extra material for further boring for inlet flanges, stem penetration
locations, etc.,
Decide the direction and location of pouring of molten metal,
Decide the location of vent,
Decide the best material to use for the pattern,
Decide which alloy to apply for the casing,
Best way of finishing the casted casing, NDT methods, then hydro-testing
of the product.
Machining of the casing surfaces has to be planned accurately using the
mating pieces and defining the main dimensions and tolerances.
For reverse engineered casing it is multi-dimensional product needed to

interface with several other parts, using most of the time single axis lathe
equipment for machining.
It is not a straight forward fabrication work!
A new casing with given pattern, given machining program on a multi-
axes machining lathe, it is considered simpler job; however, it is the most
complex part of Pump Fabrication.
12.5 Casting of the Disc
It seems simpler than the procedure for the casing; however, it is the
moving part, requiring more exact dimensions, thinner sections, better
cast-able alloys, better surface finish, special NDT,
12.6 Bolts, Studs, Nuts, Pipe Fittings, gaskets, etc.,
They are available in the required material in the local market.
12.7 Challenges Against Local Fabrication Of Valves
- Political: the decision makers are not interested in developing the

local Industry, leaders are seeking showy objectives rather than
sincere positive milestone to the economy.
- Businessmen are looking for fast turnover of their investment with
sizable profit margin,
- Market Need: which valve size, Disc pattern, casing pattern,
pressure rating, material of construction, etc., would be
commercially profitable?
- Developing your own Designs or fabrication under licence: both
ways can be feasible by the right choice of the product range,
- Availability of Foundries: there are Egyptian Foundries but
specialized in mass production of simple castings, introducing a new
line of casting of alloys and at a certain level of quality takes time
at an initial high investment!
- Making your own Foundry: it has to be under license of an

international name, needs area, facilities, organization, training, as
well anticipated scale of selling of products; it is a sizable
investment!
- The imported product can be in most of the time of better quality,
material, fit for the purpose, and at less price!
- Consumer prefers the imported products!
12.10 Last Word
Fabrication of Piping networks is the most straightforward and simplest of

all Activities; imported piping material, pipe fittings, valves of any type,
using Isometric Generation Software’s, Stress Analyses Calculation
Software’s, Eigen Value Estimation and Fatigue Calculation Software’s! Its
feasibility is far beyond making valves, Pumps, Compressors, Gas
Turbines, Steam Turbines, Cranes, vehicles, trucks, trailers, electric
motors, etc.,
It saves a lot of budget as compared to importing fully assembled
machinery or equipment.
Intelligent De-Packaging makes a lot of difference in EPC Projects.

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Chapter One: Introduction:

Chapter One; Introduction:

- What is the purpose of This Material,

- Types of Piping Services,

better to be intercepted by a Slug Catcher, or Slug Attenuator; as

Metallic piping versus non-metallic Piping; they are different in most

- Theoretical Background, Energy Equation or Thermodynamic

First Law of Thermodynamics states simply for an open system like

A Third Equation of State for Liquids can be:

β= - (∆p/∆ⱱ)* ⱱ = Bulks Modulus of Elasticity of the Liquid.

∆p stands for the compression Stress acting on a volume Element,

This is very useful relationship for calculating the Speed of Sound in

For gases using the same above relationship in isentropic process

where: z is the compressibility factor, k being the specific heat

The Energy Equation in one degree of freedom or one dimension is

irreversible Pumping/Gas Compression process as the outcome of the

Effect of Liquid Velocity and Viscosity are integrated in one

depends on the internal pipe material surface roughness which depends

Further; to visualize the Water Momentum at such operating

- Various Phenomena experienced while moving through pipe

- Pressure or Head Losses,

- Flow Separation on Short Radius Elbows,

Abrupt changes of directions, several pipe fittings with sharp

- Sedimentation of fine dust or Sludge in pipe traps,

- Velocity Increase through nozzles,

This requires a relative area ratio reduction to force a change of

- Slight Pressure Rise and flow separation, turbulence through relatively

Divergent Diffusers effects in Gas Dynamics can be close to the

- Polymerization due to cooling,

Like what happened in the Egyptian Styrene Factory Polymer

- Crystallization due to cooling of high concentration Liquid Solutions,

Caustic Soda Solution Crystalizes below 28oC and normally is kept

- Vaporization due to static pressure decrease against dynamic pressure or

This is a common everyday phenomenon; liquid changes into vapor

In many other cases the liquid velocity increases in a certain

- Two phase flow generation,

- Slug Flow Generation,

Slug flow is an intermittent passing of a liquid lump filling most of

In a theoretically liquid flow in a long pipe or a pipeline, sudden

Very low speed of transportation of liquids or gases can cause

Transform of some of the liquid phase or components to its solid

Chemical Reaction shall not intended to take place in a pipe system.

Proppants, dust, sand, metal powder or similar erosive material

Hot piping with jackets, electric/steam tracing, with insulation tend

Thermal growth of the liquid medium inside the piping system

- Dynamic Loads due to Momentum Change in Direction,

Steady flow shall impact a steady change of momentum force in

- Dynamic Loads due to Pipe system Resonance, or Vibration,

Piping System has its natural frequencies based on its supporting

- Acoustic Resonance due to Standing Waves,

Reciprocating Compressors, Reciprocating Pumps, Positive

pulses in the suction and discharge sides at running speeds and

- Pipe Spool Sag When Filled with Liquid,

Static design soft-wares do check the acceptance of the static

- Pipe Support Strain or Failure due to Excessive Loads,

Static and dynamic piping system design should recognize the

- Advancements in Piping Material and Design in the Last

- GRP Material for Corrosive Services

Glass Reinforced Polymer (plastic) was developed for high pressure up to 20

- HDPE application for sewage, water treatment, and general utility

- Polypropylene Flexible Piping Application to Most Building Potable

- PVC piping application to municipal drain systems,