AEROSPACE QUALITY

Module 3
PRODUCTION CONTROL ASSURANCE AND
CERTIFICATION

1
CONTENT
❑ Acceptance Sampling OC curve

❑ Sampling Plan

❑ Producer’s risk

❑ Consumer’s risk

❑ Average Outgoing Quality (AOQ)

❑ AOQL

❑ Design of Single & double sampling plan

2
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
Meaning of Acceptance Sampling or Sampling Inspection:

• One method of controlling the quality of a product is 100% inspection which requires huge expenditure in terms
of time, money and labour. Moreover due to boredom and fatigue involved in repetitive inspection process, there
exists a possibility to overlook and some defective products may pass the inspection point.

• Also when the quality of a product is tested by destructive testing (e.g., life of a candle or testing of electrical
fuses) then 100% inspection shall destroy all the products.

• The alternative is statistical sampling inspection methods. Here from the whole lot of products/items to be
inspected, some items are selected for inspection.

• If that sample of items conforms to be desired quality requirements then the whole lot is accepted, if it does not,
the whole lot is rejected. Thus the sample items are considered to be the representative of the whole lot. This
method of acceptance or rejection of a sample is called Acceptance Sampling.

3
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
• Acceptance sampling plans involve inspection of a product or service. When 100% inspection of all items is not
feasible, a decision has to be made as to how many items should be sampled or whether the batch should be
sampled at all. The information obtained from the sample is used to decide whether to accept or reject the entire
batch or lot.

• In general acceptance sampling method proves to be economical and is used under the assumption when the
quality characteristics of the item are under control and relatively homogeneous.

4
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
Classification of Acceptance Sampling:
Depending upon the type of inspection acceptance sampling may be classified in two ways:
(i) Acceptance sampling on the basis of attributes i.e. GO and NOT GO gauges, and
(ii) Acceptance sampling on the basis of variables.
• In acceptance sampling by attributes, no actual measurement is done and the inspection is done by way of GO &
NOT GO gauges. If the product conforms to the given specifications it is accepted, otherwise rejected. The
magnitude of error is not important in this case. For example if cracks is the criteria of inspection/the products
with cracks will be rejected and without cracks accepted the shape and size of the cracks shall not be measured
and considered.
• In acceptance sampling by variables, the actual measurements of dimensions are taken or physical and chemical
testing of the characteristics of sample of materials/products is done. If the results are as per specifications the lot
is accepted otherwise rejected.
5
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
• In the case of attributes, one parameter is the acceptable number of nonconforming items in the sample. If the
number of nonconforming items observed is less than or equal to this number, the batch is accepted. This is
known as the acceptance number.

• In the case of variables, one parameter may be the proportion of items in the sample that are outside the
specifications. This proportion would have to be less than or equal to a standard for the lot to be accepted.

• A plan that determines the number of items to sample and the acceptance criteria of the lot, based on meeting
certain stipulated conditions (such as the risk of rejecting a good lot or accepting a bad lot), is known as an
acceptance sampling plan.

• Acceptance plans where inspection is by variables. In these plans, the quality characteristic is expressed as a
numerical value.

6
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
• Let's consider a case of attribute inspection where an item is classified as conforming or not conforming to a
specified thickness of 12 ±0.4 mm. Suppose that the items come in batches of 500 units. If an acceptance
sampling plan with a sample size of 50 and an acceptance number of 3 is specified, the interpretation of the plan is
as follows.

• Fifty items will be randomly selected by the inspector from the batch of 500 items.

• Each of the 50 items will then be inspected (say, with a go/no-go gage) and classified as conforming or not
conforming.

• If the number of nonconforming items in the sample is 3 or less, the entire batch of 500 items is accepted.
However, if the number of nonconforming items is greater than 3, the batch is rejected.

• Alternatively, the rejected batch may be screened; that is, each item is inspected and nonconforming ones are
removed.
7
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
• Acceptance sampling can be performed during inspection of incoming raw materials, components, and
assemblies, in various phases of in-process operations, or during final product inspection. It can be used as a form
of product inspection between companies and their vendors, between manufacturers and their customers, or
between departments or divisions within the same company.

• Note that acceptance sampling does not control or improve the quality level of the process.

• Quality cannot be inspected into a product or service; quality must be designed and built into it. Because of the
very nature of sampling, acceptances, sampling procedures will accept some lots and reject others, even though
they are of the same quality. Therefore, methods of process control and improvement are essential; they are the
only way to get to maximize quality.

• In addition to demonstrating procedures to select an acceptance sampling plan, another objective is to discuss
how prior information along with information from the sample selected can be used to make decisions.

8
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
❑ ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING:

ADVANTAGES
1. If inspection is destructive, 100% inspection is not feasible.
2. Sampling is more economical and causes less damage due
to handling. If inspection cost is high or if inspection time is
long, limited resources may make sampling preferable.
3. Sampling reduces inspection error. In high-quantity,
repetitive inspection, such as 100% inspection, inspector 3. The selection and adoption of a sampling plan require
fatigue can prevent the identification of all non
conformities or nonconforming units.
DISADVANTAGES
1. There is a risk of rejecting "good" lots or accepting
"poor" lots, identified as the producer's risk and
consumer's risk, respectively.
2. There is less information about the product compared
to that obtained from 100% inspection.
more time and effort in planning and documentation.

4. Sampling provides a strong motivation to improve quality

because an entire batch or lot may be rejected.
9
‘OC’ CURVE
• OC Curve was developed along with SQC in 1930’s and 40’s.
• Graph used in quality control to determine the probability of accepting production lots.
• Used in discrimination of sampling plan between Good & Bad lots.
• Measures Performance of Accepting sampling plans.

❑ Shape Of OC Curve
• Ideal OC Curve :
i. When percentage of Non-Confirming items are3 below prescribed
level Pa is 100% and more than it makes Oa 0%.
ii. Ideal OC Curve can be Obtained by 100% Inspection.
iii. Dividing line of probability of acceptance between 0 to 100% is
AQL.
Ideal OC Curve 10
‘OC’ CURVE
• Typical OC Curve
i. This is Roughly 'S' Shaped
ii. Obtained by joining points between probability of acceptance &
Percentage non confirming items.
iii. Obtained by performing sampling Inspection

Typical OC Curve
❑ TYPES OF OC CURVE
• Type A & Type B are the types of OC curve
Type A: Type B:
• Gives the probability of acceptance for an individual • Gives the probability of acceptance for lots coming
lot coming from finite production from a continuous process.
• This Curves are discontinuous. • This Curves are correctively viewed as continuous.11
‘OC’ CURVE
Type A: Type B:
• Assumes A finite lot • Assumes An infinite lot
• Hypergeometric distribution is used for this type of • Binomial distribution is correct one.
curve. • Poisson distribution provides a good approximation.
• Binomial or Poisson distribution often provides a • View point of Type B curve is to evaluate Producer’s
good approximation. risk
• View point of Type A curve is to evaluate
consumer’s risk

❑ Specific points on OC Curve

• Producers risk is = α
• Probability of rejection of a confirming lot.
• To reduce Producers risk, produce product at a better Quality level than AQL 12
‘OC’ CURVE
❑ Specific points on OC Curve
• Value of Producers risk is commonly 5%.
• Consumer’s Risk = β
• Risk associate with consumer.
• Probability of accepting a non-confirming lot.
• Usually it is 10%

❑ AQL (Acceptable Quality Level)

• Maximum percentage of defective that will make lot easily acceptable.
• Fraction of Defectives accepted without any serious effect on quality and Customer Relations.
• PA for an AQL lot should be high.
• AQL is also termed as Producer’s “Safe Point’’.
13
‘OC’ CURVE
❑ RQL (Rejectable Quality Level)
• Quality level unacceptable to the customer.
• Definition of Unsatisfactory quality.
• Characterized by Low Probability of acceptance.
• PA of Lot at RQL represents Consumer’s Risk.

❑ OC Graph Explanation:
• Y-Axis
• Gives the probability that the lot will be accepted (Pa).
• X –Axis = p OC Curve
• Percentage Defective
• Shows percentage-defectives along the horizontal (‘x’) axis and probability of acceptance along the vertical (‘Y’)
axis. 14
‘OC’ CURVE
❑ Definition of variable
• PA = The probability of acceptance
• p= Proportion defective
• N= Lot size PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS IN OC CURVE
• n=Sample Size
• c= Acceptance number
• α=Producer’s Risk
HYPER
• β= Consumer’s Risk GEOMETRIC
BINOMIAL POISSON’S
DISTRIBUTIONS DISTRIBUTIONS
DISTRIBUTIONS
❑ Probability Distributions in OC Curve
1. Hyper geometric Distributions
2. Binomial Distributions
3. Poisson’s Distributions 15
‘OC’ CURVE
❑ Probability Distributions in OC Curve
1. Hyper geometric Distributions
• The hypergeometric distribution is used to calculate the probability of acceptance of a sampling plan when the lot
is relatively small.
The probability of exactly ‘X’ defective parts in a sample ‘n’
• Calculation become cumbersome for large lot sizes.

2. Binomial Distributions
• The binomial assumes that the probabilities associated with all samples are equal.
• This is referred to as sampling with replacement. The probability of exactly ‘X’ defective parts in a sample ‘n’

16
‘OC’ CURVE
❑ Probability Distributions in OC Curve
3. Poisson’s Distributions
• Used for sampling plans involving the number of defects per unit rather than the number of defective parts.
• When n is large and p is small, Poisson’s Distributions formula may be used.

The probability of exactly ‘X’ defective parts in a sample ‘n’

The letter ‘e’ represents the value of the base of the natural
logarithm system. It is a constant value e= 2.71828

17
‘OC’ CURVE
❑ OC Curve Uses
• Selection of sampling plan
• Aids in selection of plans that are effective in reducing risk.
• Keeps the high cost of inspection down.

❑ Properties of OC Curve:
• Ideal curve would be perfectly perpendicular from 0 to 100% for a given fraction
defective. (Shown in 1st fig.)

• Sampling Plans with same percent samples give very different quality protection.
(Shown in 2nd fig.)

18
‘OC’ CURVE
❑ Properties of OC Curve:
• Larger the sample size steeper is the slope of OC Curve.

• Larger sample size gives protection to consumer and producer.

19
SAMPLING PLAN
Sampling
Plans
Plans that specify lot size, sample size,
number of samples, and acceptance/
Attribute Variable
rejection criteria Sampling Sampling

Single Double Multiple Other

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling Plan

i.e. Lot to Random Sampling Selection

20
SAMPLING PLAN
• Plans that specify lot size, sample size, number of samples, and acceptance/rejection criteria
• SAMPLING PLANS FOR ATTRIBUTE:
• There are, generally speaking, three types of attribute sampling plans: single, double and multiple.
❑ Single Sampling Plan:

In a single sampling plan, the information obtained from one sample is used to make a decision to accept or
reject a lot. There are two parameters in this sampling plan: the sample size n and the acceptance number c. The
plan operates as follows. A random sample of size n is selected from the batch. The number of nonconforming
items or nonconformities in the sample is found and compared to the acceptance number c. If the observed
number is less than or equal to the acceptance number, the lot is accepted. If more than c nonconforming items or
nonconformities are found in the sample, the lot is rejected.
21
SAMPLING PLAN
❑ Single Sampling Plan:

Procedure of single sampling plan is outlined as follows:

1) Pick up randomly number of items from the lot of N and inspect them.
2) If the number of defectives found in the sample size is ≤ c, accept the lot.
3) If the number of defectives in sample of n items > c, inspect the remaining (N – n) items.
4) Correct or replace all the defective products found.
Where,
N = Number of items/products in the given lot.
n = Number of units of the product randomly selected from the batch of size N.
c = Acceptance number. It is the number of maximum defectives allowed in a sample of size n.
22
SAMPLING PLAN
❑ Single Sampling Plan:

Example: Let the values of N, n and c, be as follows:

N = 400
n = 20
c= 2

• A Sample of 20 products shall be taken from a batch of 400 pieces randomly. The 20 pieces shall be inspected and
if the number of defectives found is ≤ 2, the lot of 400 pieces will be accepted without further inspection.
• If the number of defectives in the sample of 20 is more than 2 then all the remaining products. (400 – 20) = 380
should be inspected and all the defectives should either be connected or replaced by good ones before the whole
lot of 400 is accepted.

23
SAMPLING PLAN
❑ Double Sampling Plan:

• A double sampling plan involves making a decision to accept the lot, reject the lot, or take a second sample. If
the inference from the first sample is that the lot quality is quite good, the lot is accepted. If the inference is poor
lot quality, the lot is rejected. If the first sample gives an inference of neither good nor poor quality, a second
sample is taken. Thereafter, based on the combined number of nonconforming items or nonconformities in both
samples, a decision is made to accept or reject the lot.

• The parameters of a double sampling plan are as follows:

n1:size of the first sample , c1: acceptance number for the first sample
r1:rejection number for the first sample, n2: size of the second sample
c2: acceptance number for the second sample, r2: rejection number for the second sample
24
SAMPLING PLAN
❑ Double Sampling Plan:

Example: Let N = 600 c1 = 2, n1 = 30, n2 = 50, c2 = 4 then the interpretation of the above data is given below:

• The lot consists of 600 products.

• Take a sample of 30 randomly from 600 and inspect them.

• If the number of defectives is < 2 accept the lot of 600 without further inspection

• If the number of defectives in 30 is more than 2 but < 4 take the second sample of 50 products from the
remainder of N i.e., from (600-30) and inspect 50.

• If the total of defective in 50and 30 together < 4 then accept the batch of 600 otherwise reject the lot of 600.

25
SAMPLING PLAN
• Let's consider the following double sampling plan where attribute inspection is conducted to find the number of
nonconforming items:

The working procedure for this plan is initially, to select a random sample of 40 items from the lot of size 5000. If 1
or fewer nonconforming items are found, the lot is accepted, but if 4 or more nonconforming items are found, the
lot is rejected. If the observed number of nonconforming items is 2 or 3, a second sample of size 60 is selected. If
the combined number of nonconforming items from both samples is less than or equal to 5, the lot is accepted; if
it is 6 or more, the lot is rejected.

• Although double sampling plans are more complicated than single sampling plans, usually fewer items need to be
sampled, on average, to make a decision regarding the lot. This is because a demonstration of extremely good or
extremely poor batch quality in the first sample causes acceptance or rejection of the lot without the need for a
second sample. 26
SAMPLING PLAN
❑ Multiple Sampling Plan:

• Multiple sampling plans are an extension of double sampling plans. Three, four, five, or as many samples as
desired may be needed to make a decision regarding the lot. The sampling plan can be terminated at any stage
once the acceptance or rejection criteria have been met. The sample sizes in a multiple sampling plan are usually
less than those for an equivalent double sampling plan, which in turn are usually less than that for an equivalent
single sampling plan.

• The ultimate extension of the multiple sampling plan is the sequential sampling plan, which is an item-by-item
inspection plan. After each item is inspected, a decision is made to accept the lot, reject the lot, or choose another
item for inspection, depending on whether the observed cumulative number of nonconforming items is less than
or equal to the acceptance number, greater than or equal to the rejection number, or in between the two.

27
SAMPLING PLAN
❑ Multiple Sampling Plan:

Example
1. Take the sample of 60 items from the lot of N pieces and inspect them.
2. If there is no defective accept the lot of N without any further
inspection.
3. If it contains > 3 defectives reject the lot of N.
4. If it contains < 2 defectives take another sample of 30 pieces at random
and inspect them.
5. If the total number of defectives from the first and second sample
combined comes out to be 1 accept the lot of N.

28
SAMPLING PLAN
❑ Multiple Sampling Plan:

Example
6. If the total number of defectives from the first and second samples combined comes out to be > 4 reject the lot
of N.
7. If the total number of defectives < 4 and > 1 take third sample of 30 and inspect the combined lot of 120.
8. If the total number of defectives in the combined lot of 60+30+30 = 120 items is < 2, accept the lot of N.
9. If the total number of defectives > 5, reject the lot of N pieces.
10. If the total number of defectives is more than 2 and < 5, take another sample of 30 and inspect. In this way
sampling is continued.

29
SAMPLING PLAN
• OTHER ATTRIBUTE SAMPLING PLANS:
• The acceptance sampling plans described in the preceding sections are, in a sense, general purpose plans. In this
section we consider sampling plans that apply to special situations where the key criteria might be to reduce
inspection time and effort, to simplify, or to provide better protection under special conditions.
i. Chain Sampling Plan:
• The chain sampling plan (ChSP-1) was proposed by Dodge (1955). It is used for tests that are costly or destructive.
In these situations, the sample size must by necessity be small.
• Sampling plans with small sample sizes usually have an acceptance number c that is zero. However, the OC curve
for single sampling plans with c = 0 has an undesirable shape. The entire OC curve is convex; consequently, even
for extremely good lots with a low proportion nonconforming, the probability of lot acceptance Pa decreases
rapidly from 1.00. So, from a producer's point of view, there is a chance that good lots will be rejected more
frequently than they should. Next Figure shows the OC curve for single sampling plans with an acceptance
number c = 0, as well as OC curves for plans with acceptance numbers of 1 and 2, which have high values of Pa for
small values of p, a desirable feature.
30
SAMPLING PLAN
• OTHER ATTRIBUTE SAMPLING PLANS:
i. Chain Sampling Plan:
• The chain sampling plan achieves a desirable OC curve for c = 0 when the value of p is small. There are two
parameters: First, the sample size n is the number of items to be selected at random from each lot. The second
parameter ‘I’ represents the number of preceding samples, the inspection results of which must be considered
when deciding the fate of the current lot.
• The plan works as follows. A random sample of n items is chosen from the lot.
If no nonconforming items are found in the sample, the lot is accepted. If the
number of nonconforming items is 2 or more, the lot is rejected. If the sample
has 1 nonconforming item, the lot is accepted if the previous i samples each
had 0 nonconforming items. The OC curve for this plan has a shape that is
preferable to that for a single sampling plan with c = 0. Next slide Figure shows
the OC curves for chain sampling plans where the sample size is 10 and I varies
from 1 to 5 and also the OC curve for a single sampling plan with n = 10 and c =
0. The chain sampling plan for i= 1 is shown as a dashed curve. OC curves for c = 0, c= 1, and c = 2.31
SAMPLING PLAN
• OTHER ATTRIBUTE SAMPLING PLANS:
i. Chain Sampling Plan:
• It is not preferred because it deviates significantly from the OC curve for n = 10, c = 0 over the entire range of p.
ii. Sequential Sampling Plan :
• A sequential sampling plan is similar to a multiple sampling plan in that the
number of items required for sampling is influenced by the results of the
sampling process itself. At each phase, based on the cumulative inspection
results, a decision is made to either accept the lot, reject the lot, or
continue sampling. Theoretically, the sampling process can continue
indefinitely. However, if the number inspected is equal to approximately 3
times the number that would be inspected by an equivalent single
sampling plan, a decision is made to terminate the plan and notify the
vendor of the need to demonstrate an improved level of product before
any further product can be accepted. OC curves for ChSP-1 plans.
32
SAMPLING PLAN
• OTHER ATTRIBUTE SAMPLING PLANS:
ii. Sequential Sampling Plan :
• A sequential sampling plan is similar to a multiple sampling plan in that the number of items required for sampling
is influenced by the results of the sampling process itself.
• At each phase, based on the cumulative inspection results, a decision is
made to either accept the lot, reject the lot, or continue sampling.
• Sequential sampling is usually an item-by-item inspection process, even
though it is possible to have groups of items at any given phase. Sequential
sampling is used when it is desirable to arrive at a decision to either accept
or reject the lot as soon as possible (i.e., when testing is expensive or
destructive). The plan is based on the sequential probability ratio test
developed by Wald

Item-by-item sequential sampling plan

33
SAMPLING PLAN
❑ ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ATTRIBUTE PLANS:

• We can design single, double, or multiple sampling plans that are equivalent in the sense that they have the same
probability of lot acceptance for batches of a given quality. Therefore, we need to consider the advantages and
disadvantages of these types when we select a sampling plan.
• As far as simplicity is concerned, the single sampling plan is the best, followed by double and then multiple
sampling plans. Administrative costs for record keeping, training, and inspection are the least for single and the
highest for multiple sampling plans.
• On average, for equivalent plans, the number of items inspected to make a decision regarding the lot is usually
more for a single sampling plan. This is because double and multiple sampling plans use fewer items in their
samples, so if the lots are of very good or poor quality, a decision to accept or reject them is made quickly.
Inspection costs will therefore be the most for single, and the least for multiple sampling plans.
• The information content of the samples is a function of the sample size; the more samples we inspect, the more
information we have about the product and consequently the process. Single sampling plans provide the most
information, and multiple sampling plans the least.
34
SAMPLING PLAN
• SAMPLING PLANS FOR VARIABLES :

• A variable is a quality characteristic that is measured on a numerical scale, such as weight, pressure, temperature,
viscosity, tensile strength, elasticity, resistance, and so on. The characteristic is often inherently a variable.
Treating it as an attribute does not retain the precision of information offered by variables. If testing is destructive
or costly, smaller sample sizes may be necessary. Acceptance sampling plans for variables are more suitable in
these instances because they require smaller sample sizes than corresponding attribute sampling plans for the
same degree of protection.

• There are two basic types of variable sampling plans. The first deals with controlling a process parameter such as
the mean or standard deviation. The desirable settings of the parameters are such that certain conditions
regarding the mean lot quality and the corresponding probability of lot acceptance are satisfied. Plans can be
designed for single or double specification limits and a process standard deviation that is known or unknown.
Some plans in this category involve acceptance control charts, sequential sampling plans for variables, and
hypothesis testing on process parameters. 35
SAMPLING PLAN
❑ ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VARIABLE PLANS :
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1. For a comparable level of protection as specified by the 1.
producer's risk a, the acceptable quality level (AQL), the
consumer's risk ß, and the limiting quality level (LQL), sample
sizes are smaller for a variable plan than for an attribute plan.
2. Variable sampling plans provide more information than attribute
plans. Since a numerical value for the characteristic is specified,
the extent to which the item is conforming or not is obtained. 2.
Attribute plans simply specify the item as conforming or not.
3. Variable sampling plans provide` insight into the areas that
deserve attention for quality improvement. The information from
a variable plan may provide clues for remedial actions for 3.
improving process quality. Continual process improvement
should be the goal of every organization; variable plans help
achieve it.
Each quality characteristic requires a separate sampling
plan. Because the number of quality characteristics is
usually large, this implies that several sampling plans
must be monitored. With attribute sampling plans,
several variables can be combined to form a single
attribute plan.
The administrative and unit inspection costs are usually
higher for variable plans than for attribute plans. The
measuring instruments are more expensive because an
exact measurement value is taken.
To make inferences from the variable sampling plans,
we must know or estimate the distribution of the
quality characteristic for the process under
consideration.
36
PRODUCER’S RISK
• In acceptance sampling, units are randomly chosen from a batch, lot, or process. There are two types of risk
inherent in any sampling plan as discussed in the following material: Producer's Risk & Consumer's Risk.
❑ Producer's Risk:

• The risk associated with rejecting a "good" lot, due to the inherent nature of random sampling, is defined as a
producer's risk. The notion of the quality level of lots that defines acceptable level or "good" product will be
influenced by the needs of the customer. Acceptable quality level (AQL) is the terminology used to define this level
of quality.
• Thus, when we state a producer's risk in a sampling plan, we must correspondingly state a desirable level of
quality that we prefer to accept.
• For example, if we state that the producer's risk is 5% for an AQL of 0.02, it means that we consider batches that
are 2% nonconforming to be good and prefer to reject such batches no more than 5% of the time. If the
consumer's risk is 10% for an LQL of 0.08, this means that batches that are 8% nonconforming are poor and we
prefer to accept these batches no more than 10% of the time.
37
CONSUMER’S RISK
❑ Consumer's Risk:

• The risk associated with accepting a "poor" lot, due to the inherent nature of random sampling, is defined as a
consumer's risk. Further, norms of customer requirements will govern the definition of a "poor" lot. Limiting
quality level (LQL) or Rejectable quality level (RQL) is the terminology used to defined this level of unacceptable
quality. An alternative terminology, when the quality level is expressed in percentage nonconformance, is lot
tolerance percent defective (LTPD).
• Producer and consumer risk can also be demonstrated through the OC
curve. Suppose that our numerical definition of good quality (indicated by
the AQL) is 0.01 and that of poor quality (indicated by the LQL) is 0.11.
From the OC curve in Figure 10-2, the producer's risk a is 1 - 0.986 = 0.014.
We consider batches that are 1 % nonconforming to be good. If our
sampling plan is used, such batches will be rejected about 1.4% of the
time. Batches that are 11% nonconforming, on the other hand, will be
accepted 8.8% of the time. The consumer's risk is therefore 8.8%.
OC curve for the sampling plan
38
AVERAGE QUALITY LEVEL
• The OC curve is one measure of the performance of a sampling plan. We also use other measures to evaluate the
goodness of a sampling plan. These involve the average quality level of batches leaving the inspection station, the
average number of items inspected before making a decision on the lot, and the average amount of inspection
per lot if a rejected lot goes through 100% inspection. We discuss single sampling plans here, but the concepts
apply to all three plans.

I. Average Outgoing Quality

II. Average Total Inspection

III. Average Outgoing Quality Limit (AOQL)

39
AVERAGE QUALITY LEVEL
I. Average Outgoing Quality

• Acceptance sampling plans provides the assurance that the average quality level or percent defectives actually
going to consumers will not exceed certain limit. Fig demonstrates the concept of average outgoing quality
related with actual percent defectives being produced.
• The AOQ curve indicates that as the actual percent defectives in a
production process increases, initially the effect is for the lots to be passed
for acceptance even though the number of defectives has gone up and the
percent defectives going to the consumer increases.

• If this upward trend continues, the acceptance plan beings to reject lots
and when lots are rejected, 100% inspection is followed and defective units
are replaced by good ones. The net effect is to improve the average quality
of the outgoing products since the rejected lots which to are ultimately
accepted contain all non-defective items (because of 100% inspection). An Average Outgoing Quality (AOQ) curve
40
AVERAGE QUALITY LEVEL
I. Average Outgoing Quality

• The average outgoing quality (AOQ) is the average quality level of a series of batches that leave the inspection
station, assuming rectifying inspection, after coming in for inspection at a certain quality level p. The AOQ is not
the quality level of a single batch that leaves the inspection station.

• Example- Construct the AOQ curve for the sampling plan N = 2000, n = 50, c = 2.
• Solution- The probability of lot acceptance for various values of the incoming lot quality p is listed in Table 10-1.
Using these values of Pa and p, the values of AOQ are calculated for different values of p.

41
AVERAGE QUALITY LEVEL
I. Average Outgoing Quality

• Graph shows the AOQ curve for the sampling plan N = 2000, n = 50, c = 2. Note that when the incoming quality is
very good, the average outgoing quality is also very good. When the incoming quality is very poor, the average
outgoing quality is good because most of the lots are rejected by the sampling plan and go through screening. In
between these extremes, the AOQ curve reaches a maximum, AOQL.

TABLE 1

AOQ curve for the sampling plan in Example

42
AVERAGE QUALITY LEVEL
ii. Average Total Inspection
• If rectifying inspection is conducted for lots rejected by the sampling plan, another evaluation measure is the
average total inspection (ATI). The ATI represents the average number of items inspected per lot. If a lot has no
nonconforming items, it will obviously be accepted by the chosen sampling plan, and only n items (the sample
size) will be inspected for a lot.
• For single sampling plans, the average total inspection per lot for lots with an incoming quality level p is given by,

• Here Pa represents the probability of accepting a lot that has an incoming quality level of p. A plot of the average
total inspection versus/? is an ATI curve. Note that for an individual lot, the amount inspected is either n or N.
• For a double sampling plan the ATI is given by,
• Where Pa1 represents the probability of accepting the lot on the
first sample, and Pa2 represents the probability of lot acceptance
on the second sample.
43
AVERAGE QUALITY LEVEL
ii. Average Total Inspection
• Example - Construct the ATI curve for the sampling plan where N = 2000, n = 50, c = 2.
• Solution Consider the calculations for a given value of the lot quality p of 0.02. As shown in Table 10-1, the
probability of accepting such a lot using the sampling plan is Pa = 0.920. The ATI for this value of p is

• For other values of p, the ATI is found in the same manner. The ATI
curve is plotted in side graph shows. Given the unit cost of
inspection, the ATI curve can be used to estimate the average
inspection cost if the quality level of incoming batches is known.

ATI curve for the sampling plan 44

AOQL
• Average Outgoing Quality Limit (AOQL):
• Let's first consider the concept of rectifying inspection as it applies to lots that are rejected through sampling
plans. Usually, such lots go through 100% inspection, known as screening, where nonconforming items are
replaced with conforming ones. Such a procedure is known as rectification inspection because it affects the quality
of the product that leaves the inspection station. Nonconforming items found in the sample are also replaced.
• The AOQL is the average quality level of a series of batches that leave the inspection station, assuming rectifying
inspection, after coming in for inspection at a certain quality level p. The AOQ is not the quality level of a single
batch that leaves the inspection station. For instance, a batch with incoming quality level p will leave the
inspection station with about the same quality level if accepted by the sampling plan.
• We assume the sample is a small enough proportion of the lot such that if nonconforming items are found in the
sample and replaced with conforming ones, the quality level of the lot is not significantly affected. Similarly,
another batch with the same incoming quality p that is rejected by the sampling plan will be screened and so will
leave the inspection station with no nonconforming items. (This assumes that screening detects all
nonconforming items.) The AOQ measures the average quality level of a large number of such batches of
incoming quality p, the proportion nonconforming in the lots, assuming rectification. 45
AOQL
• Taking N as the lot size, n as the sample size, p as the incoming lot quality, and Pa as the probability of accepting
the lot using the given sampling plan, the average, outgoing quality is given by:

• To understand this equation, note that n items in the sample will have no nonconforming items after they have
been inspected. If the lot is rejected by the sampling plan, the (N – n) items left in the lot go through screening so
that no nonconforming items are in the outgoing product. Only if the lot is accepted by the sampling plan will the
N - n items left in the lot leave the inspection station with p(N — n) nonconforming items.
• However, the probability that the batch will be accepted by the sampling plan is Pa. So Pa p(N — n) is the number
of nonconforming items per lot expected to leave the inspection station. The average proportion nonconforming
is given by above eq.

46
AOQL
• The value of AOQ depends on the incoming quality level p of the batches. Thus, an AOQ curve that evaluates the
effectiveness of the sampling plan for various levels of incoming quality is usually constructed.
• Let's, consider the single sampling plan N = 2000, n = 50, c = 2.
• Suppose that the incoming quality of batches is 2% nonconforming.
• From the Poisson cumulative distribution tables in Appendix A-2, the probability Pa of accepting the lot using the
sampling plan is 0.920. The average outgoing quality is :

• Thus, if batches come in as 2% nonconforming,

the average outgoing quality is 1.79%.

47
 DESIGN OF SINGLE & DOUBLE SAMPLING PLAN
❑ Design of Single Sampling Plans Now we will discuss several approaches for designing single sampling plans.
Basically, these approaches involve determining the sample size n and acceptance number c of the plan. The
criteria selected influences the parameters of the plan. Sometimes, more than one plan will satisfy the criteria.
What follows is a series of procedures for determining the parameters of a single sampling plan based on the
criteria specified.
a. Stipulated Producer's Risk:
• Let's suppose the producer's risk a and its associated quality level pi,
which is the acceptable quality level (AQL), are specified. We desire single
sampling plans that will accept lots of quality level pi, 100(l-a)% of the
time. Side Figure shows the OC curves of sampling plans that meet this
stipulated criteria. Note that several plans may satisfy this criteria. We
want to find a sampling plan whose OC curve passes through the single
point (AQL, 1-a). This criterion is not very restrictive; the OC curves of a
variety of plans could pass through this point. OC curves of single sampling plans for
stipulated producer's risk and AQL48
DESIGN OF SINGLE & DOUBLE SAMPLING PLAN
• To find the appropriate sampling plan, first select an acceptance number c. As discussed previously, the Poisson
distribution will be used to approximate the hypergeometric distribution when determining the lot acceptance
probability. This is reasonable when the sample size is a small fraction of the lot size and the lot proportion
nonconforming p is small. The mean number of nonconforming items in the sample is given by λ = np. Hence, for
a probability of lot acceptance Pa equal to 1 - a at p=p1 the value of λ is found in Appendix A-2. Because X = np1 =n
(AQL), the sample size n is found by dividing the value of n(AQL) by AQL. Fractional computed values of the
sample size are always rounded up to be conservative.
b. Stipulated Consumer's Risk :
• Let's suppose that the consumer's risk ß and its associated quality level
p2, which is the limiting quality level (LQL), are given. We want to find
sampling plans that will accept lots of quality level p2, 100ß% of the
time. Here again, a number of sampling plans will satisfy this criterion.
Figure 10-10 shows the OC curves for three sampling plans that meet
the criterion.
OC curves of single sampling plans for
stipulated consumer's risk and LQL
49
DESIGN OF SINGLE & DOUBLE SAMPLING PLAN
• The procedure is similar to that used with producer's risk. A value of the acceptance number c is chosen. Based on
the probability of acceptance of ß, for lots of quality p2 = LQL, the value of ë = np2 is found in Appendix A-2. If the
value of â is 0.10, we can use below table to obtain the value of np2. The sample size is calculated by dividing the
value of np2 by p2.

50
DESIGN OF SINGLE & DOUBLE SAMPLING PLAN
❑ Design of Double Sampling Plans:
• One criterion for designing double sampling plans involves satisfying a specified level of the producer's risks a at
an associated quality level p1 = AQL and meeting a consumer's risk ß at a quality level p2 = LQL. Thus, we want to
find a plan where the OC curve passes through the two points (AQL, 1 — a) and (LQL, ß).
• Another sample procedure will help us find double sampling plans. Let's assume the sample sizes are either n2 =
n1, or n2 = 2n1. We will use a pair of tables known as Grubbs‘ tables (Tables 1 and 2), named after their originator,
Frank E. Grubbs, who proposed their use for constructing double sampling plans. Table 1 is used when n1= n2, and
Table 2 is used when n2 = 2n1. Both tables are based on a producer's risk a of 0.05 and a consumer's risk ß of 0.10.
• These tables are used to construct double sampling plans as follows. First, the ratio R of LQL to AQL (or p2lp1) is
found. Using either Table 1 or 2, depending on the circumstances, the value closest to the calculated R-value is
found. Next, the value of n1p is read from the appropriate table. Dividing n1p by p (which is either p1 or p2) yields
the size of the first sample (n1) The complete sampling plan, involving acceptance number for the two samples, is
read from Tables 1 and 2.

51
DESIGN OF SINGLE & DOUBLE SAMPLING PLAN
• Design of Double Sampling Plans :

Grubbs Table I: Values for Constructing Double Grubbs Table II: Values for Constructing Double
Sampling Plans Where n1=n2 (α=0.05, β= 0.10) Sampling Plans Where n2=2n1 (α=0.05, β= 0.10)

ATI curve for the double sampling plan

52
Reference
• Fundamentals of quality control and improvement / Amitava Mitra. - 3rd ed.p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-0-
470-22653-7 (cloth)
• https://www.slideshare.net/chintantrivedi77/operating-characteristics-curve
• http://dl4a.org/uploads/pdf/581SPC.pdf
• http://www.just.edu.jo/~haalshraideh/QC/c01.pdf
• http://bmepedia.weebly.com/uploads/2/6/6/8/26683759/unit_4_quality_control.pdf
• http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1022.6121&rep=rep1&type=pdf
• https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251125790_Quality_Engineering_and_Management
• https://www.coursehero.com/file/8275327/Total-Quality-Management-and-Six-Sigma/

53
Reference
• http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/industrial-engineering-2/quality-control-industrial-engineering-2/sampling-
plans-used-for-acceptance-sampling-quality-control/90334
• http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/industrial-engineering-2/quality-control-industrial-engineering-2/acceptance-
sampling-meaning-advantages-and-limitations/90329

54
Thankyou..

55