Final Report Volume Iii Design Manual: For Internal Use Only

FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY Final Report Volume II Design Manual
FINAL REPORT VOLUME III

DESIGN MANUAL
CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 GENERAL

CHAPTER 2 SEQUENCE OF
INTRODUCTION OPERATION DISPLAYS
CHAPTER 3 LISTS OF INPUT DATA
DIVISION I MANUAL FOR
BRIDGE PLANNING DIVISION VI OPERATION MANUAL
FOR QUANTITY
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL CALCULATION
CHAPTER 2 PROCESS OF BRIDGE
PLANNING DIVISION VII OPERATION MANUAL
CHAPTER 3 ENGINEERING FOR FOR SUBSTRUCTURE
BRIDGE PLANNING DESIGN
DIVISION 11 MANUAL FOR BRIDGE CHAPTER 1 GENERAL

ANALYSIS CHAPTER 2 SEQUENCE OF
OPERATION DISPLAYS
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL
CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS FOR SUPER
STRUCTURE
CHAPTER 3 ANALYSIS FOR SUB
STRUCTURE
DIVISION III BRIDGE

CONSTRUCTION
PLAN AND COST
ESTIMATE
CHAPTER I GENERAL
CHAPTER 2 CONSTRUCTION PLAN
CHAPTER 3 OST ESTIMATE
DIVISION IV OPERATION MANUAL

FOR COMPUTER-AIDED
DESIGN PROGRAMME
CHAPTER I GENERAL
CHAPTER 2 SEQUENCE OF
OPERATION DISPLAYS
CHAPTER 3 LISTS OF INPUT DATA
DIVISION V OPERATION MANUAL

FOR COMPUTER-AIDED
DRAWING
PROGRAMME
Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 1

FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY Final Report Volume III Design Manual
INTRODUCTION broadly applicable.
The design manual was prepared for an aim of In Division IV : Operational Manual for
technology transfer to the JKR engineers who Computer-Aided Design Programme and
are to undertake design of the standard bridges Division V Operational Manual for Computer-
that were established in the Study on the Aided Drawing Programme, both explain on
Standardization of Bridge Design in Malaysia respective data files, input operation and basics
implemented by JICA (Japan International for key operation for input. They also present
Cooperation Agency). the sequence of operation displays and the list
of input data for design programme and draw-
The manual consists of three major subjects, ing programme respectively.
namely, bridge planning, bridge design and
bridge construction and cost estimates, and it Generally, the manuals cover all fundamentals
also includes two operational manuals for com- needed for the JKR engineers to carry out the
puter aided design and drawing programme. design work from planning stage up to cost
estimate and also they include practical opera-
In Division I : Manual for Bridge Planning, tional guidelines for computer aided design and
although it is difficult to systematize all of the drawing programmes.
bridge planning procedures, it will provide
mainly with the procedures for structural side Each of the divisions can be used independent-
of bridge planning for the engineers who are ly of the other but is actually inter-related with
not always well experienced. Particularly, the each other in the process of design work.
provisions for the waterway crossing require-
ments, which is the extraction of the Japan's It is hoped that the manuals are useful for the
river management ordinance, will be a good JKR engineers not only to carry out design
help to understand how to take hydrological work, but also to improve the knowledge of
condition into the bridge planning to cross bridge engineering.
rivers.
In Division II : Manual for Bridge Design

Analysis, it describes the basic concept of the
bridge structural analysis and the procedures of
design program regarding the standard bridge
design produced by the Study. One of the most
important objective is to allow JKR engineers
to carry out designs by themselves after the
Study.
In Division III : Manual for Bridge

Construction Plan and Cost Estimates, a
primary objective is to assist the JKR engineers
in understanding the construction plan, method
and estimating procedure of the standard bridge
construction project. The construction plan
presents mainly current practices and problems
on construction method and work approach of
bridge construction, and it will relate to the cost
estimate. The cost estimate presents
fundamental method and procedure which are

DIVISION I MANUAL FOR BRIDGE 3.5 Preliminary Cosr tEstimate and

PLANNING Construction Plan 1-45
3.5.1 Preliminary Cost Estimate 1-45
CONTENTS 3.5.2 Preliminary Construction
Plan 1-47
CHAPTER I GENERAL Page 3.6 Environmental Impact and Aesthetic
Consideration 1-51
1.1 Introduction 1-1 3.6.1 General 1-51
1.2 General Bridge Structure 1-1 3.6.2 Impactc of Highway and
1.3 Bridge Life Cycle 1-2 Bridge Project 1-52
3.6.3 Aesthetic Consideration 1-54
CHAPTER 2 PROCESS OF BRIDGE
PLANNING
2.1 General 1-4

2.2 Demand for Bridge Construction 1-4
2.3 Definition of Requirements and
Conditions 1-5
2.3.1 General 1-5
2.3.2 Requirements . 1-5
2.3.3 Conditions 1-6
2.4 Drafting of Bridge Plan 1-9
2.4.1 Preparation of Base Map 1-9
2.4.2 Drafting of Bridge Plan 1-9
2.5 Evaluation and Selection 1-15
2.5.1 General 1-15
2.5.2 Objects of Evaluation 1-15
2.5.3 Scope of Evaluation 1-19
CHAPTER 3 ENGINEERING FOR BRIDGE

PLANNING
3.1 Principles for Bridge Planning 1-20

3.2 Field Surveys 1-22
3.2.1 Topographic Survey 1-22
3.2.2 Geological Survey 1-22
3.2.3 Hydrological Survey 1-25
3.3 Crossing Conditions 1-26
3.3.1 General 1-26
3.3.2 Waterway Crossing 1-26
3.3.3 Roadway Crossing 1-33
3.3.4 Railway Crossing 1-35
3.4 Bridge Structure Type 1-37
3.4.1 General 1-37
3.4.2 Superstructure 1-37
3.4.3 Substructure 1-41
3.4.4 Foundation 1-41

DIVISION I MANUAL FOR BRIDGE Although it is difficult to systemize all of the

PLANNING bridge planning procedures, this manual will
provide mainly with the procedures for the
CHAPTER I GENERAL structural side of bridge planning for the engi-
neers who are not always well experienced.
1.1 Introduction Particularly, the provisions for the waterway
crossing requirements given in chapter 3.3.2,
"Bridge Planning" is rather a composite art to which is the extraction of the Japan's river act,
involve not only bridge design but also traffic, will be a good help to understand how to take
highway, waterway and other related knowl- hydrological condition into the bridge planning
edges. In broad sense, it even includes adminis- to cross rivers. However, the manual does not
tration duties such as financing measures, land detail about traffic demand and highway stud-
acquisition, consultations with other authorities ies nor administration matters.
for re-location of public utilities, etc. to assure
its implementation. Thus, the job of bridge 1.2 General Bridge Structure
planning, for it requires a wide territory of
engineerings, cannot usually be carried out but The general features and terms of the bridge
by the experienced engineers who are of course structure explained in the manual are illustrated
bridge specialists and further must have other as follows:
related profound knowledges.
Fig. 1.1 General Bridge Structure

In the above cycle, the steps (1) to (4) are 2.2 Demand for Bridge
defined as the planning stage, and which are Construction
the very process to be discussed in this manual.
Bridges are constructed for various purposes to
The steps (5) and (6) are recognized as the support roads and highways at strategic points
design stage to cover the activities from struc- along their routes. Bridge structures are
tural analysis up to preparation of drawings and required to cross over rivers and valleys, or for
specifications normally including construction grade-separation with other roads and railways.
contract documents. The step (5) - preliminary
design is generally performed with less accura- Bridges are generally classified and separately
cy than that of detailed design to obtain outline called by purpose as follows:
of the project and clarify problems, which
enable the authority to take early actions and (1) Road or highway bridge
corrections before detailed design sets in. General name for any bridge on roads
and highways.
Bridge plan is materialized through the detailed
design and construction. Completed bridge will (2) Railway bridge
be used over a long period as a public facility General name for any bridge on
receiving maintenance and when it becomes railways.
decrepit, the demand for new bridge construc-
tion arises again. (3) Flyover or overpass bridge
Bridges for grade-separation with other
CHAPTER 2 roads, highways, or railways at
intersections.
PROCESS OF BRIDGE
PLANNING (4) Viaduct
Bridges to support elevated roads,
2.1 General highways, or railways, which are built
mainly at where ground space is limited
The work of bridge planning is begun upon in urban area or embankment is difficult
seizing the demand for bridge construction and for ground is soft.
takes the steps as explained in the bridge life
cycle toward implementation. However, the 2.3 Definition of Requirements and
process of bridge planning explained in this Conditions
manual is not always applicable as it is to every
case. By cases, different planning process will 2.3.1 General
be taken: some bridges can be planned more
simply but some may need another or addition- Upon receiving a demand of bridge construc-
al consideration. Practically, the experienced tion plan, it is the first step to clarify all the
bridge designers tend to perform bridge plan- information attending the proposed bridge plan
ning by taking into account various conditions including both of requirements and conditions.
simultaneously. Requirements mean functions and capacities
intended to the planned bridge. Conditions
This chapter of bridge planning process will be mean natural environment and surroundings
useful for less experienced engineer as a check- where the bridge is to be constructed.
list not to miss the essentials of planning and
for advanced engineers to prepare lucid expla- 2.3.2 Requirements
nation and report for their planning.
For the planning of road and highway bridges,

generally the following information shall be - Water main pipes

clarified first, the most of which are obtained - Gas main pipes
from the highway design where the bridge is
proposed. These public utilities are generally laid
along roads under pavement, but at bridges
(1) Road alignments (vertical and horizontal) held by bridge structures.
Approximate location and size of bridge The requests of affixing public utilities
are initially defined in the vertical and should be confirmed to each utility agency
horizontal alignments of planned road. The and taken into account in bridge planning
road alignment of the proposed bridge if requested. The accommodation space for
section and its vicinity will be sometimes utilities shall be secured in the bridge
modified if that is not favorable for bridge crosssectional profile and their additional
planning, for example to avoid steep grade, weights including that of affixing devices
sharp skew, curbed alignment, etc. In case be taken into bridge loading. Utilities are
of bridge replacement, the new bridge is usually accommodated under bridge deck
generally planned in parallel with the old, and between beams to be concealed from
and approach roads are required to connect the external view. Affixing of electric lines
with the existing road. needs insulated covering against electric
shock risk. Affixing of water main pipes
(2) Cross-section of road sometimes makes the bridge structural lay
out difficult especially in case that water
The cross-sectional profile of bridge pipe is too large to be accommodated
generally conforms to the standard cross- between beams.
section of road design. Same traffic lane
widths as that of the road section are The cost of affixing public utilities is
normally applied to the bridge section, too. generally beared by the utility agencies in
As regards shoulder and sidewalk, different the proportion of the utility weight to the
designs are sometimes adopted according total bridge design loads.
to the situation of the proposed bridge for
example reducing or adding such widths 2.3.3 Conditions
from economical reason.
Bridges are so planned as not only to meet
(3) Design vehicle loads the prescribed requirements but also to be
Design vehicle loads to be imposed on compatible with the surrounding
bridge must conform to the JKR environment and other site conditions.
specification for bridge live load. Over Normally, the following conditions are
loading provision may be considered involved:
according to the classification of road and
the design traffic volume especially of (1) Topography
heavy commercial vehicles ratio.
Bridge structure is planned so as to fit
(4) Affixed public utilities in surrounding topography. Normally,
Bridge, although its major function is to topographic map and profile elevations
support traffic loads, is often requested to are prepared by the plane and levelling
affix the following public utilities: surveys, and on which bridge structure
is planned mainly for determining
- Tele-communication cables location, length, and spans.
- Electric cables

(2) Geology The most necessary hydrological

information is that of flood such as
Also, the ground condition of bridge site rate of discharge and high water
will decide the structural design of level, which can be determined by
bridge. General soil information such as the run-off analysis assuming rainfall
natures and depths of typical soil layers, intensity. However, this theoretical
would be obtained by collecting approach is often not reliable due to
previous data if available or by complexity and lack of field data.
performing soil boring, sounding, or The second-best measure is to trace
geophysical exploration if no previous the past flood marks along river basin
data is available. All such information is for determining the high water level
gathered into a soil profile and which and to survey the past flood damages
should be combined with the nearby the planned bridge for
topographic profile for the convenience deciding the course of flood flow.
of performing planning work.
Geological information is used mainly The cross-section of waterway
for mainly for selecting bearing stratum, (existing water level and river bed
and location and type of substructures in elevations) at the planned bridge
particular of foundations. location should be surveyed and
plotted on the topographic profile
(3) Climate together with high water level and
river improvement plan if there is.
Malaysia is under the tropical monsoon After confirming the cross-sectional
climate and its weather is moderate: profile of waterway, bridge structure
there is neither typhoon nor earthquake is planned so as to be positioned
although a year is divided in dry and wet above the high water level with
seasons and heavy rains in wet season. appropriate freeboard and over the
Therefore, the weather condition of the extent of the high water level.
country affects bridge structures little Hydrological conditions prepared for
except some local phenomena i.e. strong bridge planning are subject to the
monsoon wind at the east coast of the approval of JPS (Jabatan Pengairan
peninsula and salt injuries of concrete in Dan Saliran).
marine atmosphere. Careful attention is
required to the measures against rains as The hydrological survey items and
well as to the hydrological and hydraulic the waterway crossing conditions
conditions of bridge sites. Depending on necessary for bridge planning are
the intensity of rains, the constructions detailed later in Chapters 3.2.3 and
in mountainous terrain during the rainy 3.3.2 respectively.
season have a risk of land slide.
(5) Grade separation
(4) Hydrology
When bridge is planned for grade
Minimum height, depth, and length of separation with other road or railway,
bridge structure are generally decided the following information of the
from the hydrological conditions of crossing road or railway at the
waterway except the bridges planned far planned bridge location is necessary:
higher above the water level to take
navigation clearance, to cross deep 1) Plan and longitudinal profile
valley, or for grade-separation.

2) Cross-sectional profile significantly.
3) Over-head and under-ground public 4) Construction pollution

utilities The piling work by the use of diesel
hammer has been prohibited
4) Road or track clearance according to the area and hours in
Kuala Lumpur. These years, the
5) Overlay and widening plan construction work in urban area is
becoming restricted for the
The crossing conditions with road and environment conservation. Bridge
railway are detailed later in Chapters plan has to consider it in selecting
3.3.3 and 3.3.4 respectively. construction method.
(6) Construction 2.4 Drafting of Bridge Plan
Construction of planned bridge should 2.4.1 Preparation of Base Map

be practicable. To ensure that, the
following basic information about Bridge plan is drafted on the base map
construction is generally required, which which is prepared as follows:
sometimes will be a decisive factor to
select bridge type. 1) Base map is a drawing having a
topographical plan lower and a pro
1) Access to construction site file upper corresponding in position.
For such bridge sites as the access of Base map shall cover an area
heavy equipment is difficult due to sufficient for planning both of bridge
steep terrain or densely built up, the and its approach roads. Depending
selection of bridge type will be on the terrain and the size of the
limited by construction method and planned bridge, an area of around
availability of equipment. 100m wide by the bridge length plus
50m for each approach is a
2) Transportation to bridge site minimum idea.
Modern bridge construction uses
many of large precast or factory- 2) Add the geological information. to
made members such as for beams the base map: soil profile and boring
and piles, and accordingly needs data on profile, and boring location
more heavy equipment to erect them. on plan.
The transportable size and route will
be a main factor to decide the 3) Add the hydrological information to
maximum span for the bridges the base map: high water level, river
remote from existing road. bed elevations and freeboard on
profile, and water flow course and
3) Traffic diversion banks on plan. If there is any river
In case of re-construction plan of improvement plan, plot its finished
existing bridge, traffic diversion is elevations and alignments.
usually necessary. If there is no
detour way in the vicinity of the 4) In case of the grade-separation
bridge, temporary bridge or the stage bridge, enter the information of the
construction scheme is required and crossing road or the railway on the
that raises the project cost base map: cross-sectional elevations

and clearances on profile and example, suppose three earth-fill

horizontal alignments on plan. If heights 4, 6 and Sm along the
there is any widening or overlay approach road of 4% slope and so
plan, plot its finished alignments and each point is 25m apart.
elevations.
2) Estimate roughly and sum up the
5) Plot the planned road alignments on hypothetical costs for each point, and
the base map: finished road compare them to find the most
elevations on profile, and center and economical location. Refer to Fig.
other lane lines on plan. In addition, 1.3 - Economical Abutment Location
enter the designed cross-sectional and Table 1.1 - Hypothetical Costs.
profile of bridge on the upper right
of the base map. 3) Regarding the estimate of the super
structure cost in Table 1.1, although
2.4.2 Drafting of Bridge Plan type and span will not have been
decided yet in this stage, assume
Bridge plan will be drafted on the base them tentatively and estimate the
map normally taking the following average unit cost per bridge surface
procedures: area from the past records of project
costs. For instance, PC (prestressed
(1) Location and length of bridge concrete) beam with 20-30m span
may be an appropriate first
Location and length of bridge are assumption. If there is a possibility
determined on the profile of the base of steel beam likely in Sabah and
map by selecting the abutment location Sarawak, estimate the cost in same
at both bridge ends. manner.
For the bridges planned with minimum Irrespective of the above economic
height on the high water level, the study, the limit of the safe embankment
abutment location is generally so height will be an decisive factor to
decided, according to the crossing decide the abutment location where the
conditions, as to minimize the bridge ground cannot support high fills. After
length from economic reason. Crossing all such studies, abutment is generally
conditions are detailed later in Chapter planned of its height ranging from
3.3. around 4 to 15m.
However, for the bridges planned high

from the ground or from the high water
level and so the abutment location is dis
cretionary, it can be decided
economically by the cost comparison
between bridge and embankment. A
sample of the cost comparison is
demonstrated as follows:
1) Assume minimum three points of

tentative abutment location with
different earth-fill and abutment
heights along an approach road. For

Fig. 1.3 Economical Abutment Location
Table 1.1 Hypothetical Costs

(2) Pier location, span, and bridge type construction cost for each case
including all the superstructure and
After defining the bridge location substructure costs and compare them
and length, the next is to select pier to find the most economical span
location and spans as well as appli arrangement and bridge type.
cable bridge types (of
superstruture) by studying the 3)In order to hold the accuracy of
ground (topographical and the cost comparison, bride type
geological) and crossing (of should be selected appropriate for
waterway, road, or railway) the proposed span and be practicable
conditions on the base map. As in construction. The superstructure
spans are decided, the choice of type is comparatively quick to be
bridge types will be narrowed down, looked up from the standard design
that is, span is generally selected compared to the substructure which
within the applicable range for each is usually not easy and owes much
bridge type. The reference of bridge to the engineer's experience and the
types and suitable span range is past similar designs. Simplified
given later in Tables 1.5 and 1.6 of stability calculation is sometimes
Chapter 3.4.2. required to define the size of sub
structure especially the size and
For the bridges where pier location number of piles which affect the
is restricted by crossing conditions, substructure cost significantly.
it is so selected, according to the
recommendations detailed in 4) In conclusion, the economy of
Chapter 3.3 - Crossing Conditions, selecting span and bridge type is
as to minimize the interference with understood as the cost balance
the crossing river, road, or railway. between superstructure and sub
structure. That is, the cost of super
However, for the bridges where pier structure is generally much the
location is discretionary, it is higher as the longer span is. On the
selected economically by comparing other hand, the cost of substructure
the costs for several span depends more on ground condition
alternatives. This study holds true than span and bridge type.
more for longer bridges. A sample Therefore, for such bridges as the
of the cost comparison is substructure cost is small because,
demonstrated as follows: for instance, no pile is required
owing to shallow bearing stratum,
1) Propose minimum three the choice of shorter span with
alternatives of different span many piers is economical, and vice
arrangements and their versa.
corresponding bridge types for a
certain bridge length. For example,
suppose the following three
arrangement cases as shown in Fig.
1.4 - Economical Span
Arrangement.
2) Estimate roughly the total


Fig.1.5 Span Arrangement for Deep Valley

2.5 Evaluation and Selection but the problem is to select the type
and size of piles. Several options will
2.5.1 General be suggested with advantages and
disadvantages. For instance, PC spun
Chapter 2.4 explained how to draft a piles may be the cheapest but
bridge plan to meet the requirements in uncertain in execution for the depth
the given conditions. As a matter of of bearing stratum and the existence
course, drafting work is always per of intermediate sand layers. Steel
formed to seek better plan and through pile piles are reliable in construction
this process various judgments and but may be the most expensive.
reasonings as well as selections will Bored cast-insitu concrete piles will
have been developed. However, such be another possibility reliable in
developed information will not have execution and advantageous for less
been logically compiled yet. For the noise if the site is in residential area,
final conclusion of bridge plan, the but the site work will be complex for
process of evaluation is required to arge facilities and skilled techniques
justify it objectively. re required. Thus, even taking the
problem of piles which is only a part
The work of evaluation should start with of a bridge, evaluation is required to
making clear the objects of evaluation, select the best.
be followed by the comparison of
advantages and disadvantages, and be In bridge planning, the followings
concluded by rating. are the most common objects of
partial evaluation:
2.5.2 Objects of Evaluation
1) To select location, length, and
Bridge is a composite figure made of spans
many components which are roughly
divided into superstructure and - Abutment location by cost
substructure including foundation. To comparison between bridge
select such a composite figure, and earthfills, and maximum
evaluation is required in both ways, safe earth-fill.
partially and totally. 1-15
(1) Partial 'evaluation - Pier and span arrangement by

cost comparison among
This is performed to select type for a several combinations of
certain member part(s) or to give superstructures and
individual solutions of a planned substructures.
bridge, and the results of that are
reflected to the total evaluation. 2) To select foundation
Take an example for the selection of - Type of foundation and

foundation and suppose that ground construction method
is soft alluvial deposits with according to ground
intermediate sand layers and diluvial condition, cost, and
formation is about 30m deep. From execution reliability.
this assumption it is immediately
clear that this site needs some piles,

- Kind and size of piles by suggesting that five may be

cost comparison among maximum to clearly understand the
several sizes and required differences among them.
numbers of piles, and
availability of equipment. 1) Evaluation factors
3) To select substructure Bridge plans should be evaluated

from various aspects such as
- Type of abutment by its economy, construction,
required height some maintenance, aesthetics, etc. As
times including regards safety and crossing
comparison between conditions, which are usually not
retaining wall type and included in the evaluation factors,
earth-pressure-relieved because bridges undoubtedly
type from economy, ought to be planned safe and to
aesthetic view and earth- satisfy conditions.
fill stability.
2) Rating
- Type of pier by its
required height and The simplest technique to assess
situation. the overall alternative plans
would be to use a ranking
4) To select superstructure method. A sample rating by using
the method is demonstrated as
- Type and construction follows:
method according to span,
terrain and accessibility, i) Two kinds of rating factors
material and equipment are used, ranking and
(for erection) availability, importance. The product of
cost, aesthetic view, etc. the two factors is defined as
the score for each alternative
- Construction method of relative to each evaluation
deck slabs: cast-insitu or factor. A total score adding
pre-cast according to the scores of all evaluation
accessibility and time factors is the conclusion of the
schedule. rating, and normally the
alternative plan scored the
(2) Total evaluation highest will be the most
desirable.
This is performed to finally select
the best bridge plan as a whole. ii) Ranking factors will be given
The information obtained through by whole number with respect
the partial evaluations will be to the order of desirability
combined in various ways to among the alternatives. The
produce several complete bridge rank of 1 is assigned to the
plans for final selection. These least desirable alternative and
final plans shall be of minimum a rank of n (equals the
two alternatives in order to number of alternatives) is
compare them but not so many assigned to the alternative that

is the most desirable. v) It is noted that the above ranking

method cannot distinguish
iii) Importance factors will be given incremental differences among
by weighing priorities among the alternatives. One way to remedy
evaluation factors. The this is to establish the ranking
assignment of importance factors scale on the basis of relative
is voluntary, and with which the difference, but that is too
policy of bridge plan can be hypothetical to give factors
considered in the result of properly.
valuation.
3) Evaluation table
iv) Supposing a sample rating of
three alternatives, where the first Total evaluation is the summary of
priority is given to economy and all the information obtained
the other importance factors are through the planning process and
weighed equal, the following which should be clearly explained
result is obtained. In this to the public or to the parties
assumption, the highest total concerned for approval.
score will be 30 and the lowest Evaluation results should be
10. understandable to third party, so
that the use of table is
recommended for better
presentation. Fig. 1.6 shows the
example.


2.5.3 Scope of Evaluation more favorable bridge plan.

Evaluation arrives at the common
Evaluation is performed to figure out procedure if road alignment is
the best bridge plan under a certain reviewed regardless of bridge types.
situation or scope, and within the scope However, if road alignment is
all alternative plans come out and different in relation to bridge types,
conclusion is made. The scope depends total evaluation will become
on purpose, location, and site condition complex: bridge alternative plans
of bridge plan, but it is generally must be compared in different
established conforming to the policy of location and bridge length, and cost
the client (government department). If of approach road should be
bridge plan is a part of highway project, included in economic comparison.
the scope will be decided in the
coordination with the highway plan. (3) Scope of economic evaluation
(1) Evaluation under fixed bridge It is ideal for economic evaluation to

length estimate the total life cost covering
design, construction, right-of-way
Bridge planning is started from acquisition and maintenance costs.
the basic matters to decide location However, because design cost is so
and length and followed by small against construction cost and
foundation and substructures. maintenance cost is difficult to
Normally, the comparison of super estimate, economic evaluation is
structure types as well as spans is often performed with only the initial
highlighted as the main object for the cost of construction and right-of-way
final selection. In such case, most acquisition.
substructures and foundations have
been already decided by partial CHAPTER 3 ENGINEERING FOR
evaluations, accordingly the total BRIDGE PLANNING
evaluation will be played under
the fixed bridge length, the 3.1 Principles for Bridge Planning
differences of substructures and
foundations will not be emphasized, The followings are the common
and the cost of approach road suggestions useful in bridge planning:
construction will not be included in
economic comparison. This is the (1) Road alignment to minimize bridge
simplest and most common cost
evaluation to decide only bridge type
and spans. In general, bridge cost is much
higher than road cost per length. To
(2) Evaluation among different minimize total project cost, road
bridge length alignment needs the review from the
bridge engineer's view although it is
Bridge location is normally selected normally considering traffic
determined along the road alignment. strategy, right-of-way availability,
However, in the course of bridge obstacles, ground condition, and
planning, modification of road other many factors. Attention shall
alignment is sometimes suggested in be given to the location of bridge and
the vicinity of the bridge location for its approach roads. Even after

deciding road alignment, sometimes (4) Easier and faster construction

bridge design can be much improved
by minor changes of the bridge When there are more than two
location and the alignment of prospective alternative plans and
approach roads. they are of alike cost, it is then
recommended to study their
(2) To meet requirements of bridge construction methods and select
easier one.
Bridge shall be planned to meet the
requirements expected to the planned In case that a new technique is
bridge such as of width, length, proposed, it is recommend to
height, and loading capacity. In respond such challenge as much as
particular, the requirements of possible after careful study for its
crossing waterway, highway, and reliability for the good of the
railway shall be carefully determined progress of technology.
after due consultation with their
administration agencies. (5) Standardization of structures
(3) Safety and economy of bridge Bridge planning is in principle

structure performed individually to select the
most suitable design according to
Bridge structure must be planned each site condition. However, when
safe but at the same time it is a number of bridges similar in size
required to achieve economical and type are planned, such as for a
design, construction, and series of overbridges along a
maintenance. The two concepts of highway, the standardization of
safety and economy seems to be structures will often save cost and
conflicting, and taking equilibrium time both in design and construction.
between them is a major problem to For instance, in case that the spans of
be solved in bridge planning. the overbridges fluctuate a little, it is
Because bridge is an important more economical and practical to
public facility, it seems to be a right apply a standard beam of same size
way that the first priority should be and span to all bridge sites despite
given to safety and the second to accompanying somewhat
economy. construction losses.
The criteria for safety of structures is (6) Traffic safety and comfort
generally given by design
specifications or codes, which is a The traffic safety and comfort on
necessary condition in bridge design bridges depend not only on the road
but not a sufficient. To harmonize geometries and alignment but also on
safety and economy in bridge the existence of structures on the
planning, it requires the profound bridge surface. In view of that, the
knowledges of an experienced following measures are
engineer. However, the drawing or recommended:
the completed bridge given due such
consideration will convince the 1) Adopt deck type bridge rather
people's eye that the structure is than through type except the
functional, and safe, too. cases that the under-bridge

clearance is limited. However, 3.2 Field Surveys

through type is more economical
than deck type for longer span 3.2.1 Topographic Survey
range.
(1) Survey method
2) Prefer continuous beam
bridge to simple beam to reduce Topographic survey is carried out to
expansion joints which may prepare topographic map which is
cause the vehicle running shock necessary as the base map for bridge
and become to be a big planning. The survey method is
maintenance burden. generally to use plane-table
surveying or aerial photogrammetry.
(7) Easier maintenance The area of topographic map for
bridge planning is regional and the
The maintenance troubles of bridges scale is comparatively large, so the
are frequent on the secondary plane-table surveying is normally
members such as expansion joints used. If the existing photographic
and bearing shoes rather than on the map covering the proposed bridge
primary members. Therefore, site is available, it may be utilized by
continuous beam bridge, because it magnifying the scale but that needs
has less such troubles, is more the complementary and correction
favorable for maintenance. In surveys by plane-table surveying.
particular, the reduction and the easy
maintenance of expansion joints (2) Scale
should have been considered from
the planning stage. Repair or The scale of topographic map
replacement work of expansion suitable for bridge planning ranges
joints on bridges will become a 1/100 to 1/500. The scales 1/200,
major cause of traffic interference. 1/300 or 1/400 are generally used.
8) Aesthetic consideration (3) Contour
Bridges must serve for the public to In principle, topographies have to be

carry traffic safely, and they have to indicated by contours, the interval of
be constructed and maintained with lm is preferable. The planimetric
reasonable cost. That is the primary map having no contours is
function of bridges and can be sometimes used although it is
designed by applying physical unfavorable, but at least point
science. On the other hand, bridges contours should be shown to find
exist long time on ground exposing elevations.
to the public eye, so that bridges can
not help having the ornamental (4) Road center line
function as well. The bridge design
successful in pleasing the people's Road center line, if it is available at
eye, is not necessarily obtained only site, should be surveyed and shown
by the use of physical techniques. on the topographic map. It is useful
Because bridge design is a process of to find the planned bridge location
human creation, it is natural to seek on the map and can be used as a
beauty in the view of bridges. datum line in planning work.

(5) Profiles (3) Field reconnaissance
Longitudinal and lateral profiles are This is a visual survey to judge the
preferably prepared by the leveling subsoil conditions from the outcrops
surveying along the road center line. of rocks and strata. The survey is
Alternatively, profile can be also carried out by walking along the
prepared from the contours of the existing roads and rivers in the
topographic map and that may be survey area while observing the
usable considering less accuracy. outcrops to make a field
reconnaissance map.
3.2.2 Geological Survey Landslide traces, obstacles, terrain
and ground condition which seem to
(1) Survey method be troubles for construction, will be
also surveyed in this occasion.
The geological survey for bridge
planning is performed putting stress (4) Soil boring
on obtaining the general subsoil
information of bridge site rather than 1) General
detailed soil tests. The survey is
normally carried out from data Boring survey is the most popular
collection and field reconnaissance, soil investigation method to
and followed by boring, test-pit obtain the underground
digging, or geophysical exploration stratification and the engineering
if considered necessary. characteristics of strata. The
method bores a hole into ground
(2) Data collection by boring machine, collects
samples and carries out in-situ
This is performed at early stage of tests through the hole. Soil boring
the survey to collect the existing generally performs the following
geological data around the site. surveys:
Major data sources are the geological - Discrimination of
map issued by the National Geology stratification
Office and the previous boring or - Observation of cored soils
geophysical data of the vicinity. If - Sampling and laboratory soil
such existing data is available, the test
general geological condition of site - Water level in bore
can be often supposed from those - In-situ test in bore: standard
data and so special field survey may penetration test, vane shear
not be required. Thus, the execution test, lateral loading test, pore
of field survey depends on the data water pressure test,
collection. geophysical exploration, etc.
In addition, the existing bridges and Survey results should be carefully

buildings will be another useful data compiled by using the prescribed
source by studying their foundations forms such as boring log and soil
about type, size, depth, and whether test data sheets, because these
ettlement and tilt are seen or not. boring data will be the basis and
repeatedly referred for designing
and construction.

2) Application of Standard Penetration Test
The result of standard penetration test “ N-value” is the most important information widely
used for the design of foundations. Many design factors shown in Table 1.2 can be from N-
value.
Table 1.2 Design Factors Estimated From Standard Penetration Test
Sandy Soil Clayey Soil Construction
- Relative density - Consistency - Judgment on possibility

- Internal frictional angle - Uniaxial compression of piling penetration
- Coefficient of bearing capacity strengrh (undrained) - Judgment on effect of
- Void ratio soil improvement
- Study of excavation
method
- Bearing capacity of soil - Judgment on land slide
- Bearing capacity of piles
- Coefficient of ground reaction
The Meyerhof’s suggested relations of N-value to relative density and internal frictional
angle is given in Table 1.3 and the Terzaghi-Pecks’s of N-value to consistency and uniaxial
compression strength in Table 1.4.
Table 1.3 Meyerhof's Relation of N-Dr- Ø for Sandy Soil

N-value Density of Sand Relative Densitry Internal Frictional Static Cone
Angle Penetration Test Value
N Dr Ø (degree) qc (kg.f/cm²)
<4 very loose < 0.2 < 30 < 20
4 - 10 loose 0.2 - 0.4 30 - 35 20 - 40
10 - 30 medium 0.4 - 0.6 35 - 40 40 - 120
30 - 50 dense 0.6 - 0.8 40 - 45 120 - 200
> 50 very dense > 0.8 > 45 > 200
Table 1.4 Terzaghi - Peck's Relation of N- Consistency-qu for Clayey Soil

N-value Cosistency of Clay Uniaxial Compression Strength
N qu (kg.f/cm²)
<2 very soft < 0.25
2-4 soft 0.25 - 0.50
4-8 medium 0.50 - 1.00
8 - 15 stiff 1.00 - 2.00
15 - 30 very stiff 2.00 - 4.00
> 30 very hard > 4.00
For selecting the bearing stratum for bridge foundation according to N-value, although there
are many exceptions to design and site condition, the fllowing values are generally suggested
as a standard
Sandy Soil : N>40
Clayey Soil : N>30

3.2.3 Hydrological Survey 1) Flood water level, area, and

duration at bridge
Hydrological survey is vital to planning
the bridges which cross rivers and 2) Flood discharge and velocity of
channels. From bridge site, the current
following information should be
collected and analyzed: 3) Debris, sediment, and floating
logs
(1) Condition of river course
(3) Design discharge
Condition of river course is a
decisive factor to determine the JKR has the guideline for the
crossing location and direction, the hydrological design for the bridges
bridge length, and the protection crossing rivers and channels, in
against erosion and scouring. Major which the following return periods
survey and analysis items include the for the estimation of design
followings: discharge are specified:
1) Meandering reach, curved reach, 1) For bridges to cross rivers and

or straight reach drainage channels : 100 years
2) Historical change of meandering 2) For sewerage culvert : 50 years

and bank erosion
(4) Meteo-hydrological condition
3) Pattern, size, and movement of
sand bars Meteo-hydrological condition of
bridge site and river basin is also a
4) Change of longitudinal river bed necessary factor for determining
elevations such as aggradation or design discharge, high water level,
degradation of sediment design wind velocity, construction
method and schedule. Major items of
5) Area of flood plain and width of this survey are as follows;
main stream during flood
1) Seasonal variation of
(2) Condition of major floods temperature, relative humidity,
and wind velocity
It is important for bridge planning
not to worsen the capacity of 2) Seasonal variation of rainfall
waterway for flood flowing by
bridge construction. Flood discharge 3) Seasonal variation of water level
should be passed smoothly and and discharge
safely at bridge. To determine the
design discharge of flood and the (5) River improvement plans
required opening of bridge, it is
necessary to survey and analyze the Any river improvement plan,
past major flood records on the whether it is on-going or a future
following points: plan, should be investigated and
entirely taken into account for bridge
planning so that the bridge

construction should not become any occurred more at the curved reaches
obstruction to the river improvement than the straight. Although small
plan. meanderings occur even in straight
reaches by the movement of sand
3.3 Crossing Conditions bars, it is far better to select bridge
site at the straight reach compared to
3.3.1 General the curved. Further, it is important to
investigate the historical change of
Bridges are constructed to cross existing river course and bridge site should be
land space, most are public spaces such selected at where the change of river
as rivers, roads, railways, etc. and where course is small.
the bridge structures must exist long
time after being constructed. Therefore, 2) Cross river in perpendicular to its
bridge plan is required to have due flow.
consultations with the competent
authorities of such space for approval. The bridges crossing rivers with
skew direction often cause erosions
The crossing conditions required to and scourings at around bridges.
bridge plans are different depending on Skew bridge will produce
their planned location and purpose, and asymmetric turbulence in river flow
governed by various regulations relevant and that makes the bank protection
to land use. against erosion very difficult.
In addition, urban and local Therefore, the crossing at straight

development plans are also involved in reach with right angle is the most
bridge planning, although these recommendable. If it is unavoidable
conditions should have been consulted to cross river at curved reach or with
in the road planning stage. skew direction, protection shall be
provided not only at around
This chapter explains the general abutments but also to the adjacent
crossing conditions for river, road, and river banks with sufficient length.
railway, because most bridges are
planned to cross them. (2) Waterway width and freeboard
3.3.2 Waterway Crossing 1) Lay abutments outside of

waterway.
The figures and equations shown in this
section are recommendation based on If bridge opening is shorter than
the River Management Guideline, the waterway width, flow will be
Japan. constricted at the bridge, and that
causes backwater effect on
Fig. 1.7 shows the general concept of upstream. This phenomenon will
river cross-section and bridge layout. endanger the bridge by incurring
severe erosion and scouring.
(1) Location and direction of crossing Therefore, it is necessary to
design the bridge opening wider
1) Cross river at its straight reach. In than the waterway width.
numbers of meandering rivers in
Malaysia, bank erosion has

Although it varies depending on water depth, the design discharge and the required waterway
width have a general relation as follow :
Design Discharge (m3/s) Waterway Width (m)
300 40 - 60
500 60 - 80
1000 90 - 120
2000 160 - 220
5000 350 - 450
2) Minimum freeboard on high water level (HWL)
The freeboard between HWL and the top of dike for the rivers having compound cross-
sections, shall be not less than the following values:
Design Discharge (m3/s) Freeboard (m)
Less than 500 0.5

500 - 2000 1.0
Over 2000 1.5
For the rivers having single cross length in relation to the design
sections, the freeboard is discharge is generally given by the
recommended to take at least 0.6 m. following formula.
The clearance between HWL and the L = 20 + 0.005Q

soffit of bridge beam shall be
decided by adding the allowance of where, L : span length (m), measured
0.5m to the above-mentioned in perpendicular to flow
freeboards. (Fig. 1.8). Q : design discharge (m3/s)
(3) Minimum span length 2) However, if it is ensured that there is

far less possibility of floating logs
1) Span length has a direct relation and debris so that clogging rarely
to the possibility of clogging the occurs, the minimum span length can
bridge opening with floating logs be reduced to the following values:
or debris. The minimum span

3) Pier location close to bank The pier width shall be measured in per
pendicular to flow direction at high
Pier should not be laid on the slope water level, and the waterway width
of bank nor at the foot of bank slope. shall be the width of high water level.
It is recommended for the piers
planned close by bank to take at
least the following distance from the
toe of bank slope.
Design Discharge ( m3/s) Distance (m)
less than 500 5

over 500 10
For where it is difficult to take the (4) Abutment design

above distance, sufficient bank
protection should be provided on the 1) Invert-T type abutment
foot of bank slope and around the
pier against local scouring. There are many examples in
Malaysia that bank seat type and pile
4) Impediment rate of pier width to bent type abutments are damaged by
waterway local scouring. Many protections
provided in front of such abutment
The existence of piers in waterway are washed away by flood and piles
is the biggest impediment to water are exposed.
flow imposed by bridge construction.
The smaller pier width is, the better Therefore, it is recommended to
water flows. There is a guideline to adopt the invert-T type abutment
control the total pier widths in a instead of bank seat and pile bent
waterway by the impediment rate to types.
the waterway width:
2) Embedding depth of footing
Impediment Rate Footing shall be embedded into river
bed. Where the scouring risk is high,
Desirable less than 3 % it shall be deepened below the
Maximum : 5 % anticipated scour depth.
(Fig. 1.8)

3) Parallel to flow Where flow is not stable or curved,

round shape is more adaptable to the
Abutments shall be laid in change of flow than oval.
parallel to flow.
2) Embedding depth of footing
(5) Pier design
Footing shall be embedded into river
1) Oval or round shape for pier bed deeper than the anticipated scour
column depth. A guideline of the embedding
depth of footing is given as follows
The existence of piers in waterway (Fig. 1.8):
unavoidably bridges about
turbulence in water flow and which
is a major cause of the local scouring
around piers. To lighten this effect of
piers, it is recommended for the
crosssectional shape of the pier
columns to be oval or round which
disturbs water flow much less
compared to rectangle. It is also
recommended that a pier have only a
single column, but do not have
double or multiple columns which
rather induce severer turbulence in
closely standing columns.
Location of Pier Embedding Depth
i) Low water channel and the part of high More than 2m below the river bed of low
water channel within 20m from the top water channel
of the slope of low water channel:
ii) High water channel beyond 20m from the More than 1m below the river bed of high
top of the slope of low water channel : water channel.

Fig. 1.7 General River (Compound) Cross-section and Bridge Layout
Fi.g.1.8 Freeboard and Embedding Depth

(6) Bank protection
Bank protection is required to protect

the slope of bank from the erosion 2) Embedding depth
which may be caused by the
turbulent water flow induced by the Bank protection shall be embedded
construction of piers. into river bed not less than 0.5 -
1.Om for small rivers and 1.0m for
1) Covering area large rivers. Where scouring risk is
high, it shall be deepened below the
Bank protection shall be provided anticipated scour depth.
both on high water bank and low
water bank, from the top to the toe of 3) Foot protection
bank slope, for the extent of 10m up
- and down - stream from the side of This toe of bank protection shall be
bridge including the underneath of protected against scouring with
bridge. gabion packs or stones.
For skew bridges, additional

covering area is required as shown in
Fig. 1.9 to cope with asymmetric
flow turbulence.
Fig.1.9 Area of Bank Protection

3.3.3 Roadway Crossing (3) Clearance limit (a minimum

clearance to meet current JKR
(1) Information of crossing road practice)
As previously mentioned in Item(5) In the case of Japan, a clearance

- Grade separation of Chapter 2.3.3, height of 5.Om above the existing
the following information of the road surface under the soffit of the
crossing road is required for bridge planned bridge beam is
planning: recommended from the following
reasons.
1) About existing road:
Reason 1: The road geometric design
- class and grade act specifies the clearance
- cross-sectional profile - right- to be 4.70m. In addition
of-way this, an allowance of 0.3m
- clearance limit is considered for future
- longitudinal profile overlay.
2) About future plan Reason 2: The legal vehicle size is

3.80m. On the other hand,
- designated, or not designated steel bridge needs a space
to the roads of city planning of minimum 1.0m under
- sidewalk plan, or not bridge beam for repainting
- overlay and widening plan, or work as well as a margin
not of 0.2m.
3) About public utilities (4) Location of abutments and piers
(2) Consultation items 1) General
The following items are to be Abutments and piers are

consulted with the competent prohibited inside of roadway. It is
authority of the crossing road: favorable for the traffic of the
crossing road to have sufficient
1) Bridge length and spans lateral margins between roadway
and abutment, and not to have a
2) Location of abutments and piers pier on median strip.
3) Embedding depth of foundations However, the following cases are

technically and economically
4) Under-bridge clearance very difficult to avoid a pier on
median strip:
5) Diversion road
i) Crossing road is very wide
6) Construction method (includes having six lanes or over.
protection of existing road and
traffic) ii) Bridge is skewed to crossing
road with over about 50
degrees even if it has only

four lanes or less. abutment and thick pier and 1.5m

for slender structure like thin pier
iii) Crossing road is separated (pier width is less than about
into up and down lanes. 1.0m).
iv) Frontage road and/or 3.3.4 Railway Crossing

waterway run in parallel to
crossing road. When a pier is (1) Information of crossing railway
designed on median strip, it is
recommended to consider Like the road crossing, the following
collision load of vehicles for information of the crossing railway
the design of pier. is required beforehand:
2) Lateral margin 1) About existing railway:
If a pier is put in median strip, the - class and grade

median needs to be widened at - rail-gauge and cross-sectional
least for the pier width so as to profile
maintain the original lateral - right-of-way
space. Even in case that median - clearance limit
cannot be widened sufficient, a - electrified or not
minimum lateral margin of 0.5m
(Japanese Standard) is required 2) About future plan
between the pier and the
clearance limit of the crossing - electrification plan, or not
road as shown in Fig. 1.10. - double-tracking plan, or not
Guardrail or autoguard will be - elevating plan, or not
installed in the lateral margin.
(2) Consultation items
Footing of pier, as shown also in
Fig. 1.10, shall be preferably not The following items are to be
extended beyond the median consulted with the competent
width to avoid uneven settlement authority of the crossing railway:
on roadway, and embedded more
than 1.0m to secure the space for 1) Bridge structural type
underground public utilities. 2) Bridge length and spans
3) Embedding depth of
3) Special lateral margin for foundation
expressway 4) Location of abutments and
piers
The crossing with expressway, 5) Under-bridge clearance
where vehicles can run in high 6) Construction method (includes
speed, needs greater lateral relocation and protection of
margin for abutments and piers existing railway facilities)
not to be visual oppression 7) Consignment construction, or
against drivers. It is delegation of supervisors
recommended to take minimum 8) Installation of guardfence
3.Om for massive structure like

(3) Clearance limit However, in recent years new

commuter railway system is going to
The clearance limit of railway is be constructed in urban area. To
different depending on the type and cross with such new system,
kind of railways. The railway of clearance limit should be confirmed
Malaysia has been developed based by individual consultation.
on the British gauge and is now in
progress of electrification. Fig. 1.11
shows the clearance of the Malaysian
National Railway both for the
electrified and not electrified.
Fig.1.10 Clearance for Road Crossing

(Note : Dimension are tentative,which shall be checked.
Minimum clearance to meet current JKR practice

Fig. 1.11 Clearance for Railway Crossing

(Note : Dimension are tentative, which shall be checked. Minimum clearance to
meet current JKR practice)

3.4 Bridge Structure Type post-tensioned. Concrete is very

heavy and its use ensures a high
3.4.1 General dead load factor. When poured in
place, it requires forms and false
There are many factors to be considered work which are often inconvenient to
in the selection of a structure type. One traffic. The size and weight of beams
of the most important is the region of which may be transported on the
the country in which the bridge will be highways is limited. This curtails
built. For various reasons there seem to plant production and often forces the
be preferred bridge types in certain use of forms and falsework which
regions of the country. Proximity to the may be undesirable.
steel mills and the cost of freight may
well control the choice between a Concrete (prestressed) bridge types
concrete or a steel bridge. The and their normal span range are
experience of the local contractors is a given in Table 1.5.
big factor, and offering a structure type
which is strange to them can only result (2) Steel structure
in higher prices. If the area is remote,
every effort should be made to minimize In the late 1960s, the fabrication of
the necessary labor on the job so that a structural steel underwent some very
large number of men will not have to be great change. Welding took over and
imported at a very high cost. almost completely displaced the
longserving rivet. Welding has many
It should be obvious that most of the quickly recognized advantages in
discussion of this chapter is concerned saving weight, labor, and simplifying
with moderate-sized bridges. When a details - resulting in much more eco
truly large structure is to be built, there nomical steel structures.
are many other influences which come
into play and its design becomes a very With the rise in use of welding, there
special exercise. The truly monumental has also been an increase in the use
bridge will dominate its environment. It of high-strength bolts, usually for
will cost a great deal of money and take field splices. Bolted joints are often
a great deal of time to design and build. used to connect welded members.
This is to simplify the field work and
3.4.2 Superstructure make the erection quicker and easier.
(1) Concrete structure Welding has made the hybrid girder

possible. This is a girder which
Concrete is a very versatile material combines a number of different
and lends itself well to complicated strengths of steel to match the stress
configurations. It can be formed into levels in a member. This can result in
smooth sweeping curves or the very trim, clean-looking girders
intricate details of statuary. It may be without the changes of flange
precast and prestressed (decreasing thickness throughout the span length.
the weight) and made into large

beams which may be set across long Steel bridges which need to be
gaps without falsework supports. Or painted to prevent corrosion are
it may be cast in place and natural subjects for the use of varied

colors. Bridge color should conform

to the general desire for
compatibility. The color or colors
selected should harmonize well with
the surroundings. Soft greens, tans,
and browns are natural Earth colors
and fit well. Where the structure is to
be minimized, gray colors against the
sky and dark colors against deep
shadows serve to swallow a
structure.
Steel bridge types and their normal

span range are given in Table 1.6.



3.4.3 Substructure Spread footing is generally used

where the bridge site meets the
(1) Abutments following ground conditions
(Handbook of Civil Engineering,
Abutments, mostly made of JSCE.):
concrete, are located at both ends of
a bridge not only to support super 1) Supporting ground lies
structure but also to withstand the shallow within about 5m from
earth-pressure from the back. In ground surface.
general, stability of abutment is
secured by the combination of own 2) Bearing strength of the
weight and backfill on rear footing. supporting ground is appraised
As abutment become high, wall more than 30 of N-value by
thickness will be reduced to save standard penetration test in case
concrete volume in compensation of sandy soil and more than 20
for reinforcing with steel bars. for clay.
(2) Piers 3) Such supporting ground

develops in a depth more than
Piers, mostly made of concrete, are 1.5 times the designed footing
located intermediately between both width (shorter side) under the
abutments to support superstructures. bottom of footing.
Type and shape of piers are selected
according to the conditions of bridge 4) When ground water level is
site in particular of the crossing high, draining and cutting
conditions. off measurers are available.
3.4.4 Foundation 5) For foundation in waterway,

there is less possibility of
(1) General scouring, or countermeasures
against scouring are available.
Foundation is a structure made of
concrete, steel or timber, and built
into ground as a part of substructure
to transmit loads from superstructure
to ground. In broad meaning,
surrounding ground (bearing
stratum) is regarded as a part of
foundation. Foundation is classified
by construction method and depth as
shown in Table 1.7.
(2) Spread foundation
Spread foundation is generally

constructed with shallow and
comparatively wide concrete
footings which are supported
directly on ground.


(3) Pile foundation undetermined structures like

continuous beam and rigid frame
1) General bridges because such structures
are easily affected by uneven
Where spread footing cannot upport settlements.
be found on rock, or on dense
granular or stiff cohesive soils 3) Pile types by material and con
within a reasonable depth, pile struction method
foundation is the most often
used. For locations where the Pile foundation is also classified
scouring risk is high or by construction method as driven
unacceptable settlement is and bore piles. Driven piles have
anticipated by the use of spread various kinds made of timber,
footings although soil condition precast concrete, or structural
would permit the use, pile steel sections.
foundation may also be used as a
countermeasure. Timber piles are limited in length
and rarely used nowadays except
2) Pile types by supporting manner small, less important
constructions.
Pile foundation is classified as
end-bearing, friction, or a Precast concrete piles, the early
combination of both according to type of which was RC
the load transferring manner. (reinforced concrete) square pile
End-bearing pile derives major cast at field, are nowadays a
portion of support capacity from factory-made product and the
the resistance of bearing stratum. most commonly used for the
Friction pile derives major foundations up to around 30 m in
portion of support capacity from depth. The piles are reinforced
the friction resistance along the with reinforcing bars or
side of the embedded pile. The prestressing steel, centrifugally
bearing capacity of combination compacted to form circular
end-bearing and friction pile is cross-section, and so called
derived as the sum of the commonly RC or PC spun piles.
resistance from the pile tip and PC spun piles are more used than
from the friction of embedded RC piles because PC piles are
shaft. more durable against cracks and
can be driven deeper than RC 1
It is recommended to use end- piles despite small cost difference
bearing piles as much as possible. between them. The market size of
In case that the use of friction pile PC piles varies 3080 cm in
is unavoidable because bearing diameter.
stratum exists deep for instance
more than 60m below, the long- Steel piles may be pipe or
term consolidation settlement of H-section. Steel pile piles offer
the pile group should be higher resistance against driving
considered in design. In this impact and accordingly can be
regard, friction piles are not penetrated deeper than PC piles.
recommended for the statically The pile, for they are expensive,

are generally used for where PC recommended where settlement

piles cannot be constructed of compressible soil and so
because bearing stratum is deep negative skin friction loads are
or hard intermediate layers exist. expected, and for bore piles due
For corrosion of steel, the margin to their difficulty of construction
of 0.02 mm/year is generally except all casing method. Instead,
considered to steel thickness it is recommended to increase the
under normal environment. number or the diameter of piles.
Steel H-piles are conveniently 5) Spacing of piles

used for temporary construction
and often pulled out to re-use The following minimum
several times. center-to-center pile spacings are
recommended to decide the size
Bore piles are constructed by of foundation.
placing reinforcing steel cage and
concrete into pre-drilled holes. For end-bearing piles : 2.5 times
According to the soil condition pile diameter/width.
and the desired pile depth, the
methods of drilling and For friction piles : 3.0 times pile
maintaining hole are selected. diameter/width preferably, but not
Generally either wet or dry less than 2.5 times.
drilling, water or slurry,
temporary or permanent metal 3.5 Preliminary Cost Estimate and
casing will be used as necessary Construction Plan
to produce sound concrete
foundation shafts free of defects. 3.5.1 Preliminary Cost Estimate
Bore piles are advantageous in
urban and neighboring (1) General
construction owing to their
characteristics of less noise and Cost estimating is a procedure to
vibration compared to the driven break down an object of work into
piles, but the method needs its component parts such as number
skilled techniques and high of spans, substructures, or a cubic
quality control for the complexity meter of concrete thereby making
of construction operation. Bore each part more sensitive to accurate
piles will be studied as an measurement of quantity and
alternative to steel pile piles for estimate of its cost.
planning deep foundation.
For a government department (JKR),
4) Batter piles the cost of a bridge project will
include the costs of administration,
Where the lateral resistance of surveys, design, right-of-way
soil is considered not to be acquisition, construction,
adequate against horizontal loads, supervision, and financing. For a
or when increased rigidity of the consulting engineer, the cost will
entire structure is required, batter depend on its definition in his
piles are often used to save piles. contract with the client. For a
However, batter piles are not contractor, the cost will include the

actual cost of construction to which simplified unit cost method is

an allowance for contingencies and recommended. The method involves
profit is added to produce the the use of unit prices from previous
contractor's bid. projects applied to the quantities for
a new project by grouping cost items
Cost estimate may be classified by into several major items. Here the
purpose as: quantities for the new project are
known (at least approximately) and
- Preliminary estimate, the previous unit costs are taken
- Comparative estimate, and from a project or projects
- Detailed contractor type estimate. selected because of their general
similarity of cost-controlling
The preliminary estimate will be conditions, where a certain degree of
performed at the planning stage to accuracy can be obtained without
establish the viability of a project extensive adjustments or detailed
and to earmark funds. The analyses. The unit costs for
comparative estimate serves at the estimating bridge project cost are
design stage of the project commonly grouped into the
development and it is used for the following major items:
engineer's estimate. The detailed or
the contractor type estimate is used
by contractors. The more detailed
and accurate the estimate, the more
costly and time consuming the
estimation process becomes.
(2) Preliminary cost estimates
These estimates are the first made for

a project in the planning stage and
are used to bracket the probable cost
within a rather wide range. They
must be based on limited and only
general definition as to scope and
detail. For example, a bridge plan
would be compared as to terrain,
length, height, width, soil condition,
etc. with the previous projects having
similar characteristics, from which
an approximation of quantities and
cost could be made. This level of
estimation may be prepared for the
accuracy within 20"30 percent of
final cost.
However, if additional accuracy is

required for more detailed cost
comparison of alternative plans or
financing plan by the owner, the

COST ITEM QUANTITY MEASUREMENT UNIT
1 Superstructure
- Pavement surface area (m²)
(include curbs and rails)
- Expansion Joints size and length (m)
- Main beams
(include erection work and diaphragms)
PC precast beam type,size and number of beams from standard
design (pieces)
PC box girder concrete volume per bridge surface area from
previous project data (m³/m²)
Steel girder steel weight per bridge surface area from
previous project data (ton/m²)
- Deck Slab concrete volume (m³)
- Bearing shoes capacity and number of shoes (pieces)
2 Substructure
- Abutments and piers concrete volume (m³)
- Excavation and temporary cofferdam excavation volume (m³)
- Foundation
Spread footing be included in abutment and pier concrete
volume
- Piles type, size,depth, and number of piles
(total pile length : m)
3 Approach road
- Road earth -fills earth volume (m³)
- Pavement surface area (m²)
4 Other works
- Temporary staging surface area (m²)
- Traffic detour - way length or surface area (m or m²)
- Bank protection surface area (m²)
The unit costs used in this method are considered to include all direct, indirect, and corporate indirect
costs. With this method,accuracy is expected to be within 10-20 percent range.
Significant error may occur if unususal construction techniques and temporary facilities are involved
and are not properly compensated for in the unit costs applied. This is a reason why the preliminary
cost is sometimes far below the contractor’s bid cost.

3.5.2 Preliminary Construction Plan process best guesses. As each

construction project is different, all
(1) Objectives of planning construction projects are a learning
The main objectives of construction process and this learning process
plan are: enables the plan more accurate as the
project progresses. New data can be
1) to envisage how the construction used to refine or revise the plan.
will be carried out, in what order
and with what method and (3) Planning hierarchy
resources; reducing the
construction to a number of Before starting to prepare any plan, it
manageable activities. is vital to decide who the plan is for
and what level of detail is required.
2) to anticipate potential difficulties Table 1.8 lists the people who may
and risks to overcome them, so require or prepare a construction
that their effects can be plan, summarizes what they will
minimized. This is the major need to know, and gives appropriate
objective of construction time-scales.
planning, because civil
engineering is a high risk (4) Project duration
business and the planning is
fraught with uncertainty. There are two ways to determine
how long the project will take:
3) to schedule resources (men,
equipment, materials and money) 1) It is imposed by external
to enable optimum use. considerations of the time avail
able, and designer or contractor
4) to provide a basis for predicting then has to devise a plan to meet
and controlling time and cost. this requirement, or
(2) Planning process 2) It is built up from a detailed

analysis of the work to be done
Planning is the mental activity of and the resources available, using
working out what has to be done, estimates of the time required for
how, by when, by whom, and with each activity. The examples of
what. Planning techniques assist in externally imposed
the analysis of plan organizing considerations are: (1) it is
information, and in which the plan difficult to attempt building piers
is communicated to others. Taken in deep waterway in high water
together these two elements of season, (2) asphalt paving work
planning produce the plan a strategy will be avoided in rainy season,
and tactics for the execution of the or (3) the client may often have
project in terms of activities, time, an economic or administrative
quantities, resources, and perhaps need for fast construction, or
costs. The plan is expressed as charts require a project to be constructed
and reports. in stages for budgetary reason.
Planning depends on data. Without

reliable data, planning can only

The examples of detailed analysis Linear programme (or time-chaina eg

of the work and the resources are: chart)
(1) the output of a construction
operation is determined by the Linear programming is a specialized technique
capacity of a key plant or for linear work. This is a basic tool of the con-
equipment or by the work struction of a large canal and it is especially
sequences; this is most common useful in tunnelling. Like line-of-balance, this
in bridge construction, or (2) it is is a simple two-dimensional graphical tech-
also common that contractors nique and can show clearly only a limited
tend to assess the combination of amount of information and a limited degree of
resources most likely to complete complexity.
the work at minimum direct cost;
then the duration of the operation Network analysis
is calculated from the volume of
work in this way. Network analysis is a logical and analytical
technique. It is most effective when used for
(5) Planning tools complicated projects, especially those with
Four techniques are commonly external constraints and complex interrelation-
used in construction planning: bar ships. The technique is based on drawing the
chart, lineof-balance, linear logical relationships between construction oper-
programme, and network ations, and establishing which operations have
analysis. the most crucial effect on the project duration.
The technique is known as the critical path
Bar Chart method (CPM), and a version which incorpo-
rates a statistical method for calculating the
The bar chart is easy to draw, easy to under- probability that a project will be completed on
stand, and best used for straightforward, well- a specific date is called the programme evalua-
understood construction work with simple relation and review technique (PERT). Network
tionships between the activities. Main disad- analysis has a good and comprehensive logical
vantages are that it neither show relationships basis, lends itself easily to computer process-
between activities nor relate activities to loca- ing, and can be used as an effective control
tion. tool.
Line-of-balance It is of fundamental importance to note that the

level of detail of the plan and the choice of
Line-of-balance was derived from manufactur- technique are related. For example, the overall
ing industry, and has been found to be effective programme for a large and complex project
in planning work that is truly repetitive. Line- should be drawn by a network. However, for
ofbalance has been found to be difficult to use an simple activity "piling work", obviously net-
on projects which require a large number of work analysis does not work well. Instead line-
operations to construct each identical unit. The of-balance programme should be used.
problems arise from the difficulty of showing
all the information on one chart, especially
when using the technique to monitor progress.
However, it is an excellent means of relating
resources, activity durations and the general
pace of work.

Table 1.8 Planning Hierarchy
Plan drawn up Primary Scope of plan Scope of Time- Unit Level of

For By Purpose of Plan Programme scale detail
Government Project Administrative A project overview from identification of Outline Entire Month Low
department director planning need through feasibility study, Project Project
FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY
preliminary design, detail, land acquisition Programme

and construction period.
Clients
Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L

Government Project Financial A project overview from project conception Outline Entire Month Low
department director Planning to implementation including appointment Project Project
of consultant and contractor, design and Programme
documentation periods, and construction.
Project Project Co-ordination Design period, documentation, letting Outline and Project Week Low/medium
manager manager of design and contracts, and construction period. broad details design and
construction construction
Contractor Staff Tender plan All activities within construction period in Construction Construction Week Medium
sufficient detail to enable contractor to programme period
prepare the tender
Contractor's or Staff Resource Every activity, major items of plant, dates Short-term Months Day Medium/high
Managers
Engineer's planning of key material deliveries and site movement programme.
Representatives
Foreman Staff Disposition of Every operation with the actual plant, Weekly Weeks Half-day High
plant manpower and supervisors employed. programme
and manpower
Page 17
Final Report Volume III Design Manual
(6) Planning components resources: generally include men,

machines, materials, and money,
Planning tools aim to express the and even such essentials as
work to be done to a time-scale; managerial skill.
some also include resources and
perhaps cost. The other major costs: what the work has or will
factor in construction control is cost, often derived directly from
"quality" which is undertaken the unit costs of the individual
by separate techniques from the resources.
planning tools. However,
quality is related to time and 3.6 Environmental Impact and
cost through the skill and Aesthetic Consideration
judgment of construction
management. 3.6.1 General
The major components of The term "environment" is meant to be

planning techniques are: interpreted broadly as the whole
complex of physical, social, cultural,
activities: this means a work to economic, and aesthetic factors which
be done for example preparing affect individuals and communities and
a drawing, materials to be ultimately determine their form,
ordered, piles to be driven, or character, relationship, and survival. The
concrete to be placed. definition "environmental impact" is any
alteration of environmental conditions or
activity durations: the time creation of a new set of environmental
required for the completion of conditions, adverse or beneficial, caused
each activity. or induced by the action or set of actions
under consideration. The attention given
project time-scale: the time to environmental conditions will vary
structure of the project; it is usual according to the nature, scale, and
to give each week or month a location of the proposed action or
number (this makes calculation actions. Attention would be given to
easier). those factors most evidently affected,
such as the effects on the resource base,
event: an occurrence at a specific including land, water quality and
point in time; for example, the quantity, air quality, public services and
start and end of construction. energy supply, as well as other
environmentally critical areas.
work method: the plan must be
expressed in some logical way, Generally, impacts can be categorized as
indicating the sequence of either primary or secondary. This
operations, and which activities distinction is important for consideration
and events are interrelated; this of alternatives and ways to minimize
may be implicit (as with bar adverse impacts in performing impact
charts) or explicit (in network analysis. One way to describe the
analysis, where work method is distinction is that project “inputs”
usually called logic). generally cause primary impacts and
project “ output” generally cause
secondary impacts.

Primary impacts are generally easier to benefit from view; (3) bridges or
analyze and measure, while secondary elevated highway out of scale with
impacts are usually more difficult to adjacent urban development; (4)
measure. Secondary impacts may, in visual distraction and displeasing
fact, be more significant than primary glare visible in recreational and
impacts. residential areas; and (5) unattractive
contrast between existing vegetation
3.6.2 Impacts of Highway and Bridge and revegetated or landscaped areas,
Project between natural landforms and
engineering features, and between
(1) General urban or existing development
patterns and highway features.
Bridges are a part of highway,
accordingly the environmental (3) Air quality impacts
impacts of the bridge construction
should be discussed in the Air quality impacts include: (1) dust
environmental problem of the and/or particulate matter on
highway construction. vegetation and structures
surrounding the construction site or
Highway construction has impacts in along roads: (2) tire and exhaust
a number of areas, the most particles coating roadside vegetation
noteworthy of which are aesthetics, and structures; (3) increase in
air quality, circulation and traffic severity of existing smog conditions
patterns, noise, socioeconomics, due to an increase in automobiles
water quality, and wildlife. Highway traveling through the area; and (4)
may stimulate or induce other generation of vehicle fumes and
actions (secondary impacts), such as odors (such as from exhaust
more rapid land development or emissions, or tire and brake rubber).
changed patterns of social and
economic activities. Impacts (4) Noise impacts
associated with secondary action
may often be even more substantial Noise impacts generally involve the
than the primary impacts associated area within sound of the traffic such
with construction. For example, the as:
effect on population and area growth (1) disturbance of surrounding
associated with the construction of passive recreational activities
new highways may be among the requiring quiet and serene conditions
more significant impacts. for their enjoyment; (2) disturbance
of educational, health care, and
(2) Aesthetics impacts cultural activities or institutions
particularly sensitive to noise, such
Of general concern relative to as schools, churches, hospitals,
aesthetics are such impacts as: (1) sanitariums, auditoriums, and
blocking viewlines along visual theaters; (3) disturbance to operation
corridors (such as valleys, stream or patronage of commercial activities
courses, and streets); (2) blocking requiring or benefiting from quiet
viewlines to landmarks in the surroundings; and (4) disturbance to
community from residential, surrounding residential development.
recreation, and commercial areas that

(5) Socioeconomic impacts patterns; (3) highway runoff

contamination caused by runoff
Socioeconomic impacts include: (1) containing oil, fuel, tar, pesticides,
removal of residential, commercial, fertilizer, deicing salts, animal and
and industrial land uses and human wasted, and the products of
displacement of both residents and combustion which can affect water
jobs; (2) removal of structures or quality, wildlife, and roadside
sites of scenic, architectural, vegetation; (4) sanitary wastes from
archaeological, or historic temporary and permanent waste disposal
significance; (3) loss of site having facilities (Note: Waste disposal is
unique potential or suitability for accomplished through portable toilets
commercial or industrial activities; during construction and permanent rest
(4) loss of taxable private land areas after construction); in either case,
revenues; (5) relocation costs to raw or inadequately treated discharges
displaced residents greater than can have an impact on local water
compensation paid; and (6) systems; and (5) contamination of
severance of interpersonal ties of surface and ground water supplies and
displaced residents to former recharge areas by polluted fill material,
neighborhood/community (family where the use of polluted fill material
ties, ethnic bonds, or neighborhood can affect the concentrations of
friendships). biological, physical, chemical, and
radiological contaminants in water
(6) Water quality impacts supplies.
Water quality impacts involve one or (7) Wildlife impacts

more of the following: (1) turbidity
and silting of adjacent streams and Wildlife impacts would generally
reservoirs caused, for the most part, include: (1) loss or degradation of
by the erosion of the raw soils unique or highly productive wildlife,
exposed during construction and fish or shellfish habitats; (2) division of
maintenance operations (the primary wildlife ranges and migratory patterns;
impact of these effects generally (3) displacement of wildlife to other
involve increased operating costs or ranges; (4) impairing or blocking
shortened life of affected reservoirs migration and/or movement of aquatic
and channels; damage or elimination biota; and (5) visual disturbance of
of fish and other aquatic life; and wildlife on adjoining lands.
possible damage to buildings, roads,
and bridge foundations); (8) Circulation impacts
(2) watershed modification caused
by the impingement of the road Circulation impacts include: (1)
system and its construction on blocking or impairing access along
estuaries, marshes, wooded swamps, existing street patterns crossed by the
and streams - in particular, in highway, such as access to public and
estuaries disturbance of natural flows private services of residents and patrons
can affect ecological determinants within the service area, reinforcing or
such as sedimentation patterns, creating physical barriers between social
mixing of fresh and salt waters, groups, congesting through-street traffic
nutrient flows, shellfish beds, fish by diverting traffic from dead-end or
and wildlife, and local vegetative rerouted streets, and disrupting public

transit routes; (2) dividing single land proportions, clean lines, interesting
uses or resource areas such as but not fancy forms. The bridge
agricultural operations, recreation areas, designer should never forget the
wildlife ranges or habitats; (3) projected 100-year life for his
increasing truck and construction structure. If he wants his critics of
equipment traffic on public roads during eight or ten decades hence to
construction: (4) providing new or admire his work, he had better make
improved access to previously it a basically excellent design. He
inaccessible or relatively inaccessible must walk the fine line between
public and private lands; (5) providing uninteresting starkness and overdone
or improving access to relatively decoration.
undeveloped areas outside urban
centers, thus inducing commercial and High fills have blocked the view of
industrial operations to locate outside many attractive canyons, when the
urban centers; and (6) increasing traffic beauty of many deep canyons would
traveling through the area and thus be enhanced by the slim framework
causing an increased demand for travel of a welldesigned bridge. Fills and
related services. culverts have their place when they
will not destroy natural beauty. But,
3.6.3 Aesthetic Consideration where there is such beauty, consider
a bridge rather than a culvert and fill.
(1) General As a practical matter, the apparent
economy of a culvert at the base of a
A bridge should never usurp its role huge fill may prove false if debris
as a part of the highway. It should plugs the culvert and the water backs
always look as though it thoroughly up and floods the country above the
belonged to the rest of the highway. road. Such shortsighted economy can
It should be completely compatible generate law suits.
with its surroundings. The bridge
belongs in that location. (2) Aesthetics of structures
Giving a bridge a retiring personality It is important that the bridges be

is not always easy. A designer must completely compatible with their
subdue any impulse to make his surroundings. They should look like
structure stand out as a monument to they belonged there. As soon as they
his design prowess. A bridge which have had a chance to weather a little,
stands out when it should be merely they should look like they had
a part of the highway often develops always been there a completely
into an eyesore. The designer must natural and acceptable part of the
be careful lest he be carried away by landscape. This often means that
transient public fads. attention should be given to the
characteristics of prominent
Designs, which rely for their beauty buildings nearby or other landmarks
on good proportions, clean lines, and with which the bridge must fit.
an honest approach to function, have Compatibility is the key.
worn better with time. So will the
structure built in the future if they Beauty in a structure comes from its
have basic excellence built into basic design. Beauty starts with the
them: good balance, trim first concepts of the structure and

from there proportion, form, and graceful. It is possible to have a

general design must follow to deep, heavy structure that looks
achieve a pleasing result. Beauty in delicate and graceful if it is high
this context, coming from well- enough above the ground. For
proportioned, carefully planned structures which cannot be high in
design, is not expensive. Even the air, every effort must be made to
though the owner may not wish to make the superstructure as thin as
spend any extra money for possible or at least to create an
aesthetics, the designer still may illusion of thinness. Concrete
create a good-looking structure by superstructures can be made thinner
his careful handling of proportion, by prestressing. Rounding the
shape, and light and shadow. corners, sloping the outside faces of
girders, building a longitudinal ledge
(3) Number of spans to develop a shadow area on the
lower part of the girder - all of these
The number of spans is the first are useful tools in creating the
important decision that has critical illusion of a thin superstructure.
aesthetic effects. Unless a structure is
part of a grade-separation where the It is often difficult to design a thin
span arrangement is dictated by the steel superstructure economically for
intersecting roadways, the number of a reasonably low short span. Shallow
spans to be used in a bridge is one of steel girders become uneconomically
the first determinations for the heavy. Problems of erection or traffic
designer to make. If the structures is may override cost to make short steel
easily visible as a whole, an odd spans desirable. Some steel box
number of spans will be found to be designs produce attractive, thin
more pleasing than an even number. superstructures for long spans.
(4) Balance of span and height (5) Artistic techniques
The length of spans depends upon 1) An attractive structure is

the length of the bridge and its height produced by the harmony of all
above ground. The ground, the piers, of its elements. The use of a
and the bridge deck create a series of number of details which are
generally rectangular shapes. If the attractive in themselves does not
piers are close together, these guarantee a pleasing overall
rectangles may be higher than they effect. This is what makes
are wide and look crowded. The aesthetics an art rather than a
arrangement is generally better when science. The satisfactory end
the rectangular areas are longer in a result depends upon the taste and
horizontal direction - generally, the innate ability of the designer to
longer the better. The cost of longer combine all of the details
spans is a factor, so the designer artistically.
must balance the aesthetic tastes
against the money available to build 2) There are some details which
the bridge. may help the overall effect.
Sloping the exposed area of the
Structures which are high above the front faces of the abutments in
ground look thinner and more toward the roadway will produce

a pleasing dynamic effect in a must fit its site, and be

short structure which seems to completely compatible with its
launch it across its span. Tapering surroundings. It is imperative that
the piers so they are smaller at the designer be familiar with the
the bottom than at the top will site and have a feeling for the
tend to decrease the feeling of environment of his structure.
heavy attachment to the ground There have been examples of
and make the structure appear to designs which were totally
float. On the other hand, for very unsuited for their locations
tall piers, tapering from the because the designer did not take
ground to a thinner neck high in the trouble to visit the site and see
the air seems to release the just how and where his structure
superstructure from its solid ties would fit into the landscape.
with the ground, and this also
makes it appear to float. Modem References
highways are avenues of speed
and flowing movement. The 1. Japan Society of Civil Engineering,
bridges should carry out that "Handbook of Civil Engineering, 4th
feeling, emphasizing the Edition.", Giho-do, 1989
horizontal lines and playing down
the verticals which tend to 2. Japan Highway Public Corporation, "Design
interrupt the flow. Manual, Vol. II." 1983
3) Piers have been made round, 3. Japan River Associations, "Commentary of

square, or rectangular. There are River Works Ordinance", Sankai-do, 1978
many interesting shapes which
can be developed out of these 4. Japan River Associations, supervised by
basic forms which,. with some of River Bureau, Ministry of Construction,
the tapering effects, can add "Manual (draft) for River Works in Japan -
considerable interest. Planning." Sankai-do, 1985
4) Attractive designs are not 5. Japan Prestressed Concrete Contractor'

necessarily fancy designs. There Association, "PC Highway Bridge Planning
is a strong appeal to very simple Manual." 1995
plain shapes and forms. As noted
earlier, there is also an economic 6. Japan Steel Bridge Contractors' Association,
appeal in that they are cheaper to "87JASBC Manual - Design Data Book."
build. Contractors are notoriously 1987
unaesthetic when they come to
build forms or fabricate shapes 7. Jabatan Kerja Raya, "A Guide on Geometric
which vary from the straight, Design of Roads." 1986
square, and simple. Nevertheless,
fancy shapes do cost more money 8. Keretapi Tanah Melayu Berhad.,
and the designer should be "Permohonan Laluan - laluan Dalam Rezab
constantly seeking the plain, KTM Berhad." November 1994
easier-to-build solutions.
5) It cannot be stated too often that

the successful and artistic bridge




DIVISION H : MANUAL FOR BRIDGE 1.3 Design Standard

DESIGN ANALYSIS
In accordance with JKR's request, the
CHAPTER 1 General following British standards were adopted
to the main parts of the analysis:
1.1 Introduction
(1) BS 5400
This chapter describes the basic concept of
the bridge structural analysis and Part 1 : 1988 - General Statement
procedures of a design program regarding Part 2 : 1978- Specification for Loads
the standard design produced by "the Part 4 : 1990- Code of Practice for
Study on the Standardization of Bridge design of concrete bridges
Design in Malaysia". One of the most Part 7 : 1978- Specification for
important objectives of the manual is to materials, concrete
allow JKR engineers to do design by reinforcement and
themselves after the Study. In future, this prestressing tendons
manual would be useful tool for the Part 8 : 1978- Specification for
engineers . materials and workmanship,
concrete, reinforcement and
The manual is divided into superstructure prestressing tendons
in Chapter 2 and substructure in Chapter 3. Part 9 : 1983 - Bridge Bearings
Each Chapter starts with the notations
used for analysis and it is followed by the (2) BD 37/38 : 1988
design conditions to specify the
characteristics of materials and loads. Revision of BS 5400 - part 2 : 1978 -
Then, analysis procedures are explained for Specification for Loads
the designs of bridge structure.
(3) BS 8004
1.2 Outline of Bridge Structural Analysis
System Code of Practice for foundations
The analysis system is shown in the (4) BS 8110 - Structural use of concrete
Fig.2.l, 2.2 and 2.3 on the following pages.
A full automatic design system, with Part 1 : 1985 - Code of Practice for
personal computer, is applied for design and construction
superstructure, whereas a partially Part 2 : 1985 - Code of Practice for
computerized system is used for special circumstances
substructure design.
In addition, the following Japanese
"Bridge Structural Analysis" is the standards are also adopted in instances
techniques required to assess the adequacy whereby it is impossible to comply with
of the structural strength or resistance of the above mentioned standards.
the bridge under the reasonably conceived
severe loads. The analysis techniques are - Specifications for Highway Bridges
entirely based on the theories and formulas ( Japan Road Association)
stipulated in the authorized publications.
Part I : 1994 - General Specifications
Part II : 1994 - Specifications for
Concrete Bridges

Part III : 1994 - Specifications for data. That is, effects of the design loads
Substructure in various forms such as overturning
moments, displacemnts, stresses,
1.4 How to Use the Manual strength, etc.
(1) General Steps If the output data exceed or come far

below the limitations imposed by the
The analysis step usually starts with materials and the design conditions, the
setting design conditions first, the input data shall be modified repeatedly
analysis for main frame or major until the output data become
members of bridge in the next, and then proportioned to the limitations to
that for minor members follows. Since conclude the sizes and reinforcement of
manual is prepared along with this steps, bridge members finally.
it is recommended to study the steps that
described in the manual. It is, however, noted that bridge
structure shall not be designed only by
(2) Numerical Explanation structural analysis but also take account
of structural compatibility and harmony
All analysis in the manual are between bridge members, aesthetic
demonstrated by sample computation to appearance and construction easiness. In
enable to trace them numerically. this regard, strength redundancies of
bridge members are generally unavoid
(3) Use of Computer Programs able in bridge structural design except at
critical sections.
Throughout the manual, many computer
programs are prepared to save time and The design manual is quite sufficient to
labour for computations. The analysis assist a designing of a new bridge, and it
using computer programs display only is recommendable to use the design
input and output data. To see the result which have been made in the
theories and foumulas on which the Study as the standard design.
programs are based, it is required to
refer to the design standards invidivually 1.5 Limitation in use
with the references given in the manual.
However, such theories and foumulas as 1.5.1 Superstructure
considered ambiguous to apply are
described in the each section of the The superstructure type dealing in this manual
manual. is limited to the following five types with rec-
ommendable span ranges:
(4) Pursuit of Subtle Input and Output Data
The goal of bridge analysis is to decide

sizes and reinforcement of bridge
members with appropriate strength
against the loads set up by design
conditions. At first, the sizes and
reinforcement shall be assumed from the
past similar design results to prepare the
initial input data, and then those are to
be put into analysis to obtain the output

START START
Design specifications loads, dimensions
Input data for design of bending moment
1
and other data INPUT
INPUT
FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY
Bending moment and shear force

due to dead load, superimposed dead load,, Design for bending
Structural Analysis live load, etc. (use influence line)
Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L

NO NO
CHECK
Design for Main Beam

YES
Refer to design flow chartt

in the right Input data for the design of shear and
INPUT torsional force
Design For Cross Beam
Design for Main Beam
OUTPUT Data file for drawing system NO NO
CHECK
YES
Drawing Program System
STOP STOP
Drawing Program System
1
Page 29
Final Report Volume III Design Manual
Fig.2.1 Bridge Structural Analysis System


Final Report Volume Iii Design Manual: For Internal Use Only

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Final Report Volume Iii Design Manual: For Internal Use Only

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FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY Final Report Volume II Design Manual

FINAL REPORT VOLUME III

CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 GENERAL

DIVISION 11 MANUAL FOR BRIDGE CHAPTER 1 GENERAL

DIVISION III BRIDGE

DIVISION IV OPERATION MANUAL

DIVISION V OPERATION MANUAL

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INTRODUCTION broadly applicable.

In Division II : Manual for Bridge Design

In Division III : Manual for Bridge

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DIVISION I MANUAL FOR BRIDGE 3.5 Preliminary Cosr tEstimate and

2.1 General 1-4

CHAPTER 3 ENGINEERING FOR BRIDGE

3.1 Principles for Bridge Planning 1-20

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DIVISION I MANUAL FOR BRIDGE Although it is difficult to systemize all of the

Fig. 1.1 General Bridge Structure

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generally the following information shall be - Water main pipes

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(2) Geology The most necessary hydrological

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2) Cross-sectional profile significantly.

3) Over-head and under-ground public 4) Construction pollution

(6) Construction 2.4 Drafting of Bridge Plan

Construction of planned bridge should 2.4.1 Preparation of Base Map

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and clearances on profile and example, suppose three earth-fill

However, for the bridges planned high

1) Assume minimum three points of

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Fig. 1.3 Economical Abutment Location

Table 1.1 Hypothetical Costs

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2) Estimate roughly the total

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Fig.1.5 Span Arrangement for Deep Valley

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(1) Partial 'evaluation - Pier and span arrangement by

Take an example for the selection of - Type of foundation and

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- Kind and size of piles by suggesting that five may be

3) To select substructure Bridge plans should be evaluated

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is the most desirable. v) It is noted that the above ranking

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2.5.3 Scope of Evaluation more favorable bridge plan.

(1) Evaluation under fixed bridge It is ideal for economic evaluation to

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deciding road alignment, sometimes (4) Easier and faster construction

(3) Safety and economy of bridge Bridge planning is in principle

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clearance is limited. However, 3.2 Field Surveys

8) Aesthetic consideration (3) Contour

Bridges must serve for the public to In principle, topographies have to be

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(5) Profiles (3) Field reconnaissance

In addition, the existing bridges and Survey results should be carefully