Eur J Appl Physiol (2004) 93: 167–172
DOI 10.1007/s00421-004-1192-4
O R I GI N A L A R T IC L E
Fabio Esposito Æ Franco M. Impellizzeri
Vittoria Margonato Æ Rosalba Vanni Æ Giuliano Pizzini
Arsenio Veicsteinas
Validity of heart rate as an indicator of aerobic demand
during soccer activities in amateur soccer players
Accepted: 23 June 2004 / Published online: 22 July 2004
Ó Springer-Verlag 2004
Abstract In order to validate the use of heart rate (HR)
in describing and monitoring physiological demands
during soccer activities, the HR versus oxygen uptake
(V_ O2) relationship determined on the field during soc-
cer-specific exercises was compared to that found in the
laboratory during treadmill exercise. Seven male ama-
teur soccer players [mean (SE), age 25.3 (1.2) years,
body mass 72.9 (2.1) kg, stature 1.76 (0.03) m] per-
formed three trials on the field (two laps of a purpose-
made circuit including a variety of soccer activities) at
different intensities (moderate, high and very high,
according to their rate of perceived exertion) and an
incremental test on a treadmill in the laboratory. HR
increased linearly with V_ O2 during both field and labo-
ratory tests according to exercise intensity (P<0.01).
The mean correlation coefficients of the HR–V_ O2 rela-
tionships obtained in the laboratory and on the field
were 0.984 (0.012) and 0.991 (0.005) (P<0.001), re-
spectively. The mean value of the HR–V_ O2 regression
equation slope and intercept obtained in laboratory
[0.030 (0.002) and 79.6 (4.6), respectively] were not sig-
nificantly different compared to those found on the field
[0.032 (0.003) and 76.7 (9.7)]. The present study seems to
confirm that HR measured during soccer exercises
effectively reflects the metabolic expenditure of this
activity. Thus, with the aid of laboratory reference tests,
the physiological demands of soccer activities can be
correctly estimated from HR measured on the field in
amateur soccer players.
Keywords Heart rate Æ Oxygen uptake Æ Soccer Æ
Physiological evaluation
F. Esposito (&) Æ F. M. Impellizzeri Æ V. Margonato
R. Vanni Æ G. Pizzini Æ A. Veicsteinas
Insitute of Physical Exercise, Health and Sports,
University of Milan, Via Colombo 71,
20133 Milan, Italy
E-mail: fabio.esposito@unimi.it
Tel.: +39-02-50314649
Fax: +39-02-50314649
Introduction
Soccer is one of the most popular sports in the world
and several studies investigated the physiological de-
mands of soccer activities (Ekblom 1986; MacLaren
et al. 1988; Rohde and Espersen 1988; Van Gool et al.
1988; Tumilty 1993; Bangsbo 1994a, b; Felci et al. 1995;
Reilly 1997). A widespread indirect method to evaluate
the metabolic demands during a soccer game or specific
training is to record heart rate (HR) during soccer
activities, which is aided by the use of comfortable and
accurate HR telemetric systems (Ali and Farrally 1991).
However, a direct measurement of individual oxygen
uptake (V_ O2) in the laboratory should always be per-
formed in order to attempt to retrieve metabolic infor-
mation from HR measured on the field. Indeed, based
on the linearity of the relationship between HR and V_ O2
(Astrand and Rodahl 1977), the individual HR–V_ O2
regression line obtained in the laboratory could then be
used to determine the exercise intensity and the physi-
ological demands for the specific HR measured on the
field. However, this methodology can be applied only
when the relationship determined in the laboratory has
been verified to be similar to that found on the field
during specific tasks at all exercise intensities.
Soccer is a very peculiar team sport, where continu-
ous activities, such as walking and running, are often
interspersed with intermittent tasks, such as sprinting,
jumping, kicking and dribbling. These factors, together
with thermal and emotional stresses typical of compet-
itive soccer games, could introduce possible estimation
error sources and alter the linearity of the HR–V_ O2
relationship on the field, especially at low levels of effort.
Despite this indirect V_ O2 estimation strategy is com-
monly considered acceptable (Ekblom 1986; MacLaren
et al. 1988; Rohde and Espersen 1988; Van Gool et al.
1988; Bangsbo 1994a, Bangsbo b; Reilly 1997), Tumilty
(1993) suggested that HR may not correctly reflect V_ O2
during soccer activities. Moreover, Ogushi et al. (1993)
measured V_ O2 in two college soccer players during a
168
simulated soccer game and found that exercise intensity
expressed as V_ O2 was 25% lower than that estimated
using the HR–V_ O2 relationship determined in the lab-
oratory.
Some studies measured the exercise V_ O2 using por-
table gas analyzer systems in order to better understand
the physiological demands of various soccer-specific
exercises in amateur (Kawakami et al. 1992), profes-
sional (Hoff et al. 2002) and youth (Felci et al. 1995)
soccer players. However, to our knowledge, the regres-
sion line of the HR–V_ O2 relationship obtained on the
field during soccer activities has never been compared to
that obtained in the laboratory.
Thus, the aim of the present study was to compare
the HR–V_ O2 relationship determined on the field during
soccer-specific tasks at different intensities to that found
in the laboratory during a standard treadmill test.
Should the relationship be the same, the use of HR
monitoring on the field would be a valid indicator of the
physiological demands of the soccer-specific exercises in
amateur players.
Methods
Subjects
Seven male amateur soccer players volunteered in this
study. The players trained with the team (sixth division
of the Italian soccer league) twice a week, plus the
weekly soccer game. Their characteristics are shown in
Table 1. They were fully informed of the aims and the
procedures of the study and signed an informed consent
form. The study was approved by the Ethical Committee
of the University of Milan. The experiments complied
with the current laws of the country in which they were
performed.
The subjects were instructed not to eat for at least 3 h
before testing sessions. They were also asked to avoid
beverages containing caffeine for at least 8 h before
testing, and intense exercise in the previous 48 h.
Tests were performed on the field and in the lab-
oratory within 2 weeks. For each subject, field tests
always preceded the laboratory test in order to be able
to reproduce environmental conditions in the labora-
tory similar to those found on the field. During both
field and laboratory tests, expired respiratory gases
were measured using a breath-by-breath automated
portable gas analysis system (K4 b2, Cosmed, Italy).
Flow, volume and gas concentrations were calibrated
before each test using standard procedures. The very
Table 1 Characteristics of the soccer players [mean (SE)]
Age (years) 25.3 (1.2)
Stature (m) 1.76 (0.03)
Body mass (kg) 72.9 (2.1)
Body fat (%) 8.1 (2.2)
Experience (years) 13.7 (2.3)
light (600 g) portable unit used in this investigation,
which also provided HR measurements, has been re-
ported to be reliable and valid for field measurements
of soccer exercises (Kawakami et al. 1992), as well as
those in the laboratory.
Field test
In order to reproduce the typical soccer activities
(intermittent nature and movement patterns), a modified
circuit from Ekblom (1998) was used (Fig. 1). The cir-
cuit was proposed to test soccer players and reproduce
the most important soccer activities, such as jumping,
changes in direction, walking, jogging, running (with
and without ball), forward, backward and lateral
movements, etc. To this original circuit, some other
exercise modalities, such as passing and kicking, were
added to include all the movement patterns and activi-
ties commonly performed during soccer training or
game.
Field tests were performed outdoors, where average
temperature ranged between 28 and 30°C, and relative
humidity between 60 and 70%. After about 10 min of
warm up, consisting of jogging and running, a
stretching routine and a few high-intensity sprints, all
subjects underwent three trials (two times round the
circuit for each trial) at three different intensities:
moderate, high and very high (maximal). To modulate
intensity the subjects were asked to use their perceived
exertion quantified at the end of every intensity trial
using the Borg scale (0–10 point scale). In order to
obtain correct feedback from the players, they were
previously instructed in how to use the scale properly.
Between each trial, athletes rested for 10 min. During
this phase, capillary blood samples (5 ll) were col-
lected from the ear lobe and analysed using a portable
system (Lactate Pro 1710, Arkray, Japan), at minutes
1, 3 and 5.
Average data corresponding to the second lap of each
intensity trial were used to establish the individual
average HR and V_ O2 values on the field.
Laboratory test
The temperature of the laboratory was set at 28°C and
relative humidity at 60–70% in order to reproduce an
ambient condition similar to the outdoor field tests.
After 10 min of warm up, the subjects performed an
incremental exercise on a treadmill (770S, RAM, Padua,
Italy) at a constant slope of 1%. Initial speed was set at
9 km h)1 and was increased by 3 km h)1 after each step.
Each workload lasted 5 min and a resting period of at
least 5 min was allowed between two subsequent steps.
During the recovery phase, capillary blood samples
(5 ll) were collected from the ear lobe at minutes 1, 3
and 5, and analysed using the same portable system as
that used on the field. The maximal oxygen uptake

Fig. 1 Soccer-specific circuit used in the present study (modified
from Ekblom 1988). Arrows indicate the direction of the movement
during the exercise. Open circles The part of the track where ball
was involved (passes, kicks, dribbling, etc.), filled circles reference
cones positioned on the field. Dashed lines The position where the
intensity of the exercise slowed down (jogging or walking, at an
intensity corresponding to the level of the exercise: moderate, high
or very high)
(V_ O2max) criteria were: (1) a plateau in V_ O2 (change
<2.1 ml kg)1 min)1), (2) peak blood lactate concen-
tration above 8 mmol l)1, or (3) a respiratory exchange
ratio (R) above 1.15 (Duncan et al. 1997). Average data
from the last minute of each step were used to determine
the individual HR and V_ O2 values.
Statistical analysis
Data are presented as means (SE). Before using para-
metric tests, the assumption of normality was verified
using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and Lilliefors
probabilities. For each subject, the linear regressions of
V_ O2 versus HR obtained in the laboratory and during
the field test were determined. Group regression analyses
were not performed as this statistical approach could
mask the individual relationships (Swain and Leutholtz
1997). For each regression the slope, intercept and
Pearson’s product-moment correlations were deter-
mined. Paired t-tests were used to compare the slopes
and intercepts of the HR–V_ O2 individual regression
lines obtained in the two conditions (laboratory and
field). From the average HR data recorded during the
second lap of every intensity field trial, the correspond-
ing V_ O2 was estimated using the individual HR–V_ O2
169
regression equations obtained in laboratory. The esti-
mated V_ O2 was then compared to the measured V_ O2
utilizing a two-way ANOVA for repeated measure-
ments. When a statistical difference was detected, a
Bonferroni post-hoc test was applied. The level of sig-
nificance was set at P<0.05.
Results
In Fig. 2, HR and V_ O2 data from a representative
subject during the field test at three different exercise
intensities are shown. For our purposes, average data
from the whole second lap were utilized.
The mean durations of the moderate, high and very
high-intensity trials were 411 (14), 326 (9) and 266 (4) s,
respectively. During the field exercise at moderate
intensity, average HR and minute ventilation (V_ E) were
156 (4) beats min)1 and 68 (3) l min)1, respectively. The
V_ O2 reached at this level of exercise was 2.49
(0.05) l min)1, and the corresponding carbon dioxide
production (V_ CO2) was 2.50 (0.07) l min)1. At the end
of this exercise, lactate concentration [La)] was 1.9
(0.2) mmol l)1, with a mean rating of perceived exertion
(RPE) of 2.3 (0.2).
At high intensity, HR and V_ E were 173 (5) beats -
min)1 and 96 (5) l min)1, respectively. Average V_ O2 and
V_ CO2 were 3.08 (0.09) l min)1 and 3.31 (0.13) l min)1,
respectively. [La)] at this intensity was 4.4 (0.5) mmol
l)1, with a mean RPE of 4.4 (0.2).
Lastly, at very high-intensity exercise, metabolic and
cardio-respiratory values are presented in Table 2.
Briefly, HR reached average values of 186 (6) beats -
min)1 and average V_ O2 was 3.49 (0.29) l min)1. [La)]
170
Fig. 2 Example of raw data
from a typical subject obtained
during the field test. Grey area
The range of time (second lap)
from which heart rate (HR) and
oxygen uptake (V_ O2) values
were averaged to determine the
HR–V_ O2 relationship during
each exercise intensity
reached values of 13.4 (0.1) mmol l)1, with a mean RPE
of 9.1 (0.4).
During field tests at moderate, high and very high
intensity, HR was 82 (2), 91 (1) and 97 (1)%, respec-
tively, while V_ O2 was 70 (2)%, 85 (2)% and 94 (2)%,
respectively, of HR and V_ O2 at maximal exercise in the
laboratory (see Fig. 3).
During the incremental maximal tests on the tread-
mill, all the subjects met at least one of the V_ O2max
criteria (Duncan et al. 1997). The set of data used to
calculate the regression line of the HR–V_ O2 relationship
determined in the laboratory was averaged from the last
minute of each step. Maximal values reached during the
laboratory test were not statistically different from those
found on the field, as shown in Table 2.
The two average regression lines obtained from the
individual HR–V_ O2 regressions determined on the field
and in the laboratory are shown in Fig. 4. The mean
value of the HR–V_ O2 regression line slope obtained in
laboratory [0.030 (0.002)] was not significantly different
compared to that found on the field [0.032 (0.003)].
Similarly, the mean value of the HR–V_ O2 regression
line intercept obtained in the laboratory [79.6 (4.6)] was
not significantly different compared to that found on
the field [76.7 (9.7)]. The mean correlation coefficients
of the HR–V_ O2 obtained in laboratory and on the field
were 0.984 (0.012) and 0.991 (0.005) (P<0.001),
respectively.
Fig. 3 HR and V_ O2 average values determined on the field at the
different exercise intensities as a percentage of the maximum HR
and V_ O2 values measured during the test on the treadmill
Discussion
The main finding of the present study is that the rela-
tionship between HR and V_ O2 determined in amateur
players during soccer-specific exercises, simulating a
training circuit suggested in the literature (Ekblom
1998), is not statistically different from that found in the
laboratory. Consequently, from the average HR re-
corded during soccer activities, it seems to be possible to
estimate the corresponding V_ O2 by using the HR–V_ O2
relationship determined in the laboratory.
For this study, with the aim to reproduce all the
movement patterns and activities commonly performed
during soccer training or games, we modified the circuit
proposed by Ekblom (1998) by adding walking, kicking
and ball passes, which were not included in the original
circuit. In this modified circuit, soccer players were
asked to perform three trials at different intensities
(moderate, high and very high). Each trial was carried
out twice to reach a minimum of about 4 min of exercise
duration. Then, the individual HR–V_ O2 regression lines
from the field data were determined using the second lap
average values, when HR and V_ O2 data reached almost
constant average values (see Fig. 2). In this way, using
the mean HR and V_ O2 of the whole second lap, we
included several factors supposed to affect the HR–V_ O2
linearity (intermittent nature of the effort, sprint,
jumping and static contractions).
Table 2 Maximal values relative to field (second lap of the very
high intensity trial) and laboratory tests. V_ O2 Oxygen uptake,
V_ CO2 carbon dioxide production, V_ E minute ventilation, R respi-
ratory exchange ratio, RR respiratory rate, HR heart rate, [La) ]
lactate concentration. Data are expressed as means (SE)
Field Laboratory
V_ O2 (l min)1) 3.49 (0.11) 3.74 (0.17)
V_ O2 (ml kg)1 min)1) 48.1 (2.1) 51.7 (2.4)
V_ CO2 (l min)1) 4.14 (0.17) 4.18 (0.21)
V_ E (l min)1) 147.0 (14.5) 144.5 (5.8)
R 1.19 (0.01) 1.12 (0.02)
RR (breathsÆmin)1) 58 (2) 58 (2)
HR (beatsÆmin)1) 186 (6) 191 (4)
[La)] (mmol l)1) 13.4 (0.6) 13.5 (0.8)

Fig. 4 Scatter plot of the HR versus V_ O2 data obtained from tests
in the laboratory (dashed line) and on the field (continuous line). The
regression equations represented in the figure were calculated using
the average slopes and intercepts of the individual regressions of
the seven amateur soccer players
The average V_ O2 values, measured on the field at
each exercise intensity, were not statistically different
from those estimated from the HR–V_ O2 relationship
obtained in the laboratory (see Fig. 5). This finding
confirms the validity of HR monitoring to determine the
metabolic demands during soccer activities, at least in
the range of the investigated intensities on the field [80–
97% of laboratory heart rate maximum (HRmax) cor-
responding to 70–94% of V_ O2max]. These values are
similar to those reported in the literature relative to
actual games, when 80–90% of HRmax and 70–75% of
V_ O2max were measured (Ekblom 1986; Bangsbo 1994a,
b; Felci et al. 1995).
The results of this investigation seem to be similar to
those found by Hoff et al. (2002) in six professional
soccer players, when the average V_ O2 values measured
during a dribbling track and a small-group play (five vs
five) were close to the HR–V_ O2 regression line deter-
mined during a treadmill test. However, in the study of
Fig. 5 Comparison between V_ O2 estimated from the laboratory
test and V_ O2 measured during the soccer circuit at different exercise
intensities (n=7). No significant interaction between the two
measurement procedures (estimated vs measured) was found. A
Bonferroni post-hoc test revealed significant differences between
moderate versus high, high versus very high and moderate versus
very high
171
Hoff et al. (2002), the incremental test protocol
(1 km h)1 every minute) was probably too short to
validate the V_ O2 estimation from the HR recorded
during soccer activities, and to compare the HR–V_ O2
relationship found on the field to that found in the
laboratory (Ekblom 1986; MacLaren et al. 1988; Rohde
and Espersen 1988; Van Gool et al. 1988; Bangsbo
1994a, b). Indeed, constant work-loads of at least 4 min,
as adopted in ours as well as in previous studies, and not
an incremental protocol as in Hoff’s study (Hoff et al.
2002), would be required in order to reach a steady-state
condition and to establish the HR–V_ O2 relationship
(Astrand and Rodahl 1977). Moreover, Hoff et al.
(2002) concluded that HR monitoring is a valid measure
of the exercise intensity during soccer-specific training
situations by plotting only one experimental point cal-
culated from a specific maximal field test over the HR–
V_ O2 regression line obtained in the laboratory.
On the other hand, Tumilty (1993) suggested that HR
may not correctly reflect V_ O2 during soccer activities, as
intermittent or variable speed activities typical of soccer
may elevate HR disproportionately to V_ O2. Moreover,
Ogushi et al. (1993) used the average HR and V_ O2
measured on the field during a 90-min simulated friendly
game, and compared the results with the HR–V_ O2
relationship determined in the laboratory. They found a
difference of about 25% between estimated and mea-
sured V_ O2 and concluded that the discrepancy was
mainly due to the different V_ O2 response during inter-
mittent soccer activities compared to the steady-state
laboratory test. However, the use of Douglas bags for
expired gas collection could have limited the normal
movement of the players because of the weight (1.2 kg)
and size of the equipment. Moreover, the lack of the
laboratory test protocol information, the small number
of subjects (only two players) and the short length of the
gas collection time (2–3 min each half-time) make the
interpretation of their results difficult. Ogushi’s (Ogushi
et al. 1993) conclusion is also not in agreement with the
study of Drust et al. (2000), which showed similar
average HR and V_ O2 during intermittent exercise,
reproducing a soccer game and continuous running at
the same average speed on a treadmill.
Among other factors that could influence the HR–
V_ O2 relationship, thermal and emotional stresses have
been proposed, particularly during real competitive
games. Despite field tests being performed under hot
and humid conditions, the laboratory temperature and
humidity were set accordingly in order to reproduce a
similar milieu. However, although field tests were car-
ried out under occasionally sunny conditions, it is
possible that high environmental temperature influence
on HR was counterbalanced by the effect of wind and
air exposure on body temperature regulation. Unfor-
tunately, the design of the present study did not allow
us to obtain more insights into the effects of emotional
stress on the HR–V_ O2 relationship. Indeed, our results
from the field were obtained during soccer-specific
exercises, where stress plays a minimal role compared
172
to real competitive games. It should be also taken into
account that stress can influence cardiovascular
parameters at rest and during mild exercise, with neg-
ligible effect at high and very high intensities of exer-
cise. This aspect of the study, though, may require
further investigation.
Even anaerobic contribution should be taken into
account as a factor affecting metabolic demands. HR is
commonly a good indicator of aerobic metabolism, but
it cannot reflect anaerobic contribution. In our investi-
gation both peak [La)] and V_ E (Table 2) reached during
the last step in the laboratory were not statistically dif-
ferent from those found at the end of the very high
intensity trial on the field. This finding suggests that
anaerobic contribution was similar in both exercise
modalities. On the contrary, Drust et al. (2000) found a
significantly higher V_ E during intermittent than during
continuous exercise at the same average speed. They
suggested that the greater ventilation during intermittent
effort could be due to an increased metabolic acidosis as
a consequence of a greater contribution of the anaerobic
energy system. The exercise intensity reached in their
study was related to the intensity observed during a real
soccer game, and resulted in about 68% of V_ O2max. In
our study, the exercise intensity reached during the very
high-intensity field exercise reached almost the maximal
value found in the laboratory [94 (2)% of V_ O2max), well
above the average intensity used by Drust et al. 2000.
Moreover, the different exercise modalities, such as
jumping, kicking and running used in the present study,
can justify the discrepancy. Lastly, the average duration
of Drust’s study (Drust et al. 2000) was about 46 min,
separated into two halves of 23 min each. In our study,
the average duration of maximal exercise on the field
was of about 4.5 min. For these reasons, it seems diffi-
cult to compare the two studies as far as anaerobic
metabolism is concerned.
In conclusion, the similarity of the HR–V_ O2 rela-
tionship between field soccer-specific exercises and lab-
oratory tests on a treadmill found in the present study
confirms that average HR during soccer activities effec-
tively reflects aerobic metabolic demands. Thus, the
physiological load can be determined using a laboratory
reference test. Our study underlines the appropriate use
of HR for correct and useful soccer training strategies, at
least in amateur soccer players. Moreover, our findings
might be relevant also to other sports or activities, where
similar intermittent phases of the exercise are inter-
spersed with continuous aerobic performances. How-
ever, a greater number of subjects, including professional
players with higher maximum aerobic power, would be
opportune in order to extend the results of the present
work to a wider population. We hope that by adding
experimental evidence on the importance of HR moni-
toring during specific activities coupled to laboratory
tests, trainers and coaches will be encouraged to use a
more scientific approach to sports.
Acknowledgements The authors wish to acknowledge Emiliano C’è
and Marcello Iaia for their technical assistance in data collection
during the experiments. We also thank the soccer players involved
in this study for their committed participation.
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