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Testing soccer players

M Svensson & B Drust
a
Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University,
Liverpool, UK
b
Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, The
Henry Cotton Campus, 15 – 21 Webster Street, Liverpool, L3 2CT, UK E-mail:
Published online: 18 Feb 2007.

To cite this article: M Svensson & B Drust (2005) Testing soccer players, Journal of Sports Sciences, 23:6, 601-618, DOI:
10.1080/02640410400021294

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 Journal of Sports Sciences, June 2005; 23(6): 601 – 618

Testing soccer players

M. SVENSSON & B. DRUST

Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK

(Accepted 24 July 2004)

Abstract
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To cope with the physiological demands of soccer, players must be competent across several fitness components. The use of
fitness tests in the laboratory and field assist in examining soccer players’ capabilities for performance both at the amateur
and elite levels. Laboratory tests provide a useful indication of players’ general fitness. Accurate test results can be obtained
with the use of a thorough methodology and reliable equipment. Laboratory tests are used sparingly during the season
because of the time-consuming nature of the tests. Instead, tests are generally carried out at the start and end of the pre-
season period to evaluate the effectiveness of specific training interventions. Field tests provide results that are specific to the
sport and are therefore more valid than laboratory tests. The reduced cost, use of minimal equipment and the ease with
which tests can be conducted make them more convenient for extensive use throughout the season. Although data from
laboratory and field tests provide a good indication of general and soccer-specific fitness, individual test results cannot be
used to predict performance in match-play conclusively because of the complex nature of performance in competition.
Fitness tests in conjunction with physiological data should be used for monitoring changes in players’ fitness and for guiding
their training prescription.

Keywords: Field tests, fitness profile, intermittent exercise, laboratory tests

as to how the information derived can be used to

Introduction
Soccer incorporates periods of high-intensity exer-
cise interspersed with periods of lower-intensity
exercise. The physiological demands of soccer
require players to be competent in several aspects
of fitness, which include aerobic and anaerobic
power, muscle strength, flexibility and agility (Ek-
blom, 1986; Reilly & Doran, 2003; Reilly & Thomas,
1976). These fitness components often vary with the
individual player, the positional role in the team and
the team’s style of play (Bangsbo, 1994; Ekblom,
1986; Reilly, 2003). It is important that the player
and coach obtain objective information about the
players’ physical performances to clarify the objec-
tives of training, plan short- and long-term training
programmes, provide objective feedback and moti-
vate the player to train harder (Bangsbo, 1994). Such
information can be obtained by using tests that
evaluate physical performance capacity. The aim of
this review is to present a rationale for testing soccer
players. The review includes a description and
evaluation of several laboratory and field tests used
by practitioners and sports scientists, with guidelines
optimize the performance of players.
Purpose of physiological testing
Performance in most sports is the result of a blend of
several factors, including genetic endowment, train-
ing and health status of the individual athlete
(MacDougall & Wenger, 1991; Viru & Viru, 2001).
The sports scientist can, through physiological
testing of the participants, analyse these factors and
use the information to provide individual profiles of
their respective strengths and weaknesses. These
data can form the basis for the development of
optimal training strategies. Further tests can then be
used to evaluate the impact of these interventions on
the physical fitness profile of individual players,
thereby evaluating the effectiveness of the pro-
gramme.
Determine individual strengths and weaknesses
If individuals have weaknesses in any particular
fitness component relative to their sport, they can

Correspondence: B. Drust, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, The Henry Cotton Campus, 15 – 21 Webster
Street, Liverpool L3 2CT, UK. E-mail: b.drust@livjm.ac.uk
ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online ª 2005 Taylor & Francis Group Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/02640410400021294
 602 M. Svensson & B. Drust
be detected during the completion of fitness tests
and subsequently remedied by employing appro-
priate training programmes. In soccer, specific
training regimens in particular training periods
(e.g. pre-season) can then be designed to correct
for each individual player’s weaknesses. Training
prescription should also be based on the specific
requirements of the playing position. Position-
specific training programmes result in improve-
ments in the most relevant fitness measures for each
playing position, thereby ensuring players are better
able to fulfil their tactical responsibilities during the
game. These improvements may not, however,
overcome individual deficiencies in genetic potential
for the physiological characteristics required for the
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position. This makes physical performance an
important consideration in player selection at the
top level.
Study the effectiveness of a training programme
Objective data are required on changes in perfor-
mance over time in order to study the effectiveness of
a training programme and the readiness of the
individual to return to normal training and match-
play following rehabilitation (Balsom, 1994). Results
from a fitness test provide valuable feedback to the
coach both on the usefulness of the intervention
programme and on the responses of each individual
athlete (MacDougall & Wenger, 1991). The coach
must therefore ensure that any changes in perfor-
mance on a fitness test following training are ‘‘real’’,
that is to say a reflection of altered physical capability
rather than the result of variation between or within
subjects (Atkinson & Nevill, 1998). It is also
important that performance on the test mimics the
physical performance in the real event (Hopkins,
Hawley, & Burke, 1999). These issues are addressed
by determining the reliability and the validity of the
test concerned (Boddington, Lambert, St Clair
Gibson, & Noakes, 2001; Hopkins, 2000). The
reliability of the test procedures can be determined
by controlled repeated performances that are then
analysed using carefully selected statistical methods.
Statistical methods should provide a meaningful
quantification of both systematic and random error
and relate these values to the requirements of the test
for effective practical use (Atkinson & Nevill, 2001).
This may involve the use of several reliability
statistics (see Atkinson & Nevill, 1998). Tests must
also be able to measure the minimum percentage
increase that is needed for an enhancement of
performance. Such differences may be very small
for elite athletes (coefficients of variation of as low as
0.3 – 0.4 %; Hopkins et al., 1999), thereby necessi-
tating test methodologies that are very sensitive to
change.
The validity of a test has been commonly
determined by assessing the relationship using
correlation analysis between performances on the
test and physical performance in the actual event. If
the correlation is high, the usual perception is that
the test is valid. Hopkins et al. (1999) provided a
useful critique of such analytical procedures for the
determination of the validity of tests. Such criticisms
require practitioners to consider carefully the issue of
validity in the planning of any programme of testing
(George, Batterham, & Sullivan, 2000) and subse-
quently to use appropriate analytical techniques to
determine the usefulness of the data (see Hopkins et
al., 1999).
Post-programme assessment should be specific to
the aims of the intervention. For example, if a
specific sprint-training programme is performed,
the assessment should be anaerobic in nature. The
specificity of the test should also include an
assessment of the relevant energy system(s) that
predominate in the support of the specific activity.
This may be difficult to identify when the
contributions to energy provision include both
anaerobic (e.g. high-energy phosphates and/or
glycolytic) and aerobic pathways as observed in
intermittent exercise patterns. This task may
necessitate the use of tests that attempt to replicate
the intensity and exercise pattern of soccer match-
play. Training programmes should be between 8
and 12 weeks in duration to allow structural and
functional physiological adaptations to the training
stimulus to occur (Das & Banerjee, 1992; Islegen
& Akgun, 1988; Viru, 1995), as shorter pro-
grammes (6 – 8 weeks) do not always produce
significant physiological improvements (Maughan,
Gleeson, & Greenhaff, 1997). It is also recom-
mended to wait until the residual fatigue associated
with the training programme has subsided before
post-test evaluations. Verkhoshanski (1985) and
Jeukendrup, Hesselink, Snyder, Kuipers and Keizer
(1992) have clearly demonstrated enhanced perfor-
mance following periods of reduced training in
systematically designed training programmes com-
pared with programmes that do not facilitate so-
called regeneration. These super-compensations
that accompany the recovery of the body’s adapt-
ability are crucial to prevent erroneous conclusions
regarding the effectiveness of the intervention being
conducted (Hoffman, 2002). It is therefore im-
portant that the coach employs taper strategies in
training before evaluation (1 – 2 weeks) to ensure
that the athletes are not in a state of chronic
fatigue when being assessed (Viru & Viru, 2001).
Such tapers should be carefully structured to
ensure that the training stimulus is sufficient to
maintain fitness while still allowing the required
recovery.

Physiological tests for soccer players
Several tests have been designed either to be part of
an overall physiological assessment or to measure
specific components of soccer-specific fitness. The
following subsections provide examples of some of
the common tests used in the laboratory and the field
for evaluating different fitness components of soccer
players. The relevance and usefulness to soccer of
each test are described and a brief evaluation of each
test is also outlined.
Laboratory tests
Test for determination of maximal aerobic power
Maximal aerobic power (V_ O2max) is the highest
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amount of oxygen that the body can utilize during
exhaustive exercise while breathing air at sea level
(Åstrand & Rodahl, 1986). Maximal oxygen uptake
is one of the most commonly used indicators of
aerobic metabolism and power, as it provides an
indication of the functional limit of the oxygen
transport system in individuals (Howley, Bassett, &
Welch, 1995; Sutton, 1992). During soccer match-
play, the majority of energy provision is derived from
the aerobic energy system (Bangsbo, 1994). The
determination of a soccer player’s maximal aerobic
power is therefore important, as the oxygen transport
system underpins the ability to play for 90 min
(Bangsbo, 1993a) and to recover between short
bouts of high-intensity exercise (Balsom, Ekblom, &
Sjödin, 1994a; Balsom, Gaitanos, Ekblom, & Sjödin,
1994b; Tomlin & Wenger, 2001). When maximal
aerobic power is evaluated in athletes, it is important
that the test resembles the activity pattern of the
specific sport (Strømme, Ingjer, & Meen, 1977).
Therefore, V_ O2max tests for soccer players should be
performed on a treadmill as opposed to a cycle
ergometer to enhance the specificity of the active
musculature to that used in activity patterns in
soccer. Such procedures will ensure valid assess-
ments of V_ O2max (Hermansen & Saltin, 1969).
Standardized laboratory protocols to establish
V_ O2max include continuous and discontinuous ex-
ercise modes, both of which are used extensively in
the assessment of V_ O2max (Duncan, Howley, &
Johnson, 1997). The primary criterion for confirm-
ing the attainment of O2max is the achievement of a
plateau in V_ O2 (Shephard, 1984). In the absence of
a plateau in V_ O2, there are several secondary criteria
used to quantify a maximal effort, including: a rise in
the respiratory exchange ratio (RER) above 1.15; a
blood lactate concentration above 8 mmol × l71,
which reflects onset of anaerobic metabolism; and
the elevation of heart rate to age-predicted maximum
(Åstrand & Rodahl, 1986). Howley et al. (1995)
raised doubts about the use of all of these criteria for
Testing soccer players 603
the attainment of V_ O2max during continuous ex-
ercise tests on the basis of the measurement error for
V_ O2, the achievement of higher values for V_ O2 after
the plateau criteria have been met and the application
of plateau standards to all populations. The evalua-
tion of heart rate to age-predicted maximum is also a
poor indicator of any maximal effort to establish
V_ O2max. As a result of these difficulties, careful
consideration should be given to the terminology and
methodologies used to determine an individual’s
V_ O2max. These considerations would include an
orientation session to ensure reliable results, suitable
warm-up procedures and relevant protocols (with
associated gas collection procedures), and appro-
priate criteria for the verification of the achievement
of V_ O2max (Howley et al., 1995).
Interpretation of V_ O2max data is partly dependent
on the way the values are expressed. Such issues are
important if comparisons are to be made between
individuals between or within squads. In sports
where the body mass is not supported, V_ O2max is
expressed in relation to an individual’s body weight
(Katch, 1972; Nevill et al., 2003). The negative
correlation between V_ O2max and body mass will
affect the test result and bias the data to favour
lighter individuals (Sjödin & Svedenhag, 1992).
Dimensional scaling has been used to avoid any
such problems in comparing data (Åstrand &
Rodahl, 1986; Nevill, Ramsbottom, & Williams,
1992). During running, any comparisons of V_ O2max
should be expressed relative to lean body mass raised
to the power of 0.67 (von Döbeln, 1956) or 0.75
(Bergh, Sjödin, Forsberg, & Svedenhag, 1991;
Sjödin & Svedenhag, 1992). Thus when dimensional
scaling is used, it would appear that V_ O2max can be
compared more accurately between individuals
differing in body mass.
Table I summarizes some of the data reported in
the literature for the V_ O2max of elite soccer players.
These data suggest that V_ O2max may be useful in
differentiating between successful and unsuccessful
teams, as teams who perform better in a specific
league or at a higher standard possess higher V_ O2max
(Apor, 1988; Wislöff, Helgerud, & Hoff, 1998).
Maximal oxygen uptake also varies with playing
position, the quality of training and standard of
competition (Tumilty, 1993) and is sensitive to
soccer-specific endurance training programmes
(Helgerud, Engen, Wislöff, & Hoff, 2001). Maximal
oxygen uptake also seems to be related to the total
amount of work done during match-play (Hoff,
Wislöff, Engen, Kemi, & Helgerud, 2002), with
improvements in V_ O2max corresponding to increases
in the total distance covered during a match
(Helgerud et al., 2001).
Analysis of this information would suggest that
V_ O2max is a useful tool in the assessment of soccer
 604 M. Svensson & B. Drust

Table I. Selected data on the maximal oxygen uptake of soccer Maximal oxygen uptake appears to differentiate
players. players of different abilities and playing positions and
V_ O2max also detect improvements with training. It is not,
Study Players (ml × kg71 × min71) however, viewed as the best indicator of the ability to
perform soccer-specific intermittent exercise as
Apor (1988) Hungarian elite youth 63.2 + 8.1 required in a game. Therefore, V_ O2max may be
(n = 13)
Faina et al. (1988) Italian amateur (n = 6) 64.1 + 7.2
useful for describing players in relation to different
Green (1992) Australian National 57.6 + 3.5 populations and/or for evaluating changes in fitness
League (n = 10) when such alterations are expected to be large (e.g.
Puga et al. (1993) Portuguese First Divi- 59.6 + 7.7 pre-season). Maximal oxygen uptake is not a
sion (n = 19) sensitive enough indicator of fitness for regular use
Raastad, Höst- Norwegian First-Third 62.8 + 4.1
mark, & Strømme Division (n = 13)
within the competitive season when changes in
(1997) performance will be small and may reflect peripheral
Wislöff et al. (1998) Norwegian First Divi- 63.7 + 5.0 rather than central adaptations.
sion (n = 29)
Aziz et al. (2000) Singapore national 58.2 + 3.7
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Lactate threshold test The concept of a ‘‘lactate

team (n = 23)
Al-Hazzaa et al. Saudi national team 56.8 + 4.8
(2001) (n = 23)
Casajũs (2001) Spanish First Division 66.4 + 7.6
(n = 12)
players. However, V_ O2max does not always appear
to be a sensitive measure of performance in
important aspects of soccer match-play (Bangsbo
& Lindqvist, 1992) or in the detection of detraining
(Bangsbo & Mizuno 1988). This deficiency may be
due to discrepancies in the activity patterns, and the
underlying physiology, associated with soccer
match-play and that incorporated in a V_ O2max test.
Limitations to V_ O2max have been the subject of
much debate, although the available evidence
appears to suggest a predominantly central limita-
tion (Hoppeler & Weibel, 2000; Sutton, 1992). The
intermittent exercise pattern, as observed in soccer
match-play, often necessitates performance at ex-
ercise intensities in excess of those achieved during
a V_ O2max test (Bangsbo, 1994). As a result, energy
must be derived at the onset of exercise from
substrates and oxygen supplies within the active
musculature (Bangsbo, Gibala, Krustrup, González-
Alonso, & Saltin, 2002; Edwards et al., 1973). Such
evidence would indicate that the oxidative potential
of muscle is important for the performance of
intense bouts of intermittent exercise. Peripheral
adaptations do not, however, appear to be crucial
for V_ O2max, as Henriksson and Reitman (1977)
demonstrated similar values of aerobic power
despite reductions in succinate dehydrogenase and
cytochrome oxidase following a period of de-
training. These data would suggest that V_ O2max
may not be a sensitive enough indicator of the
ability to perform soccer-specific exercise despite
observations of a positive relationship with standard
of play and distance covered in a match.
threshold’’ can be defined as the V_ O2 above which
blood lactate exceeds resting concentrations during
incremental exercise (Wasserman, Whipp, Koyal, &
Beaver, 1973) and so marks the transition between
moderate and heavy exercise. The determination of
the lactate threshold is important, as this reference
point indicates the onset of lactate accumulation in
the blood. Such a transition may also mark the
change between the predominance of aerobic and
anaerobic metabolism (Davis, 1985; Jones & Doust,
2001). The lactate threshold and the 4 mmol × l71
reference points, also known as the onset of blood
lactate accumulation (OBLA), are determined from
responses during a graded treadmill test. The
4 mmol × l71 OBLA reference point was introduced
as a more objective means of analysing lactate data
(Sjödin & Jacobs, 1981; Sjödin, Jacobs, & Sveden-
hag, 1982), as the lactate threshold inflection point
requires a subjective interpretation of the threshold
unless complicated mathematical formulae are used
(Beaver, Wasserman, & Whipp, 1985; Williams,
1990).
In endurance sports, the lactate threshold is a more
useful indicator of aerobic endurance performance
than V_ O2max (Allen, Seals, Hurley, Ehsani, &
Hagberg, 1985). The lactate threshold appears to
be sensitive to changes in training, with the threshold
occurring at higher running speeds during a graded
exercise test following a training intervention for both
healthy college students (Yoshida, Takeucki, &
Suda, 1983) and track athletes (Jones & Doust,
2001) as well as soccer players (Edwards, Clark, &
MacFayden, 2003a; Helgerud et al., 2001). The
lactate threshold can also be used to provide
information to athletes about the intensity of training.
By monitoring physiological variables such as heart
rate during graded exercise tests, training intensities
can be pre-selected according to the discrete aims of
the training sessions (Grant & McMillan, 2001).
Such procedures may help to ensure the effectiveness
of the isolated stimulus and any intervention.

A number of methodological issues can affect the
validity and reliability of the determination of the
lactate threshold (Davis, 1985; Yeh, Gardner,
Adams, Yanowitz, & Crapo, 1983). Nutritional
status and training/recovery state may affect an
individual’s lactate kinetics and thus the running
speed at which the lactate threshold occurs (Goll-
nick, Bayly, & Hodgson, 1988; Hughson & Green,
1982). It is therefore important to control the pre-
test conditions before any laboratory assessment.
The exercise protocol is also critical in the determi-
nation of the lactate threshold. If the initial exercise
intensity is too high, the immediate increase in blood
lactate will prevent the establishment of a suitable
curve for identifying an inflection point (Ferry,
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Duvallet, & Rieu, 1988). The breakpoint in the
curve may therefore be difficult if not impossible to
establish (Hagberg, 1984). Such methodological
issues may require each athlete to undergo several
tests to ensure an accurate determination of the
lactate threshold. Consequently, the lack of consis-
tency in using a standard treadmill protocol and
difficulties in the identification of a standardized
method for determination of the threshold from the
curve can limit the comparison of data from different
laboratories and between individuals.
During intermittent exercise, the physiological
response is dependent on the type of activity and/or
the exercise protocol that is performed (Ballor &
Volvosek, 1992; Bangsbo, 2000; Christensen, Hed-
man, & Saltin, 1960; Drust, Reilly, & Cable, 2000;
Saltin, Essèn, & Pedersen, 1976). The manipulation
of these variables can induce more physiological
stress than those associated with steady-state ex-
ercise, leading to occasions when blood lactate
concentrations are above the lactate threshold. For
example, a 2:1 exercise – rest ratio at an intensity of
110% V_ O2max will produce higher (10.7 mmol ×
l71) blood lactate concentrations than a 1:2
exercise – rest ratio performed at the same intensity
(2.7 mmol × l71) on a cycle ergometer (Ballor &
Volvosek, 1992). Conversely, other intermittent
exercise patterns can produce physiological stresses
equal to or lower than steady-state exercise (Ås-
trand, Christensen, & Hedman, 1960; Ballor,
Becque, Marks, Nau, & Katch, 1989; Christensen
et al., 1960). The relationship between the lactate
threshold and other physiological variables (e.g.
heart rate) is therefore altered under such condi-
tions compared with those associated with steady-
state exercise (Williams, 1990). This dissociation
between physiological parameters during intermit-
tent exercise when compared with steady-state
exercise will therefore affect the usefulness of the
lactate threshold to predict and monitor optimal
training intensity when the exercise pattern is
intermittent, as in soccer.
Testing soccer players 605
The lactate threshold does not appear to be
strongly related to physical performance during
match-play or performance during an intermittent
field test for soccer (Bangsbo & Lindqvist, 1992).
However, a positive relationship has been observed
between running velocity at the 4 mmol × l71 refer-
ence point, when using a multi-stage protocol in the
field, and the distance covered during two matches in
eight Italian Serie A referees (Castagna, Abt, &
D’Ottavio, 2002). The work rate associated with
soccer match-play and refereeing are subtly different
(Krustrup & Bangsbo, 2001; Mohr, Krustrup, &
Bangsbo, 2003a). This difference may partly explain
the conflicting findings in the relationship between
the lactate threshold and match performance. Evi-
dence for the usefulness of the lactate threshold as a
predictor of intermittent exercise performance dur-
ing a match is therefore not clear. It is probably
advisable to use the lactate threshold as an objective
indicator of a player’s endurance capacity following
training interventions (Grant & McMillan, 2001)
rather than as a predictor of physical performance
during a match.
Careful considerations of methodology and the use
of repeated assessments may help in the application
of the lactate threshold in fitness assessment.
However, its suitability for training intensity pre-
scription may not extend beyond steady-state
exercise as a result of changes in the physiological
response to exercise when the exercise pattern is
intermittent. This includes situations where the
exercise intensity is both above and below the lactate
threshold. Its failure to be sensitive enough to be
related to specific indications of match performance
suggests that the lactate threshold is at best a general
descriptor of fitness rather than a specific indicator of
physiological potential for match performance. Thus,
the lactate threshold may be limited to periods of
assessment when gross changes in aerobic fitness are
expected (e.g. pre-season, following prolonged per-
iods of injury).
Test for determination of muscle strength Muscle
strength is defined as the amount of force or tension
a muscle or muscle group exerts against a resistance
at a specified velocity during a maximal voluntary
contraction (Bell & Wenger, 1992). In the labora-
tory, isokinetic apparatus can be used in the
assessment of the muscle strength of performers
across most sports. Isokinetic dynamometry provides
a controlled environment in which the neuromus-
cular performance of the joint system can be stressed
(Baltzopoulos & Gleeson, 2001; Sapega, Nicholas,
Solokow, & Saraniti, 1982). The muscular force
against the motor-driven lever arm, or the torque, is
measured with the angular velocity controlled when
performing movements in the vertical plane such as
 606 M. Svensson & B. Drust
knee flexion and extension (Gransberg & Knutsson,
1983; Sale, 1991). Force production during ec-
centric and concentric actions can also be assessed
(Seger, Westing, Hansson, Karlsson, & Ekblom,
1988).
One of the main advantages of isokinetic dyna-
mometry is the accuracy in assessment provided by
the constant pre-selected velocity of movement
(Iossifidou & Baltzopoulos, 1998). It is also relatively
sensitive in detecting changes in muscle strength
during a rehabilitation programme, which supports
the use of isokinetic dynamometry in rehabilitation
assessment (Baltzopoulos & Brodie, 1989; Kaufman,
An, Litchy, Morrey, & Chao, 1991; Östenberg,
Roos, Ekdahl, & Roos, 1988). Isokinetic systems
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also permit muscle function tests to be completed
across a variety of different angular velocities and
joint angles. Such procedures are flexible as assess-
ment tools but can make inter-individual
comparisons difficult (Wislöff et al., 1998). Appro-
priate filters are, however, needed for the correction
for gravity and inertial effects to eliminate errors
(Aagaard, Simonsen, Trolle, Bangsbo, & Klausen,
1995; Drouin, Valovich-McLeod, Shultz, Gansne-
der, & Perrin, 2004; Sapega et al., 1982), although
such standardized protocols are now commonplace
in computerized systems such as the BioDex and
Lido devices (Baltzopoulos & Gleeson, 2001).
There are some methodological limitations asso-
ciated with isokinetic assessment. During the
assessment, the relevant muscle group is isolated
(e.g. quadriceps), which restricts any assessment to
the specific joint being examined (Herzog, 1988).
The isolation of muscle groups will reduce the
validity of the measurements to functional perfor-
mance, as the multi-joint movements involved in
most sports will not be re-created (Kannus, 1994).
As a result, isokinetic dynamometry does not fully
reflect performance in specific movement patterns of
the limbs associated with sports such as soccer
(Cometti, Maffiuletti, Pousson, Chatard, & Maffulli,
2001). Assessment involving free weights may be
more accurate in determining the functional strength
in a soccer context (Wislöff et al., 1998), as the
individual has a greater freedom of movement,
though such procedures may not be easy to control.
The use of free weights may be less safe than
isokinetic dynamometry assessment, thereby consti-
tuting an increased risk of injury to the individual.
Despite the application of standardized assessment
protocols, data from one trial may not be represen-
tative of an individual’s maximal isokinetic leg
strength, making the validity of key variables an
important consideration when investigating muscle
performance. If data from a single trial are used,
gross changes in muscle function may be detected in
the general population but may not discriminate
between elite athletes for a training intervention.
Several trials may be needed to familiarize the
participants and to overcome any reliability problems
during isokinetic measurement (Gleeson & Mercer,
1992). Both internal (e.g. positioning of participant,
gravitational forces, calibration of dynanometer) and
external (e.g. time of day, participant’s limb dom-
inance, participant’s motivation) factors may affect
test results, so attention must be made to create
standardized conditions (Kannus, 1994).
The activity pattern during a soccer match
includes rapid turns, accelerations, tackling, side-
stepping and game-specific technical skills (Bangsbo,
1994; Ekblom, 1986; Reilly & Thomas, 1976;
Tumilty, 1993). These activities place great stress
on the lower limbs and so the development of
strength in soccer players is very important (Reilly &
Doran, 2003). Strength training has been reported to
improve kicking performance as a result of a
resistance training programme (De Proft, Cabri,
Dufour, & Clarys, 1988; Dutta & Subramanium,
2002), highlighting the importance of muscle
strength for match-specific actions. Muscle strength
can also differentiate between age categories, levels
of play and playing positions. Öberg, Möller,
Gillqvist and Ekstrand (1986) reported that players
on the Swedish national team and in the Swedish
First Division had a higher torque value at fast- and
slow-speeds for knee flexors and extensors than
players from Fourth Division clubs. Similar findings
were reported by Togari, Ohashi and Ohgushi
(1988) between Japanese elite (national team and J-
league) players and university players. Gissis, Niko-
laidis, Papadopoulos and Papanikolaou (2003)
found that maximal strength about the knee joint
was significantly greater for young Greek elite players
than young Greek amateur players of a similar age.
Rochcongar, Morvan, Dassonville and Belliot (1988)
and Gür, Akova, Pündük and Kücükoğlu (1999)
have reported differences in strength of the quad-
riceps and hamstrings muscles in young and adult
soccer players, with muscle strength increasing with
age. Goalkeepers and defenders were reported to
have a higher knee extension torque than midfielders
and forwards but differences for most players were
attributed to body size (Öberg, Ekstrand, Möller, &
Gillqvist, 1984). These findings suggest that high
absolute muscle strength in the lower limbs is an
important component of fitness for successful soccer
play and muscle strength increases with progressive
standards of play.
Isokinetic dynamometry can be used to assess the
balance of strength between the hamstrings (H) and
quadriceps (Q) muscle groups about the knee joint,
calculated as either the conventional or functional H/
Q ratio (Aagaard et al., 1995; Aagaard, Simonsen,
Magnusson, Larsson, & Dyhre-Poulsen, 1998). The

conventional H/Q ratio is calculated by dividing
maximal knee flexion strength by maximal knee
extension strength. However, this ratio is calculated
at the same angular velocity and contraction mode
(eccentric, concentric or isometric), which does not
provide adequate information on agonist – antagonist
muscle contraction. Therefore, the functional H/Q
ratio or dynamic control ratio (DCR) was introduced
as a descriptor of the agonist – antagonist balance of
strength during knee flexion or extension (Aagaard et
al., 1995). Moreover, the functional H/Q ratio can
provide an assessment of potential injury risk. It is
calculated as maximal eccentric hamstring strength
divided by maximal concentric quadriceps strength
during extension, or vice versa during flexion
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(Aagaard et al., 1998). The ideal functional H/Q
ratio should be 1.0, which indicates that the ham-
strings can resist as much force as the quadriceps can
produce (Graham-Smith & Lees, 2002). The ratio
can vary with joint angle and, moreover, the value
1.0 may be derived from peaks at different angles for
concentric and eccentric actions. The ratio may,
however, have limited practical application in reha-
bilitation settings, as H/Q ratios can be identical for
both injured and healthy individuals (Kannus, 1994).
This may make it difficult to determine optimal H/Q
ratios that can be used with injured individuals
undergoing rehabilitation programmes.
Nevertheless, both the conventional and func-
tional H/Q ratios, but in particular the latter, may be
helpful in identifying the functional muscle balance
and stability at the knee joint in soccer players
(Reilly, 1994; Zakas, Mandroukas, Vamvakoudis,
Christoulas, & Aggelopoulou, 1995). A high muscle
strength relative to the functional H/Q ratio to
stabilize the knee joint is important in the prevention
of injury (Orchard, Marsden, Lord, & Garlick,
1997), with the H/Q ratio ranging between 41 and
81% in soccer players depending on the angular
velocity of movement (Rahnama, Reilly, Lees, &
Graham-Smith, 2003b). An ideal H/Q ratio of 60%
has been suggested (Ekstrand & Gillqvist, 1982).
Also, it would appear that H/Q ratio deficits may be
more accurately determined at lower than faster
speeds (Orchard et al., 1997).
There is evidence to suggest that players have a
lower H/Q ratio towards the end of matches as a
result of the fatigue associated with prolonged
exercise: Rahnama, Reilly and Lees (2003a) reported
a reduced H/Q ratio in amateur soccer players at the
end of a simulated match compared with pre-match
values, which may indicate that the H/Q ratio is
sensitive to fatigue. The H/Q ratio is also sensitive to
detect changes in muscle strength following pre-
season training (Kayatekin, 1995). It seems that the
H/Q ratio can also differentiate between different
levels of play, as Cometti et al. (2001) reported that
Testing soccer players 607
French elite players had a higher H/Q ratio than sub-
elite players at several angular velocities between –
2.09 and 5.23 rad × s71, except at 5.23 rad × s71.
Similar findings have also been reported for English
players (Rahnama et al., 2003b). A likely explanation
for the higher H/Q ratios in elite players compared
with amateur players is an increased training load
and specialized strength training programmes, which
result in better strength balances.
It is clear that the data from the assessment of
muscle strength in soccer players using isokinetic
dynamometers can be employed to assess general
muscle strength, compare positional differences in
strength and evaluate the effect of resistance training.
It is recommended that data for both conventional
and functional H/Q ratios are combined to provide a
thorough evaluation of knee joint stability and
subsequent risk of injury in individuals. Test criteria
may be improved by taking the angle of occurrence
of peak torque into account. Due to the expensive
and time-consuming nature of accommodating a
whole squad for isokinetic assessment, tests should
be performed at strategic intervals pre-, in- and off-
season, especially when monitoring rehabilitation of
muscle strength in injured players. Individuals
should be tested over multiple trials so that a true
indication of the performance capacity of the
individual player may be established.
Evaluation of laboratory tests Laboratory tests are
performed in a controlled environment to reduce the
impact of extraneous variables (MacDougall &
Wenger, 1991). In general, data from a laboratory
test provide accurate information that is very
detailed, although care should be taken with respect
to the reliability of the equipment. It is recom-
mended that several trials of the same test are
performed to increase the reliability of the data.
Physical trainers and sports scientists can therefore
obtain an accurate general physical profile of the
individual soccer player if extensive testing is
conducted. Accurate information on a player’s
aerobic power, lactate threshold and muscle strength
in the lower limbs can help in the setting of
individual training programmes or form part of a
player selection strategy. Access to laboratory facil-
ities may be difficult for some soccer clubs and tests
are also expensive to administer. Testing can also be
time-consuming, as numerous visits to the laboratory
may be required to obtain reliable results. Such tests
are also sensitive enough to allow the detection of
significant changes in the fitness of players. As a
result, such test procedures may be most effective
during specific periods of the season. Pre-season may
be the time when administration of laboratory tests is
most important, as the fitness of players needs to be
established during this period following de-condi-
 608 M. Svensson & B. Drust

Table II. Examples of some selected soccer-specific field tests

Predominantly on
Author Name of test Description Duration of test component

Ekblom (1989) Interval field test Four laps of a soccer pitch 16.5 min Aerobic
performing forward, back-
ward, sideways and slalom
running, including turning
and jumping movements
Balsom (1990) Repeated sprint test 20 repeated 10 6 10 6 Self-paced sprints Anaerobic
10 m sprints with 42 s active
recovery
Malomski (1993) Two-step interval test 15 6 30 m sprints with 5 s Self-paced sprints Anaerobic
recovery performed in two
blocks separated by 30 min
Rico-Sanz, Zehnder, Bu- JRS fatigue test Repeated shuttle running Until volitional exhaustion Aerobic
chli, Dambach, & Boutellier at three different velocities
(1999)
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Nicholas, Nuttall, & Loughborough Running between two lines 90 min Aerobic
Williams (2000) Intermittent Shuttle 20 m apart at various speeds
Test (LIST)
Kemi, Hoff, Engen, Field test (specifically to Laps of a course including Until volitional exhaustion Aerobic
Helgerud, & Wislöff establish maximal oxygen dribbling, backwards run-
(2003) uptake) ning, turning, jumping
Ohasi, Miyagi, Yasumatsu, Field test 1 or 5 min set exercise 90 min Aerobic
& Ishizaki (2003) periods with standing,
walking, jogging or sprinting
in squares (30 6 20 m)
Psotta and Bunc (2003) Repeated sprint test 10 6 20 m sprints with 20 s Self-paced sprints Anaerobic
recovery

tioning in the off-season. In the competitive season,
the administration of such tests may be more difficult
due to their time-consuming nature and the limita-
tions associated with the data provided. Laboratory
tests should, therefore, be used in the assessment of
general fitness rather than soccer-specific fitness.
Examples of specialized tests designed for soccer are
described in the next subsection.
Field tests
Fitness tests that are performed in the field enhance
the specificity of the evaluation. This greater
specificity increases the validity of these tests
(Balsom, 1994; MacDougall & Wenger, 1991). This
subsection provides some examples of field tests used
to evaluate the aerobic and anaerobic fitness of
soccer players. The assessment of muscle strength in
the field is difficult as a result of problems in
obtaining objective data. Some useful information
can, however, be collected using resistance equip-
ment (both free weights and machines) if the
methods are carefully controlled. Despite high
ecological validity, it is important to remember that
no field test will determine performance during
soccer match-play, as it is difficult to isolate the
importance of individual physical parameters when
the overall demands of the sport are so complex.
Examples of the wide range of soccer-specific field
tests are provided in detail in Table II. Many of these
tests, however, have not been used widely in the
literature and have not been comprehensively eval-
uated in terms of their reliability and validity. As a
result, they are not discussed in detail below. The
tests included represent those tests that are the most
commonly represented in the literature base.
Multi-stage fitness test The multi-stage fitness test (20-
m shuttle run) was originally designed by Leger and
Lambert (1982) and modified by Leger, Mercier,
Gadoury and Lambert (1988) to estimate V_ O2max,
and was later validated by Ramsbottom, Brewer and
Williams (1988). The test is based on the completion
of repeated shuttle runs between two lines 20 m
apart. The running speed is incremental and dictated
by audio signals from a tape recorder. The aim of the
test is to complete as many shuttles as possible. The
20-m shuttle run has the advantage of evaluating
more than one individual at any time, can be
performed with relative ease and needs minimal
equipment. Performance on the test only provides an
estimate of V_ O2max, unlike laboratory tests in which
a precise measurement of oxygen consumption is
recorded, as expired air is not usually collected in the
field.
An individual’s V_ O2max is based on the level and
shuttle reached by him or her during the test
and predicted from the regression equation

V_ O2max = (5.857 6 speed on the last stage) - 19.458
(Leger & Lambert, 1982). This equation is based on
the relationship between V_ O2max and the maximal
speed achieved during the last stage. Significant
correlations between V_ O2max established by direct
measurements on the treadmill and performance on
the 20-m shuttle test were reported by Ramsbottom
et al. (1988) (r = 0.92) and Paliczka, Nichols and
Boreham (1987) (r = 0.93). The standard deviation
from the regression line was 3.5 ml × kg71 × min71,
which indicates that predictions of V_ O2max may be
either overestimated or underestimated by up to
3.5 ml × kg71 × min71.
Initial inspection of such evidence would appear to
indicate a strong relationship between a direct and
predicted V_ O2max using the 20-m shuttle test. Such
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approaches to evaluating the validity of tests have,
however, already been criticized from a methodolo-
gical perspective (see Hopkins et al., 1999, for a full
discussion). Such methodological concerns are also
supported by evidence that indicates a lack of
consistency in correlations of test performance with
V_ O2max. Sproule, Kunalan, McNeil and Wright
(1993) observed that the V_ O2max predicted from
performance in the 20-m shuttle test was lower than
that obtained in direct evaluations performed on the
treadmill in 75% of participants. Similar findings
were reported by St Clair-Gibson, Broomhead,
Lambert and Hawley (1998): V_ O2max was under-
predicted in squash players and runners with average
values of 61 ml × kg71 × min71 on the 20-m shuttle
run and 66.5 ml × kg71 × min71 on the treadmill. The
underestimations may be greater for individuals with
higher V_ O2max and be partly dependent on the
specific sport participated in.
Despite the problems associated with predicting
V_ O2max, the 20-m shuttle run has been used
extensively to test players of English football clubs
(Davis, Brewer, & Atkin, 1992; Strudwick, Reilly, &
Doran, 2002) and the Australian Olympic squad
(Tumilty, 2000). The 20-m shuttle run does not
appear to be sensitive to training interventions or to
differentiate between playing standards in soccer.
Odetoyinbo and Ramsbottom (1997) found that
there was no significant improvement in 20-m
shuttle run performance following 8 weeks of high-
intensity training in soccer players. No significant
difference in 20-m shuttle run performance was
found between English academy scholars and recrea-
tional soccer players (Edwards, MacFayden, &
Clark, 2003b). This information suggests that the
20-m shuttle run may not be suitable for the
estimation of changes in V_ O2max in soccer players
or to assess the effects of a training intervention,
especially for high-level performers. This may be the
result of the continuous activity pattern of the 20-m
shuttle run, which does not truly represent the
Testing soccer players 609
intermittent activity profile of soccer or soccer-
specific endurance per se, as discussed previously.
The difficulties in the application of V_ O2max in
soccer have been highlighted in previous subsections.
Regular application of the 20-m shuttle test for
prediction of V_ O2max in the assessment of players
may therefore not be warranted, irrespective of the
methodological limitations discussed above.
The Yo-Yo tests
The concept of shuttle running was used by Bangsbo
(1993b) to devise a more soccer-specific assessment.
The Yo-Yo tests were designed to measure the
ability to perform bouts of repeated intense inter-
mittent exercise (Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test)
and the ability to recover from intense exercise (Yo-
Yo intermittent recovery test) (Bangsbo, 1993b).
The difference between the multi-stage fitness test
and the Yo-Yo tests is the intermittent exercise
pattern used in the Yo-Yo tests. In both of the Yo-
Yo tests, a recovery period is incorporated after each
pair of 20-m shuttle runs. This activity profile clearly
provides a defined intermittent exercise pattern.
Performance in the Yo-Yo tests is similar to that
for the multistage fitness test with the level and
number of shuttles completed being recorded. The
Yo-Yo test can also be performed with limited
equipment and be conducted in most applied
settings, although standardized test conditions (in-
cluding surface) are important for reliability.
The validity and reliability of the Yo-Yo inter-
mittent recovery test were established by Krustrup et
al. (2003) in a study of elite Danish soccer players.
They reported no difference in performance
(1867 + 72 versus 1880 + 89 m) between a first
and second Yo-Yo test conducted within a week of
each other. The authors found significant correla-
tions between performance on the Yo-Yo
intermittent recovery test and the amount of high-
intensity exercise performed during soccer match-
play. There was also a significant improvement (25%)
in test performance just before the season started
compared with before the pre-season phase. It would
appear that the test simulates both aerobic and
anaerobic glycolysis, as the players’ heart rates and
blood lactate concentrations were elevated at the end
of the test. There was a high breakdown of
phosphocreatine at the end of the test (51% lower
compared with rest), which suggests that the phos-
phagen energy system was also taxed during the test.
These energy outlays are similar to those that support
soccer match-play. Taken together, these results
suggest that the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery tess
provides a more valid indication of soccer-specific
aerobic fitness and activity patterns during a match
than direct assessment or field predictions of V_ O2max.
 610 M. Svensson & B. Drust
The Yo-Yo tests have been used extensively in the
assessment of the soccer-specific endurance capacity
of players and referees (Krustrup & Bangsbo, 2001;
Krustrup et al., 2003; Mohr et al., 2003a). The
intermittent endurance test and the intermittent
recovery test have also been used to differentiate
playing positions (Bangsbo & Michalsik, 2002) and
to differentiate between top-class and moderate-
ability soccer players (Mohr et al., 2003a). Full-backs
and midfielders performed significantly better than
defenders and forwards, with top-class players
performing significantly better (2.26 + 0.08 km)
than moderate-ability players (2.04 + 0.06 km).
Krustrup and Bangsbo (2001) also reported that
performance on the intermittent recovery test im-
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proved by 31% in elite soccer referees following a 12-
week intermittent training programme. These results
indicate that the Yo-Yo tests are sensitive to training
interventions and can differentiate between different
standards of play and between playing positions.
Due to the soccer-specific nature and easy admin-
istration of the Yo-Yo test, it would be a useful form
of evaluation throughout the season to monitor
changes in soccer-specific fitness. The major dis-
advantage of the test is that players have to turn
frequently at 1808, which can be demanding to the
joint musculature. An alternative submaximal ver-
sion of the Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test has
recently been described by Mohr, Krustrup and
Bangsbo (2003b), which uses heart rate measure-
ments to predict maximal performance in a 6-min
test. Such test procedures may enhance the effec-
tiveness of the Yo-Yo test within the competitive
season, as energy-demanding maximal efforts are not
required.
Single-sprint tests
Speed is a very important component in soccer, as
the ability to accelerate can decide important out-
comes of the game. Players have to possess the ability
to accelerate to meet the physical, tactical and
technical demands of the game. During a match,
players sprint over distances of 10 – 30 m for average
durations of less than 6 s (Reilly & Thomas, 1976).
The energy required for a single sprint of short
duration ( 5 10 s) is derived via anaerobic pathways
by means of the breakdown of intramuscular
phosphocreatine and glycogenolysis with lactate as
an end-product (Gaitanos, Williams, Boobis, &
Brooks, 1993). It should also be noted that anaerobic
glycolysis is activated before phosphocreatine stores
are depleted (Serresse, Lortie, Bouchard, & Boulay,
1988). The energy provision during a single sprint is
therefore different to that in repeated sprints
performed in an intermittent exercise pattern. This
necessitates both single- and repeated-sprint assess-
ments for players. Typically, 10-, 20- or 30-m sprints
are used in the assessment of a player’s ability to
sprint (Kollath & Quade, 1993; Strudwick et al.,
2002). Test methodologies incorporate both stand-
ing and ‘‘flying’’ starts (Dawson, 2003). More
realistic representations of sprint performance will
be obtained if players perform a sprint from a flying
start (walk, jog or a stride) as the ecological validity
will be enhanced, since very few sprints are
commenced from a stationary start during a match.
Single-sprint tests can differentiate between dif-
ferent standards of play and between different
positional roles within the team (Kollath & Quade,
1993). Such tests can also allow the physical trainer
to set individual programmes for players in order to
improve their ability to accelerate and/or increase
their maximal velocity during sprints. Such pro-
grammes may require guidance with respect to
running technique in addition to development of
relevant energy systems. These observations make
such tests an important element in the evaluation of
soccer players.
Tests for the determination of agility
Agility is the ability to change the direction of the
body rapidly and is a result of a combination of
strength, speed, balance and coordination (Draper &
Lancaster, 1985). The fast pace of elite competitive
soccer requires players to possess good agility. Agility
tests incorporate rapid and frequent changes in
direction. Since agility is a result of a number of
neurophysiological factors, it is difficult to determine
exactly which factors contribute to a changed result
on a test (Buttifant, Graham, & Cross, 2002). Some
agility tests correlate strongly with velocity (Illinois
agility run), whereas others correlate well with
acceleration (505 test) (Draper & Lancaster, 1985).
These different relationships may affect the type of
agility test chosen. The physical trainer or sport
scientist should therefore choose a test that addresses
the physical components of agility they consider most
important for the soccer performance of the indivi-
dual to be tested. The coach or trainer should also
use agility tests in conjunction with single-sprint tests
to obtain a thorough indication of players’ speed
capacity (Little & Williams, 2003). The contribution
of extrinsic environmental influences to test perfor-
mance must also be considered. A good example of
an agility test was described by Balsom (1994) and is
illustrated in Figure 1. The test requires a player to
perform two turns and several changes in direction.
Performance on the test is determined by the time
taken to complete the test course, with faster times
signifying better performances.
Despite the difficulty in assessing the relative
contribution of a number of physiological factors to

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Figure 1. Test course of the agility test. Players start at A, sprint to
the cones at B, turn at B, back through A, through C and turn at
D, then through C and B to finish. Reproduced from Balsom
(1994) with the permission of Blackwell publishers.
test performance, the outcome of an agility test can
discriminate elite soccer players from the general
population better than any other field test for
strength, power or flexibility (Raven, Gettman,
Pollock, Cooper, 1976; Reilly, Williams, Nevill, &
Franks, 2000). These results indicate that agility tests
may be the best indicator of performance for soccer
and provide the clearest differentiation between non-
players, elite and recreational performers. Since there
is no single ‘‘gold standard’’ agility test for use in the
assessment of soccer players, it is difficult to compare
results between tests, as different tests may examine
different factors associated with agility. If a compo-
nent such as acceleration is isolated, several different
agility tests may need to be included if a compre-
hensive evaluation of an individual’s agility is
required.
Agility performance is an important component of
physiological assessment in soccer. The results from
such evaluations should be used in conjunction with
data from single sprints to provide an overall
indication of a player’s ability to sprint and change
direction rapidly. Assessment of agility is easy to
administer and could be performed in conjunction
with sprint tests throughout the season following
periods of specific sprint training. However, it may
be difficult to relate results from a single agility test to
physical performance during a match, since agility is
a result of several neurophysiological factors. This
may necessitate careful consideration of appropriate
procedures for testing in order to provide data for the
relevant component.
Testing soccer players 611
Multiple-sprint tests
During a soccer match, players must be able to
recover rapidly between sprints, as the exercise
pattern in a match involves multiple sprints (Bangs-
bo, 1994; Ekblom, 1986; Reilly & Thomas, 1976;
Tumilty, 1993). For example, failure to recover after
a sprint when attacking may lead to a delay in re-
assuming a tactical defensive position, thereby
leaving the team vulnerable defensively (Bangsbo,
2003). There is an increased physiological demand
during multiple sprints as opposed to single sprints,
as muscle pH, phosphocreatine and subsequently
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) must be resynthesized
between sprints (Balsom, Seger, Sjödin, & Ekblom,
1992b). At the onset of exercise, anaerobic glycolysis
is activated and probably remains active in the
recovery periods, thus also contributing to the
resynthesis of ATP (Balsom, Seger, Sjödin, &
Ekblom, 1992a). If phosphocreatine concentrations
are reduced following a sprint, this reduction will
lead to inadequate resynthesis of ATP and perfor-
mance on subsequent exercise bouts will be impaired
(Cheetham, Boobis, Brooks, & Williams, 1986). The
aerobic energy system also plays a very important
role in the recovery periods between sprints (Daw-
son, Fitzsimmons, & Ward, 1993), as aerobic
glycolysis is used predominantly to resynthesize
phosphocreatine stores and remove blood lactate
within muscle (Balsom et al., 1994a,b) during
recovery from repeated bouts of high-intensity
intermittent exercise.
Based on these principles, various multiple-sprint
tests have been developed (Aziz, Chia, & Teh, 2000;
Boddington et al., 2001; Fitzsimmons, Dawson,
Ward, & Wilkinson, 1993; Mujika, Padilla, Ibañez,
Izquierdo, & Gorostiaga, 2000). One of the most
common tests of repeated sprint performance was
designed by Bangsbo (1994) to assess players’ sprint
endurance and the ability to recover between sprints.
The reliability of the test was established by Wragg,
Maxwell and Doust (2000). Seven male soccer
players performed the multiple-sprint test over six
trials with a coefficient of variation of 1.82% between
trials. Significant differences occurred between trials
1 and 2, indicating the presence of a learning effect.
This would highlight the need for several familiariza-
tion sessions before assessment to ensure accurate
results. The test consists of 7 6 35-m sprints
separated by 25 s recovery. The test results include
best sprint time, mean sprint time and a fatigue
index. The best sprint time is defined as the fastest of
the seven sprints and the mean sprint time is the
average time taken to complete the seven sprints.
Both of these indices should be low: the latter
expresses the player’s ability to perform several
sprints and the former the ability to perform
 612 M. Svensson & B. Drust
‘‘explosive’’ actions within a short time during
match-play. The fatigue index is calculated by
subtracting the fastest time of the first two sprints
from the slowest time for the last two sprints. A high
fatigue index suggests that the player shows incon-
sistency in sprint performance and has a poor ability
to recover between sprints. A high fatigue index may
be due to the inability to replenish phosphocreatine
stores and remove blood lactate between sprints
(Tomlin & Wenger, 2001). A low fatigue index is
therefore advantageous as it indicates the ability to
recover rapidly between high-intensity exercise
bouts.
Evidence that the multiple-sprint test stimulates
the anaerobic pathways was provided by Bangsbo
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(1994). Blood lactate concentrations of 9 –
14 mmol × l71 were reported immediately after the
seventh sprint in elite Danish players, highlighting
the role of glycogenolysis for ATP resynthesis. It
would appear that the multiple-sprint test is suffi-
ciently sensitive to discriminate between different
standards of players and be used as an indicator of
changes in physical performance during match-play
in soccer. Reilly et al. (2000) reported that perfor-
mance on the multiple-sprint test was significantly
better for elite than sub-elite youth soccer players,
with elite players recording lower mean velocities and
higher fatigue indices than the sub-elite players.
Similar findings were reported by Sampaio and
Macas (2003) in elite and amateur Portuguese
players. Rebelo, Krustrup, Soares and Bangsbo
(1998) also observed that performance on the
multiple-sprint test in elite Portuguese youth players
was significantly better in the first than the second
half of a friendly match. If the multiple-sprint test
can discriminate different standards of players and
detect changes in physical performance during
match-play, the test has potential for inclusion in
soccer-specific assessments.
A major disadvantage of multiple-sprint tests is
that individuals may develop ‘‘pacing’’ strategies
throughout the test and therefore not exert maximal
effort in the sprints. As a result, the data obtained
from the test may not reflect a player’s true speed-
endurance capability. Nevertheless, assessment of
repeated sprint ability should be a priority for
coaches, as the test can distinguish between stan-
dards of play and is sensitive to changes in physical
performance during a match. Therefore, the test may
provide important information for the coach in terms
of player selection throughout the season.
High-intensity intermittent sprint protocol
As has been discussed elsewhere in this review, the
ability to recover from and produce high-intensity
exercise over a prolonged period of time is important
for successful physical performance in a soccer
match (Bangsbo, 1994; Ekblom, 1986; Fitzsimmons
et al., 1993). The design of appropriate assessment
protocols to examine this capability in players should
therefore be a priority for coaches and sports
scientists. Recently, research has been performed
on a protocol that examines the ability to recover
from and reproduce bouts of high-intensity exercise
(M. Svensson et al., unpublished data). It is intended
that the high-intensity intermittent sprint protocol
can be used by physical trainers and sport scientists
in the assessment of repeated sprint ability. This
test is distinguished from the multiple-sprint test
(Bangsbo, 1994) and other repeated sprint tests
(Fitzsimmons et al., 1993; Mujika et al., 2000) in that
the time for each sprint is controlled, the distance of
each sprint is varied and total test duration is longer.
These alterations in protocol are important, as sprint
distance (Balsom et al., 1992a) and length of
recovery period between sprints (Balsom et al.,
1992b) are important factors in determining the
physiological responses to intermittent exercise.
Balsom et al. (1992a,b) observed higher lactate
concentrations when the long sprint distance was
combined with the shortest recovery time. The
protocols consisted of 40 6 15-m, 20 6 30-m or
15 6 40-m sprints with a 30-s recovery period
between sprints (Balsom et al., 1992a), or 15 6 40-
m sprints with a 3-, 60- or 120-s recovery period
(Balsom et al., 1992b). Oxygen uptake was also
elevated when recovery periods of 30 s were com-
pared with recovery periods of 60 and 20 s in a 15 6
40-m protocol. Both sprint distances and recovery
periods are highly variable in soccer match-play. The
alterations in the physiological responses to changes
in these parameters may require specific tests to be
developed that alternate the length of sprints and the
recovery periods. Such tests may provide higher
ecological validity and hence give a better indication
of the ability to perform repeated high-intensity
efforts than tests that use set distances and identical
recovery periods.
Research on the high-intensity intermittent sprint
protocol has focused on the physiological and
metabolic responses to performing short (2 6 13-
m) and long (30-m) sprints with different recovery
periods. The shorter distances for the sprints (see
Figure 2) were chosen because the participants were
amateur players. Longer distances may be more
appropriate for more experienced or elite players.
One exercise set consisted of four short and four long
sprints. Running speed was dictated via a series of
pre-recorded audio signals from a tape recorder with
a player required to keep to the pace of the ‘‘beeps’’.
In between the exercise sets, a 90-s rest period was
included. During this time a blood sample was taken
for the evaluation of blood lactate concentration.

Figure 2. Illustration of the test course for the high-intensity sprint protocol (elite course). (A1 – A2 (turn) – A1, short rest, B1 – B2, long rest,
A3 – A2 (turn) – A3, short rest, B2 – B1, long rest).
Performance in the protocol shown in Table III is
indicated by the total distance covered in all the
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completed sprints. The high mean blood lactate for
the three tests (15.0 + 3.9, 14.9 + 3.3 and
15.9 + 3.7 mmol × l71, respectively) corresponded
well with the blood lactate concentrations reported
during repeated intermittent sprints, as described
earlier (Balsom et al., 1992a,b). This indicates that
the anaerobic energy system was highly taxed during
the test. The heart rate responses during the tests in
Table III also demonstrated high levels of stress on
the aerobic energy system (179 + 10 beats × min71 or
93 + 4% of maximal heart rate, 181 + 10 beats × -
min71 or 94 + 3% of maximal heart rate, and
180 + 11 beats × min71 or 94 + 4% of maximal heart
rate, respectively).
Initial results from the high-intensity intermittent
sprint protocol indicate that the test produces
physiological responses that are associated with
high-intensity exercise. The consistency of the
physiological data over the three trials suggests that
the high-intensity intermittent sprint protocol may be
used to track major changes in fitness over time. The
protocol must, however, be validated in terms of the
high-intensity exercise performed during soccer
match-play and other related forms of assessment.
The high-intensity intermittent sprint protocol
tests may prove useful in the determination of the
ability to perform and recover from high-intensity
exercise in soccer players. Results from heart rate
responses and blood lactate measurements in pilot
studies have indicated that the test produces physio-
logical responses associated with high-intensity
intermittent exercise. Thus, it would appear that
both aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis are highly
taxed during the test. Future research should be
tailored around professional soccer players to estab-
lish whether the same physiological responses are
produced as in the pilot studies described.
Evaluation of field tests
Fitness tests performed in the field may provide less
accurate measurements than laboratory tests but they
Testing soccer players 613
Table III. Distance covered, blood lactate and heart rate in the
intermittent sprint test.
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3
Distance 1111 + 426* 1596 + 674 1860 + 677
covered (m)
Blood lactate 15.0 + 3.9 14.9 + 3.3 15.9 + 3.7
(mmol × l71)
Heart rate 179 + 10 181 + 10 180 + 11
(beats × min71)
* Significant difference between test 1 and 3 (P 5 0.05).
have greater specificity (Balsom, 1994; MacDougall
& Wenger, 1991). Sport science support workers can
therefore use field tests to evaluate specific aspects of
soccer performance, which may provide a better
indication of the ability to perform in a soccer match
than laboratory-based evaluations. The tests that
have been described do, however, require minimal
equipment and can be carried out anywhere. It is
recommended that testing should be performed in
standardized conditions to ensure repeatability of the
data. These considerations will include standardiza-
tion of the surface and where possible similar
environmental conditions (e.g. wind speed or tem-
perature). During tests that involve the recording of
the time to complete a set distance, there may be
specific issues relating to equipment (Balsom, 1994).
For example, if stopwatches are used in recording
sprint times, there can be an element of human error
which may affect the accuracy of the data. Such
problems can be avoided by the use of electronic
timing gates. The difficulty with performance tests is
that there are no problems associated with these
when players are performing to their standards.
When players start to underperform, one needs a
physiological interpretation but performance tests
yield no physiological data. Performance assessment
with field tests may be most effective when the tests
are carried out at regular intervals throughout the
season to monitor changes in soccer-specific perfor-
mance.
 614 M. Svensson & B. Drust
Overview
The physiological demands and the dynamic nature
of soccer require players to be adept in various fitness
components. Laboratory tests provide a means for
coaches and sport scientists to establish the general
fitness of players, as tests are not specific to soccer.
Through the use of specialized equipment in the
laboratory, accurate test results can be obtained in
isolated fitness components. The physiological me-
chanisms associated with training improvements can
be interpreted from laboratory tests. It is therefore
recommended that players are tested in the labora-
tory, for example, to determine general fitness or to
evaluate set periods of training. During the season,
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there are probably fewer opportunities to conduct
time-consuming laboratory tests. Results from field
tests provide information on specific performance
changes related to the sport and are less time-
consuming. Field tests are therefore more valid than
laboratory tests, as they are designed specifically for
soccer. The use of field tests restricts the interpreta-
tion of associated physiological mechanisms, since
very limited physiological data can be measured in
the field. Field tests require basic equipment, can be
performed with relative ease and are relatively cost-
effective. Such tests should therefore be conducted
more extensively throughout the season, as testing
can be carried out on the training ground. It is
important to consider that even though data from
laboratory and field tests are useful in providing
information on players’ general physical profile and
soccer-specific fitness, test results can never be used
to predict the overall performance during match-play
because of the complex nature of the demands of the
game.
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