Composites Part A 124 (2019) 105475

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Composites Part A
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesa

A new concept for a modular composite pressure vessel design T

Erik Dahl , Jan Simon Becker, Christian Mittelstedt, Helmut Schürmann
⁎

Technische Universität Darmstadt, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute for Lightweight Construction and Design (KLuB), Otto-Berndt-Str. 2, D-64287
Darmstadt, Germany

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: A new concept for modular composite pressure vessels was developed countering the disadvantages of the
Thermoplastic resin common monolithic design. The modular concept consists of a fiber reinforced thermoplastic cylinder and se-
Finite element analysis (FEA) parately manufactured vessel heads which have to be joined adequately. The design choices and advantages of
Assembly this concept are presented. The relevant design parameters of the vessel head, a thermoplastic composite shell,
Compression moulding
will be discussed based on a numerical parametric study carried out in a commercial finite element code. From
this study design recommendation will be derived. Furthermore, the manufacturing concept of the vessel head
will be described and first produced parts will be presented.

1. Introduction material from thermoset matrices to fiber reinforced thermoplastics

An important and technologically challenging component of both
CNG and hydrogen based powertrains are the gas tanks. The develop-
ment of high pressure storage technologies therefore provides synergy
effects for both technologies. This offers an ideal application for light-
weight designs using fiber-polymer-composites (advanced composites).
Due to the biaxial stress-state in the cylindrical part, a composite ma-
terial has the potential to be superior to an isotropic material in terms of
material utilization. The design of pressure vessels is mainly a stress-
driven problem and the full potential of high strength carbon-fiber-
composites can be utilized. These advantages lead to a high market
acceptance of composite pressure vessels despite possible cost dis-
advantages.
1.1. State of the art
There are four established monolithic designs for pressure vessels
that are currently used in the transportation sector. The heaviest but the
most cost-effective design for pressure vessels is called type I and is
completely made of metal. Type II pressure vessels consider the uneven
ratio between hoop and axial stresses. They consist of a metallic body
whose cylindrical part is overwrapped with circumferential layers of
advanced composites (AC). The next lighter design is called type III and
is made of a metallic liner which is fully overwrapped with AC. The
lowest weight to volume ration can be achieved with fully overwrapped
plastic liners, so called type IV pressure vessel [1].
Novel approaches in pressure vessel research show a change of
(frtp) without changing the basic design [2]. The main advantage of a
thermoplastic matrix is the chance for a complete recyclability of the
pressure vessels. Additionally, the thermoplastic matrix offers useful
design possibilities, e.g. joining technologies like welding and ther-
moforming. Till now the new possibilities are not used to overthink the
current design.
Further developments aim for an evolution from type IV pressure
vessels to type V pressure vessels, which means the avoidance of a
polymer liner. In this design the permeation barrier exhibits a similar
polymer structure as the composite matrix and hence can be welded or
integrated into the load-bearing composite shell [3,4]. This develop-
ment leads to a weight reduction but does not take other design-im-
manent disadvantages of monolithic designs into account.
Being aware of the fact that a pressure vessel is a strong and very
stiff structure it is desirable to use the vessel additional for strength-
ening the surrounding structure. An additional use of the pressure
vessel as a load-bearing structure has the potential for further weight
saving of the total system. Therefore, the fixation to surrounding
structures becomes more important. Widening the system boundaries
and including the connection leads to additional design requirements.
The classical monolithic design of fully overwrapped type IV and V
composite pressure vessels has a surface which is completely singly or
doubly curved. Due to the lack of functional surfaces and the expansion
of the pressure vessel during filling, a fixation of the pressure vessel to
surrounding structures is difficult. A widespread solution for this issue
is a flexible strap mounting (Fig. 1a). Less frequently a neck mounting is
used to connect the pressure vessel at its bosses (Fig. 1b). None of the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: erik.dahl@klub.tu-darmstadt.de (E. Dahl).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2019.105475
Received 5 February 2019; Received in revised form 17 May 2019; Accepted 30 May 2019
Available online 31 May 2019
1359-835X/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E. Dahl, et al. Composites Part A 124 (2019) 105475

Fig. 3. Types of thread interlocking connections. (a) Screw-design for a hybrid-

connection of a composite cylinder with a metal cap used in a piston accu-
mulator, based on [8]. (b) Thread shape for a connection of a modular com-
posite pressure vessel, based on [9].

Fig. 1. Common connections for monolithic composite pressure vessels. (a)

Strap mounting, based on [5]. (b) Neck mounting, based on [6].

presented design solutions allow a structural integration of the pressure

vessel as considered in [5].
Another downside of the classic monolithic design is the in-
accessibility of the interior of the pressure vessel. This feature would
widen the range of applications to piston and bladder accumulators as
well as alternative storage technologies for hydrogen like metal hy-
drate-storages. An additional advantage of a modular design arises from
the separated manufacturing of the vessel heads and cylinders. While it
is challenging to choose a proper manufacturing technique for the
vessel heads the design possibilities expand. An integration of func-
tional surfaces or connection elements can be realized.
Currently only a few modular concepts for composite pressure
vessels are known. Most of them are designed for low operating pres-
sure e.g. in pressurized air containers. In the field of high pressure
vessels, the connection of the vessel head and the cylinder becomes the
crucial design aspect. The following concepts to connect separate parts
Fig. 4. Pressure vessel designs with axial connection elements. (a)
of a modular pressure vessel or piston accumulator are known.
Unidirectional composite straps, based on [10]. (b) Metallic tie rods, based on
When designing a vessel for low pressure applications, short fiber
[11].
reinforced materials become an option. Besides the cost advantages of
injection molding manufacturing and the lower price of the material
itself, complex designs can be realized, that integrate the connection to relative displacement during cyclic loading.
surrounding structures into the vessel heads (Fig. 2). As joining process Other concepts try to avoid the direct connection of the vessel heads
for cylinder and vessel heads thermoplastic welding is suggested in [7] with the cylinder and use extra connection-elements (Fig. 4). A use of
but not described in detail. unidirectional composite-straps is proposed in [10], metal tie rods in
Another way to connect a vessel head to a cylinder is a local in- [11]. Designs like these have the advantage of a well-defined load case
terlocking joint. In [8,9] waved connections similar to a thread are for the cylinder which only has to sustain hoop stresses while the axial
described (Fig. 3). A disadvantage of this solution is the non-avoidable loads are completely carried by the connection elements. Downsides of
these concepts are the poor utilization of available design space and
presumably the high costs of the complex design.
The extended processing techniques due to thermoplastics matrices
are used in concepts in which an interlocking connection is realized by
thermoforming (Fig. 5). In both shown cases a composite cylinder is
subsequently thermoformed to fasten the vessel head. In [12] an in-
laying vessel head is locked by a thermoformed cylinder. A terminal
plate is connected to the inlaying head to prevent it from slipping inside
when de-pressurized. An additional circumferential reinforcement se-
cures the cylinder from expanding. A concept to form the dome and to
avoid a wrinkling of the fibers is the thermoforming of the cylinder
Fig. 2. Design for a pressurized air container with an integrated connection to endings by twisting [13]. As a main disadvantage both concepts lack
surrounding structures, based on [7]. functional surfaces to connect them to a surrounding structure.

2
E. Dahl, et al.
Fig. 5. Vessel head connection by thermoforming. (a) Interlocking connection
with additional circumferential reinforcement, based on [12]. (b) Wrinkle-free
thermoforming of the domes, based on [13].
Most research activities on pressure vessels seem to focus on details
of the existing monolithic design. A weight reduction can be achieved
through a development from type IV to type V pressure vessels. But
neither a widening of the field of applications nor a load bearing in-
tegration into surrounding structures is in sight. The existing modular
concepts cannot combine all the options a modular concept could offer.
None is convincing from a holistic point of view. The scope of this work
is to present a new design approach for pressure vessels made of fiber
thermoplastic composites, which meets these desired requirements.
2. New design approach
A new concept for a modular high pressure vessel design was de-
veloped in the working group of the authors based on the preliminary
work of a vessel for pressurized air [14]. The design pressure used for
the development was chosen to 47 MPa (470 bar). The value is taken
from the European guideline for CNG vessels. The guideline demands
for carbon fiber reinforced vessels with an operating pressure of 20 MPa
a safety factor of 2.35 which leads to the design pressure [1]. The
concept uses a conical interlocking connection to hold the lid of the
vessel head (Fig. 6). The conical joint area is created by the assembly of
an interference fit between a circumferential reinforcement and the
composite cylinder. Intensive efforts were made in a following design-
study to toughen up this concept for high operating pressures as needed
in CNG pressure vessels [15]. Instead of a glass fiber polypropylene
laminate (GF-PP), which was used in [14], the lids were designed in
steel. While the results of the finite element analysis (FEA) were pro-
mising and preliminary tests of the bearing capacity of the vessel head
were positive, all attempts to manufacture a complete prototype failed.
The interference fit could not be assembled due to local buckling of the
axial layers of the cylinder-laminate. The buckling occurred as a result
of the high axial loads induced by the friction between the circumfer-
ential reinforcement and the composite shell.
To avoid these manufacturing problems a new concept to connect
3
Composites Part A 124 (2019) 105475
Fig. 6. Design concept for a pressurized air container, based on [14].
Fig. 7. Comparison of both pressure vessel head designs. (a) Illustration of the
hybrid vessel head concept, based on [15]. (b) Illustration of the new fiber
reinforced thermoplastic vessel head concept, based on [16].
the concave lid to the composite cylinder was developed based on the
experiences made during these previous studies (Fig. 7) [16]. Thereby
the design choices were led by different criteria following the main
objective to design a minimum weight concept. The key aspects of the
new approach compared to the concepts of [14,15] will be discussed
below.
The fact that the weight of the vessel lid increases dis-
proportionately with the radius is the basic approach for the minimum
weight concept. Replacing the necessary circumferential reinforcement
at the cylinder end by an internal conical reinforcement (internal cone)
allows a reduction of the radius of the component with the largest
thickness. This leads to a distinct weight reduction. Removing the re-
inforcement from the outer cylinder surface furthermore allows an
enlargement of the diameter of the cylinder and therefore to a better
ratio between the useable volume and the available design space. The
internal cone (Fig. 7b) has two purposes. It provides the necessary
conical joint surface to bear the vessel lid. It furthermore has to support
the high axial loads caused by the internal pressure on the lid and
transfers the pressure load into the cylinder. To enable a shear-based
load transition of such high axial forces, a large joining area has to be
E. Dahl, et al.
provided on the outer circumferential surface of the internal cone. Thus
it appears that the internal cone represents the core element of the new
vessel head concept. Both the vessel head, consisting of the internal
cone and the lid, as well as the cylinder are made of continuous carbon
fiber reinforced polyamide 6 (CF-PA6). As a joining technique between
the vessel head and the cylinder the thermoplastic-specific resistance
welding was chosen. Welding provides both a load bearing connection
and leak-tightness through fusion bonding while avoiding high as-
sembly forces. The suitability of resistance welding for high load
bearing connections of thermoplastic composite parts was shown in
[17]. An experimental study of a modification of the resistance welding
concept adjusted for the special requirements of the joining of rota-
tional symmetric parts is currently in progress. Using a thermoplastic
matrix and solely one material for all components enables a complete
material recycling of the pressure vessel. The front end of the new
vessel head design provides a functional area. This flat surface can be
used to connect the pressure vessel to surrounding structures e.g. by
integrating threaded inserts. To minimize the change in stiffness at the
transition from the vessel head to the cylinder the laminate lay-up of
the internal cone will be harmonized with the one of the cylinder.
The question arises why the vessel head is separated into two parts
which have to be joined again. The design criteria for both parts are
conflictive. While the ideal layup for the composite shell is quasi-iso-
tropic without the need for any circumferential layers, the internal cone
needs a high amount of circumferential layers to withstand the radial
loads transferred by the composite lid. Both layups could not be com-
bined in one part taking the manufacturing restrictions of compression
or injection molding into account. Splitting the vessel head into two
parts therefore simplifies both the design and the manufacturing of the
parts.
The new design mainly aims for long pressure vessels with a
medium to low diameter. The aspect ratio between axial load and joint
area of the vessel head becomes disadvantageous at large diameters,
since the axial load on the pressure vessel rises quadratically with the
radius and the welded area linearly at a constant length of the internal
cone.
With these design choices a concept for a modular full composite
pressure vessel applicable for high pressure and with accessibility to the
interior is established.
The question arises if the concept can be used for a high pressure
storage of hydrogen. For this purpose, burst pressures of up to 200 MPa
are necessary. Such high pressures are unlikely endured by the pre-
sented concept. The necessary area for the shear transmitting joint
between the internal cone and the cylinder would be disproportionally
large compared to the length of the vessel. Due to the inhomogeneous
shear-stress distribution along the overlapping joints, it is questionable
if such high forces can be transmitted at all. An experimental study on
the resistance welding concept for the joint is currently in progress
wherein the limits of the transferable shear stresses will be determined.
Even though other techniques besides the high pressure storage for
hydrogen can be considered due to the accessible interior of the mod-
ular concept. For instance, chemical storage with metal hydrides for
which it is necessary to include the adsorbent and heat pipes into the
vessel.
3. Design of the composite lid
Even though the internal cone (Fig. 7b) is the key element of the
new vessel head concept, its stress level is quite low due to its large
thickness. The lid of the vessel head is more challenging to design. Its
characteristics will be described in this section.
The commercial finite-element software Abaqus 6.14 by Dassault
Systèmes Simulia [18] was used to run a parametric study of the lid. The
main design parameters of the lid, which is designed as a spherical shell
with constant thickness, are the curvature, its thickness and the vertical
position on the conical joint surface (Fig. 8). These parameters were
4
Composites Part A 124 (2019) 105475
Fig. 8. Design parameters of the vessel lid. The curvature of the shell is de-
scribed by its radius r, the thickness by the parameter h and the position on the
conical surface by the parameter a.
varied to analyze the characteristics of the vessel head.
Critical failure scenarios of the lid could be stress failure of the la-
minate and shear failure at the bond to the internal cone. A crack in the
interface will not lead to a critical burst of the pressure vessel but would
cause leakage. These two aspects will be the main design criteria for the
composite shell. Due to the high pressure of 47 MPa (470 bar) the de-
sign is mainly a stress driven problem which leads to a relatively high
thickness of the shell. Therefore, a snap through buckling of the shell is
unlikely to occur and an analysis of the critical load will only be con-
ducted for the final design.
3.1. Finite-element model
To perform the parametric study an axisymmetric model was chosen
to reduce the calculation time to an acceptable minimum. To model the
pressure vessel axisymmetrically, some simplifications have to be made.
Following the axially symmetric load case of the internal pressure a
rotationally symmetric laminate layup has to be used for the composite
lid. This leads to a quasi-isotropic layup (QI-laminate) consisting of
stacking sequences of the kind (0°/90°/45°/−45°)ns. Due to the ax-
isymmetric load case, each layer has to bear the stresses under every
angle respectively in every cut rotated around the centerline of the
cylinder. To judge the material utilization, the worst case combinations
of load case and orientation of the layers will be assessed.
A quasi-isotropic layup cannot be modeled layer-wise in an ax-
isymmetric model. To model this laminate, it is necessary to smear the
single layers to a homogeneous continuum. This simplified approach
was used to calculate the displacement field. To receive the necessary
smeared material properties for the finite element model the extended
classical laminate theory (extended CLT) was used [19]. The underlying
assumptions are described in [20]. This 3D-theory is used to calculate
the nine engineering constants of the homogenized laminate based on
the layup of the laminate and stiffnesses of a single layer (Table 1). All
calculations of the parametric study were performed with linear elastic
material properties.
To calculate the material utilization of the laminates the fiber
failure (FF) and inter fiber failure (IFF) stress exposure factor fFF/IFF for
each layer was determined in the post processing of the finite element
analysis. For the calculation an UVARM subroutine [18] was used,
following the recommendations of the German Technical Guideline VDI
2014 [21]. In this subroutine the strain in each element is transformed
into the principal coordinate system of the single layers, followed by the
calculation of the corresponding stresses using the constitutive law of
E. Dahl, et al. Composites Part A 124 (2019) 105475

Table 1
Material properties of the continuous carbon fiber reinforced polyamide 6 with a fiber volume content of Vf = 49% (BASF Ultratape B3WC12 UD02 [23]) and the
short carbon fiber reinforced polyamide 6 with a fiber mass content Mf = 12% (LUVOCOM 3/CF/12/EG [24]). Stiffness (E, G) and strength (R) specified in N/mm2,
density ϱ in g/cm3. All other values are dimensionless.
UD-CF-PA6 E E G G Source
Vf = 49%
109,016 2716 945 1037 0.27 0.31 [25]
R+ R R+ R R
1598 741 31 150 34 1.47

QI-CF-PA6 E1/2 E3 G12 G13/23 12 13/23 31/32 Based on UD-layer

Vf = 49%
37,988 2980 14280.7 988.9 0.33 0.0175 0.2233

short CF-reinforced PA6 E R εR [24]

Mf = 12%
7500 0.3 140 3% 1.18

the single layer. Subsequently the stress exposure is derived from the
PUCK failure criterion [22]. The physically-based PUCK failure criterion
differs between FF and IFF. For IFF it furthermore differs between the
action plane, where the stress appears, and the fracture plane where the
failure occurs. Due to this differentiation a precise prediction of the
failure scenario is possible. Using the Technical Guideline VDI 2014 in
an axisymmetric model with smeared material properties it is possible
to calculate the stress exposure in each element for every fiber angle at
the same time. Each single fiber angle can be assessed subsequently in
the post processing. Thereby the critical stress exposure factor of each
fiber angle along the circumference can be identified even though the
model is axisymmetric.
To judge the material utilization of unreinforced and short fiber
reinforced materials an equivalent to the stress exposure has to be de-
fined. The quotient of the equivalent VON MISES stress and the strength of
the material R will be used:
mises
fmises =
(1)
R
Four-node CAX4i elements with incompatible modes were used to
discretize the model. These elements were chosen to avoid hourglassing
[18] which occurred while using CAX4r elements during the testing of
the model. The CAX4i elements were used since the combination of
bending and contact problems has to be solved.
To define the appropriate element size different meshes were
compared. The quality of the mesh was judged by the results of the
different evaluated parameters (stress exposure factor regarding fiber
failure, inter-fiber-failure as well as contact stresses) and refined until
no notable influence occurred. As a result, a global mesh size of
0.35 mm was chosen. The contact area was refined and an element size
of 0.09 mm was used (Fig. 9). The model consisted of around 49.000
elements including all parts of the pressure vessel.
The welded bond between the lid and the internal cone was mod-
eled as a fixed contact with rough tangential behavior. By this an in-
finite coefficient of friction is used and no separation of the join part-
ners can occur.
3.2. Results of the finite element analysis
The crucial design parameter of the lid is the radius r. A variation of
the radius using a fixed thickness of h = 13 mm was performed to de-
termine the effects of the curvature of the spherical shell. Doing so the
radius was varied in a range from r = 45 mm to r = 185 mm respec-
tively a radius ratio of rlid/rcylinder = 0.9 … 3.6. The aperture angle of
the shell depends on three geometric parameters of the vessel head
(Fig. 8): The cone angle of the internal cone, which was chosen as 30°,
the position on the conical surface and the radius ratio rlid/rcylinder.
Since the position on the conical surface will be fixed as described later
in this section, the aperture angle solely can be described with the ra-
dius ratio.
3.2.1. Interface lid – internal cone
To guarantee the leak tightness of the vessel head the composite lid
is supposed to be welded to the internal cone. To ensure this the shear
stress in the interface has to be minimized. At burst pressure
(p = 47 MPa/470 bar) the average shear stress is higher than the shear
strength of the laminate. To solve this issue, it is recommended to weld
the connection while applying an axial force approximately equal to the
operating pressure (p = 20 MPa/200 bar). Pre-stressing the connection
helps to reduce the shear stress at operating pressure to a minimum and
decreases them at burst pressure close to a bearable level (Fig. 10).
Furthermore, transversal pressure is superimposed on the welded

Fig. 9. Axisymmetric FE-model of the vessel head.

5
E. Dahl, et al.
Fig. 10. Shear stress along a cross-section of the contact area of the lid and the
internal cone. The dotted line shows a non pre-stressed lid, all other curves
represent pre-stressed vessel heads with varying radii [p = 47 MPa, h = 13 mm,
rshell = {45, 65, 105, 185 mm} corresponding curves colored from black to light
grey in ascending order, rcylinder = 50 mm].
interface which increases the shear strength. For all following calcula-
tions the pre-stressing was applied.
The shear stress distribution along the cross-section of the interface
is strongly inhomogeneous which leads to an unfavorable material
utilization. The curvature and therefore the angle between the center-
line of the shell and the connecting surface affects the shear stress
distribution. With a shell radius of 105 mm (rshell/rcylinder = 2.1), re-
spectively an angle of 79.2° between the two parts, a nearly constant
shear stress distribution results, except in the boundary region. The
boundaries of the interface show the typical shear stress peaks known
from adhesive bonds with elastic join partners [26]. Due to the FEA
with idealized linear elastic material properties the peaks are over-
estimated. Considering the strongly nonlinear shear stress-strain ma-
terial performance of CF-PA6 (and unreinforced polyamide 6 as well) a
homogenization of these peaks will occur in reality. A final judgment of
the stress analysis of the interface considering the superimposed lateral
pressure will be given in Section 3.2.3.
3.2.2. Composite lid
The curvature of the shell strongly influences the behavior of the
vessel head at maximum pressure. The critical path of the shell at burst
pressure is the inner surface at a cut with a fiber angle of 0°. To discuss
the influence of the curvature the fiber failure stress exposure factor fFF
was evaluated (Fig. 11). While a high radius r tends to a plate-like
behavior, a small radius utilizes the advantages of a shell. A flat shell
Fig. 11. Fiber failure stress exposure factor at the inner surface of the composite
lid at burst pressure with varying radii [p = 47 MPa, d = 13 mm,
rshell = {45, 65, 85, 105, 125, 185 mm} corresponding curves colored from
black to light grey in ascending order, rcylinder = 50 mm].
6
Composites Part A 124 (2019) 105475
shows an overcritical stress exposure in the middle of the shell due to
bending stresses. In contrast a small radius leads to a combined stress
state where lower bending stresses are superimposed to a dominating
membrane stress state. As a result, only compressive stresses occur and
a better utilization of the shell can be achieved even though the com-
pressive strength of CF-PA6 is notably lower than the tensile strength.
The bending stresses are a result of the welded and therefore fixed bond
of the shell to the internal cone. The suppressed displacement of the
edge of the shell causes high bending stresses close to the boundary
region. This effect is called edge disturbance or discontinuity stresses in
shell theory [27]. The fiber failure stress exposure peak caused hereby
seems to be independent from the curvature of the shell below a certain
radius since a reduction of the radius from 65 mm to 45 mm does not
affect the height of the peak. The peak determines the minimum shell
thickness for shells with a strong curvature.
The position of the lid, described by the parameter a (see Fig. 8),
only has an influence on the behavior of the shell if the distance to the
upper edge of the pressure vessel falls below a certain level. The conical
fit then provides a weaker support that leads to a radial displacement of
the lid. Due to this a high bending moment is induced. It is re-
commended to position the shell in the middle of the conical surface. As
discussed later the available space on the connecting surface will be
used to decrease the shear stress of the welded connection.
As a result of pre-stressing the lid while welding it to the internal
cone, an additional load case has to be taken into account, namely the
one of an empty vessel: The pre-stressed internal cone applies a radial
force on the composite shell. While shells with a high radius r can easily
sustain this radial force, strong curved shells show high fiber failure
stress exposure in cuts with fiber angles of 90° at the outer surface of the
shell (Fig. 12). This leads to a limitation of the feasible curvature of the
composite shell. Taking these limitations into account the lowest radius
has to be chosen that can bear the pre-stress at the 0 MPa load case
while providing a strong curved shell to sustain the burst pressure of
47 MPa. This compromise leads to a radius ratio of the shell of rshell/
rcylinder = 1.1.
3.2.3. Final design
As shown in Fig. 10 the shear stress can be reduced by pre-stressing
the shell. But the stress level is still too high to sustain the high axials
loads at burst pressure. To decrease the shear stress, the load bearing
surface can be enlarged locally. An increased thickness of the complete
shell just to lower the shear stress of the connection would result in an
unnecessary weight increase. Taking manufacturing limitations into
account it is also not desirable to vary the shell thickness of the
Fig. 12. Fiber failure stress exposure factor at the outer surface of the unloaded
composite shell induced by pre-stressing during the joining process; the radii
are varied. [p = 47 MPa, d = 13 mm, rshell = {45, 65, 85, 105, 125, 185 mm}
corresponding curves colored from black to light grey in ascending order,
rcylinder = 50 mm.]
E. Dahl, et al. Composites Part A 124 (2019) 105475

Fig. 13. Stress exposure factor regarding inter fiber failure for the laminate respectively the material utilization for the isotropic materials along the cross-section of
the connection of the lid to the internal cone at burst pressure (p = 47 MPa, h = 8 mm, rshell/rcylinder = 1.1).

continuous fibers along the cross-section of the shell. The complexity of

the pre-cuts would strongly increase, thus resulting in a time consuming
preforming with much more cutting scrap. Therefore, it is suggested to
increase the shell thickness by a short carbon-fiber reinforced poly-
amide 6 (short CF-reinforced PA6). This material can be processed in
the same manufacturing process and provides a higher freedom of de-
sign. The lower stiffness of the short CF-reinforced PA6 (Table 1) fur-
thermore helps to avoid high bending stresses in the peripheral zones of
the increased shell thickness and reduces the lateral pressure on the
internal cone.
Based on these considerations a reinforcement of the peripheral
zones of the shell was added. To judge the quality of the connection of
the lid to the internal cone the stress exposure factors of the different
materials were evaluated (Fig. 13). To mitigate the stress peak at the
outer edge of the shell a small region of unreinforced polyamide 6 was
added. This unreinforced material will help to homogenize the shear Fig. 14. Shear stresses and normal stresses in thickness direction in the inter-
stress due to its nonlinear material behavior and its high elongation at face between the short CF-reinforced peripheral regions and the QI-Laminate of
fracture, even though this effect is not shown in the diagram since the the composite lid (p = 47 MPa, h = 8 mm, rshell/rcylinder = 1.1).
simulations were performed with a linear material behavior. With the
presented modifications the connection is now able to sustain the axial
load at burst pressure of p = 47 MPa.
In addition to the interface to the internal cone, another interface
between the QI-laminate and the short fiber reinforced peripheral zones
is generated by this measure. But even if the two regions show a high
difference in stiffness, only subcritical stresses occur in the interface
(Fig. 14).
Besides the stress analysis, an analysis of stability of the lid has to be
performed to prevent a critical buckling failure due to the pressure load.
To identify the critical load of a snap through buckling of the lid, a
geometrically nonlinear analysis using the modified RIKS method was
performed [18]. To facilitate the simulations only the lid loaded with
internal pressure was modeled (Fig. 15). To judge the behavior of the
shell, different boundary conditions were analyzed. Two aspects count
for the assumption of a fixed support. On the one hand, the high radial
stiffness of the internal cone, on the other hand the welded bond be- Fig. 15. Critical snap through buckling loads of the composite lid with fixed
tween lid and internal cone. In addition, the worst case scenario with a and simple support calculated with the modified RIKS method. The geometry and
simple support that only locks the axial degree of freedom was mod- material parameters of the final design were used (p = 0 … 360 MPa,
eled. With these assumptions a safety factor against snap through h = 8 mm, rshell/rcylinder = 1.1).
buckling with an axisymmetric buckling figure of 7.6 for a fixed and 3.3
for the unlikely simple support can be achieved. – The concave composite lid should be strongly curved to utilize the
Based on the results of the parametric study a final design for the load bearing efficiency of shells by a membrane state of stress and
modular vessel concept was defined (Fig. 16) and the following design thus to reduce its thickness. The curvature is limited by the radial
recommendations can be derived:

7
E. Dahl, et al. Composites Part A 124 (2019) 105475

Fig. 16. Final design concept of a modular composite pressure vessel head for
high pressure applications, based on [16].

pressure induced by the pre-stressed bond to the internal cone. A lid

radius of rlid = 55 mm is recommended at a cylinder radius of
rcylinder = 50 mm.
– It is suggested to weld the lid to the internal cone to guarantee leak
tightness. While welding both parts it is recommended to apply a
pre-stress equivalent to the operating pressure of the vessel to re- Fig. 17. (a) Compression mold, (b) manufactured composite shell.
duce the shear stresses during normal operation.
– The thickness of the shell should be increased at the peripheral area
to reduce the shear stress at the interface to the internal cone. To
minimize the manufacturing effort, it is suggested to use short fiber
reinforced material for this reinforcement. The local reinforcement
should utilize the complete, single curved, conical surface of the
internal cone to minimize the shear stress level.

3.3. Manufacturing

To validate the new design a prototype will be produced. To man-

ufacture the composite lid with its material mix both compression and
injection molding are suitable methods. Compression molding was
chosen to create the first shells to avoid the high costs of an injection
mold. Therefore a heated pressing tool was designed (Fig. 17a). Both
the punching tool and the die are actively heated by heating cartridges.
The die was split up into two parts to realize the change of the curva-
ture of the inner surface and to simplify the demolding. The short fiber
reinforced polyamide 6 granulate is filled into the mold, followed by
the stacked pre-cuts of the QI-laminate and the final layer of granulate.
The shell then can be processed in one variothermic step with an op-
erating pressure of 1.9 MPa. Good contour accuracy could be achieved
with this simplified process (Fig. 17b).
Advanced efforts had to be made to realize a suitable manufacturing
concept for the internal cone. This continuous fiber reinforced part is
hollow and axially symmetric and has two mating surfaces which have
to be formed with high contour accuracy. Neither common compression
molding techniques nor laser tape winding can be used to produce the
part without great efforts in further treatment like turning of the outer
mating surface.
A compression molding concept which meets these requirements is
described in [28]. The manufacturing concept is based on the idea that
the displacement of a conical punching tool relative to a die can be used
to apply a radial pressure. The produced parts can be partly prismatic
Fig. 18. (a) Conical compression molding manufacturing concept based on
since matrix will be pushed out of the conical area. The resulting flow of
[28]. (b) Conical compression molding tool design for the internal cone based
the melted matrix applies a hydrostatic pressure in the non-conical area
on [29].
which consolidates the laminate (Fig. 18a). A compression molding tool
which uses this technology was designed under guidance of the

8
E. Dahl, et al.
Fig. 19. Internal cone manufactured with a conical compression molding
technique.
corresponding author (Fig. 18b) [29].
The preform of the internal cone has to be wrapped around a metal
core which is smaller than the actual conical punching tool to allow a
compression of the preform while consolidating the laminate. To
manufacture the parts for a prototype the preforming was carried out
by hand. The single layers of the preform were cut out of common
unidirectional thermoplastic tapes. They got wrapped around the pre-
form-core and located with a soldering iron. After inserting the preform
into the die, the inner layers have to be fixed by a clamping ring. Even
though it is not suitable for a serial production, a variothermic process
with a temperature of T = 250 °C and consolidation pressure of
p = 10 MPa was used for the production of the parts of the prototype.
First parts could be manufactured with this process. A high quality of
both mating surfaces could be achieved and only a minimum of final
treatment was necessary (Fig. 19).
4. Conclusions and outlook
An overview of the current pressure vessel designs was given. There
are only few known concepts for pressure vessels and only monolithic
filament wound vessels could be established in the market, even though
they have design immanent disadvantages like the complex connection
to surrounding structures.
A new modular design concept for pressure vessels was developed
that aims for a compensation of the disadvantages. The modular setting
enables an access to the interior which can be used to increase the field
of application for composite pressure vessels. The design furthermore
provides a plane functional surface to simplify the connection to sur-
rounding structures and the use of a thermoplastic matrix leads to a
9
Composites Part A 124 (2019) 105475
recyclability of the storage system.
The vessel head of this design consists of two parts, a concave
composite shell and one part that enables a welded connection to the
cylinder. The characteristics of the crucial design parameters of the
composite shell were analyzed in a numerical parametric study. The
results were discussed and design recommendations were derived. The
manufacturing of a prototype is in progress and for both parts of the
vessel head suited manufacturing concepts were presented.
The next step is a study of a resistance welding concept, which
meets the special requirements of the modular pressure vessel. The
challenge is to weld a large, cylindrical area, while only limited access
to the boundary of the welded surface is given. When both parts of the
vessel head and the welding concept are finished an experimental proof
of concept of the new modular pressure vessel concept will be per-
formed by burst pressure tests.
Funding sources
Founded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German
Research Foundation) – Projektnummer 391936435.
Declaration of Competing Interest
Two of the authors, Helmut Schürmann and Erik Dahl, are the in-
ventors of the following patent:
Druckbehälter. Inventor: H. SCHÜRMANN, and E. DAHL. Appl: 13
June 2016. Deutschland. DE 10 2016 110 803 A1.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the DFG for their financial support.
References
[1] UNITED NATIONS ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR EUROPE (ECE). R 110; 2015.
[2] Ruby M, Almond D, Turner M, Clarke A. Monolithic, thermoplastic composites type
IV pressure vessel development for hydrogen storage on automobiles. SAMPE J
2015;51(5):36–47.
[3] Legault M. Next-generation pressure vessels [online]. The first commercial tank in
the elusive Type V category and a larger but lighter Type IV CNG tank presage new
growth of filament winding in the storage of compressed gasses. Available from:
http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/next-generation-pressure-vessels
[viewed 07.04.17].
[4] Vaidyanathan RK, Luevano E, Villarreal RM, Tate M. Manufacturing and testing of
liner-less all-composite tanks for storage and transportation of CNG. SAMPE J
2017;6:48–52.
[5] Bleser W, Schürmann H, Fell S, Schultheis V. CFK-Hochdrucktanks als tragende
Strukturelemente [online]. ATZ Worldwide 2012;114(5):44–8. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s38311-012-0204-y.
[6] Sadowski M, Imhof U, Sharp J.. Pressure vessel mounting system. Inventor. Appl. US
006536722B2; 3 May 2002.
[7] Brandes H. Behälter für Kraftfahrzeuge. Inventor. Appl. DE 1032 798 B4; 14 May
2003.
[8] Hufenbach W, Helms O. Zylinderrohr für einen Hydraulikzylinder aus
Faserverbundwerkstoff und Verfahren zu dessen Herstellung. Inventor. Appl. DE
102006062414 A1; 22 December 2006.
[9] Druckluftbehälter aus faserverstärktem Kunststoff sowie Verfahren und Vorrichtung
zu dessen Herstellung. Inventor: ASEA GmbH. Appl. DE 3922577 A1; 10 July 1989.
[10] Täubner F. Druckbehälter in einfacher Bauform. Inventor: Appl. DE 10 2005 006
998 A 1; 16 February 2005.
[11] O'brien JA, Hubbs R, Roston G. Compact Hydraulic Accumulator. Inventor. WO
2008/157327; Appl: 13 June 2008.
[12] Funck R. Druckbehälter und Verfahren zu dessen Herstellung. Inventor Appl. DE
10246868 A1; 8 October 2002.
[13] Melchior C, Funck R. Druckbehälter und Verfahren zu dessen Herstellung. Inventor.
Appl. DE 102006019064 A1; 22 April 2006.
[14] Schürmann H, Schulz M. Faserverbund-Druckbehälter mit thermoplastischer matrix
[online]. ATZ - Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift. 2006;108(3):214–9. https://doi.
org/10.1007/BF03221778.
[15] Löhr S. Zur Gestaltung von hochanspruten Leichtbau-Speichersystemen und
-Hydraulikzylindern aus Faser-Thermoplast-Verbunden. Dissertation. Darmstadt:
Shaker; 2013. 978-3-8440-2170-7.
[16] Schürmann H, Dahl E. Druckbehälter. Inventor: Appl. Deutschland. DE 10 2016 110
803 A1; 13 June 2016.
[17] Freudenberg T. Beitrag zur Prozessgestaltung und -optimierung zum rationellen
E. Dahl, et al.
Widerstandsschweißen von hochbelasteten Faser-Thermoplast-Strukturen.
Prozessanalyse, Auslegungsmethode, Parameterstudien, Anwendung und
Industrialisierungskonzept. Dissertation. Darmstadt: Shaker; 2017. 978-3-8440-
5065-3.
[18] DASSAULT SYSTÈMES SIMULIA. Abaqus 6.14 Manuel; 2014.
[19] Haider O, Weber T. Determination of stiffness matrix and engineering constants of a
UD laminae-composed laminate by an extended Classical Laminate Theory. In:
Industrie-Ausschuss Struktur BerechnungsunterlagenIndustrie-Ausschuss Struktur
Berechnungsunterlageneditor. Luftfahrttechnisches Handbuch (LTH): Handbuch
Strukturberechnung (HSB). München. 2007.
[20] Weber T. Nichtlineare Analyse von Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunden. Grundlagen,
Methoden und Auswirkungen auf den Konstruktionsprozess. Dissertation.
Darmstadt: Shaker; 2008. 978-3-8322-8527-2.
[21] VDI. VDI 2014, Blatt 3, Entwicklung von Bauteilen aus Faser-Kunststoff-Verbund,
Berechnungen. Düsseldorf; 2014.
[22] Puck A, Schürmann H. Failure analysis of FRP laminates by means of physically
based phenomenological models. In: Hinton Mike J, editor. Failure criteria in fibre
reinforced polymer composites. The World-Wide Failure Exercise. Amsterdam:
10
Composites Part A 124 (2019) 105475
Elsevier; 2004. p. 832–76.
[23] BASF. Do it right, do it light! Ultracom™ – thermoplastic composite system; 2013.
[24] LEHMANN&VOSS&CO. Data Sheet LUVOCOM 3/CF/12/EG. Hamburg; 2011.
[25] Faber J. Beitrag zur konstruktiven Gestaltung offener, verrippter Profile aus Faser-
Thermoplast-Verbunden mit lastpfadgerechten Verstärkungen. Dissertation. TU
Darmstadt: Shaker Verlag; 2016. 978-3-8440-4330-3.
[26] Da Silva LFM, Das neves PJC, Adams RD, Spelt JK. Analytical models of adhesively
bonded joints—Part I [online]. Literature survey. Int J Adhes Adhes
2009;29(3):319–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2008.06.005.
[27] Timoshenko S, Woinowsky-Krieger S. Theory of plates and shells. Reissued.
McGraw-Hill classic textbook reissue series. 2nd ed New York: McGraw-Hill; 1987.
0-07-064779-8.
[28] Höhme A, Schürmann H. Hohlprofile mit straffen Schichten [online] Available from
Kunststoffe2016(2):40–3.
[29] Riegel A. Konstruktion und Inbetriebnahme eines Konus-Innendruck-
Formwerkzeugs zur Herstellung von thermoplastischen, endlosfaserverstärkten
Bandagen. Master Thesis. Darmstadt; 2016.