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Drainage Engineering 2
Drainage Engineering 2
4. Canal seepage : Seepage from unlined or lined but ill-maintained canal in the irrigation
areas long duration wet and sometimes marshy condition in the adjoining agricultural
lands ultimately results in rise in water table and development of salinity and alkali
conditions. This is a major problem in irrigated agriculture due to which not only the
valuable irrigation water is lost but also the water that is loss causes other problems like
salinity and alkalinity.
5. Injudicious use of Irrigation Water : Field to field irrigation and over-irrigation due to
uncertainly in the release of canal water both in time and in quantity, are the examples of
injudicious use of irrigation water. Besides, unconsolidated lands, inadequate land
preparation, mostly ungated and many unauthorized outlets and an absence of scientific
rostering of canal water lead to poor irrigation efficiency. These, an turn, cause
temporary surface waterlogging and watertable rise.
6. Other Man-made Causes: Unplanned construction of roads, rail lines
and railway embankments and under capacity culverts lead to
restriction in the natural flow of water, results in waterlogging.
Adoption of unscientific cropping practices such as growing more
water requiring crops against the planned cropping pattern in a canal
irrigated area results in applying more than the anticipated quantity of
water over relatively smaller areas. This causes excess water problem
in certain parts and water deficit over the other parts.
7. Poor Water Quality: Brackish ground and surface water, when used in
irrigation for want of adequate quantity of freshwater, adds
undesirable salts to the agricultural lands. Disposal of untreated
municipal and industrial effluent on the land and into the natural
streams causes surface and groundwater quality problems.
8. Inherent problem with the soil : High salt content in the soil due to
properties of the parent rock material, poor water transmission
characteristics in heavy soil and high evapotranspirative water demand
in a major part of the year lead to salinity and alkali problems. This is
more conspicuous in the semi-arid regions.
9. Lack of Proper Prioritization : Land development and reclamation,
construction of field drains and drain maintenance, are not
considered as priority items of work in an irrigation command area.
The working funds for such works are always limited. Many of these
works are planned but are not executed adequately and in time.
This leads to the development of waterlogging and salt problem,
which become expensive to tackle at a later stage.
Field Laterals
The water from the surface field drains is collected in field laterals,
which can be regarded as part of the farm's main drainage
system. The design cross-section of field lateral should meet the
combined requirements of capacities, erosion control, depth,
side slopes, maintenance and, if needed, allowance for
sedimentation. Table gives recommended field lateral side
slopes in combination with their depth. Two types of cross-
sections can be distinguished: the V-type and Trapezoidal type.
The figure gives a cross-section of a trapezoidal field lateral
Special attention should be given to the
transition between field drains and laterals,
because differences in depth might cause
erosion at those places. For discharges below
0.03m3/s, pipes are a suitable means of
protecting those places. For higher
discharges, open drop structures are
recommended.
3) Random Field Drainage System
Adoptability :The random drain system is most
widely used where small-scattered
depressions occur over the area. Where these
depressions are too large, economically
speaking, to be filled by land forming
practices, they can be drained with random
drains or ditches. Where possible, the drains
connect one depression to another in
conveying the water to a suitable outlet.
• The depth of the drains depends on the topography of
the area and on the design discharge and should be at
least 25 cm. The side slopes should be 8:1 or 10:1, if
they are to be crossed by machines.
• If farming operations are carried out parallel to the
drains, side slopes of 4:1are allowed. The spoil from
the drains can be used to fill small depressions not
connected to the system.
• This drainage system is applied where a number of
depressions are distributed at random over a field. The
application of the random drain system is limited by the
number of depression to be connected as too many
drains hamper mechanized farming and increase the
amount and cost of maintenance work.
• Random drains are sometimes used together with the
bedding system, when the land is flat and the soil has
very low permeability. Where the permeability allows
it, the system is sometimes used in conjunction with
sub-surface drainage system.
4) Parallel Open Ditch System
• Adoptability :The method is often applied in
peat and muck soil. Where subsurface
drainage can be used in conjunction with
surface drainage, the field drain spacing
needs to be adjusted to the requirements of
the subsurface drains. The combined system
is referred to as ' parallel open ditch system'. It
is similar to the parallel field drain system
except that now the field drains are replaced by
open ditches.
These ditches are at least 60cm to 1m deep, and the
given steep side slopes less than 4:1,usually 1:1 or
1.5:1, depending on soil conditions.
The maximum spacing applied varies in practice
between 60 to 200m.As these ditches cannot be
crossed by farm machinery, all farming
operations must be done parallel to the ditches.
Discharge of excess surface water from the rows is
made possible by row drains. The method is often
applied in peat and muck soil.
In mineral soils, it will be more convenient to apply
the parallel field drain system for surface drainage
and a tube drainage system for subsurface drainage.
B) Surface Drainage Systems for Slopping
Areas
Surface drainage methods applied in slopping
areas (slopes>2%) are closely related to
problems of erosion control. The methods
comprise the creation of suitable conditions
to regulate or intercept the overland flow
before it become hazardous as an erosion
force. This usually means some form of
terracing.
1) Cross Slope Ditch System
• The cross-slope ditch system is a channel
type graded terrace also called Nichols
terrace and is used on lands with a slope up to
4%, where flat land systems would be
impracticable in view of erosion hazards.
Cross-slope system resembles the parallel field
drainage system. It is effective on soils with
poor drainage characteristics and where the
overall slopes are rather regular but where
many minor depressions occur.
• The ditches should run approximately parallel to
the contours of the land with a uniform or
variable grade of between 0.1 and 1 % (or a
mean of 0.5%), depending on the topography.
The use of a variable grade often permits a
better alignment of the terrace and a better fit
of the terrace to the field. The soil surface
between the ditches must be smoothed and all
farming operations should be done parallel to
the ditches. Spoil from the ditches can be used
to fill up minor depressions or can be spread out
to form a low layer of not more than 7 cm on
the downslope side of the ditch.
• Cross-slope ditches can have either a triangular or a
trapezoidal shape, with side slopes ranging from 1:4 to
1:10. Their cross-sectional area can vary from0.4 to
0.7m2. Depths will be between 15 and 25 cm and the
top width from 5 to 7 m. The maximum length of a
ditch draining to one side only is about 350 to 450m.
The distance between the ditches depends on the
slope, the rainfall intensity, an erodibility of the soil,
and on the crops that will be grown, but are usually
between 30 m on lands with a 4% slope and 45m on
lands with 0.5% slope.
• With the cross-slope ditch system, between 80 and
100% of the water contained the ditch is below the
original land surface, which reduces the harmful effect
of a possible break in the downslope bank.
2) Standard Erosion Control Terrace
• The standard erosion control is a ridge-type
graded terrace also called as Mangum terrace and
is used on lands that slope as much as 10%.
• The difference between the cross-slope ditch and
the erosion control terrace that with the latter the
spoil from the channels is used to build up a
relatively high ridge on the downslope side. In
such channels only 50 % of the water is retained
below the original land surface. Greater storages
would require great amounts of earth moving and
would increase the risk of the ridges rupturing.
• Like the cross-slope ditches, the channels of the erosion
control terraces should run approximately parallel to
the contours of the land with uniform or van grade of
between 0.1 and 0.6%, depending on the topography.
Natural impediments and sharp curves should be
avoided. If there is a sudden break in the slope of the
land, a channel should be located directly above it.
• Terraces should not be so short that they impede
farming operations, not so long that the channels
would require too great a cut. The maximum length of
terrace channel draining to one side only is about 350
to 450m. The flow velocity in the terrace should not
exceed 0.6m/s, although on sandy soils 0.45m/s is more
suitableand0.3 m/s on pure sands.
Diversion or Interceptor Drains
• To protect areas from flooding by surface runoff
from adjacent higher grounds a diversion or
interceptor drain can be constructed at the foot of
these uplands. For areas not larger than 2 to 2.5
ha at the most, the diversion or interceptor drains
can be constructed like terraces; for larger areas
they should be constructed as grasses
waterways.
• To prevent diversion or interceptor drains from
silting up, a filter strip can be constructed on the
upslope side the ditch. A depth of 0.45m for the
drain and a cross-sectional area of about 0.70m2
are considered minimum values.
Reclamation and Management of Salt-
affected Soils
The process and practices involved in bringing saline
and alkali soils into productive conditions are known
reclamation measures. The efficiency of any reclamation
measure depends on the proper diagnosis of the problem
soils.
Hence, before any reclamation procedure is applied, it is
essential to determine
1. The nature of the soil , as saline, alkali or saline-alkali,
2. Degree of salinity or alkalinity in the soil profile,
3. Quality of water available for leaching out the salts and
the reaction products,
4. Drainage characteristics of the soil
5. Topography of the land, and
6. Presence of any hard pan of lime or clay in the soil strata.
Reclamation Procedures
Reclamation of a soil on a temporary basis can be done by
1. Removing the salt crust from the surface of the soil,
2. Ploughing salt- surface crust deep into the soil, and
3. Neutralizing the effects of certain salts by adding other
salts.
However, permanent reclamation can be
obtained by the following procedures:
1. Lowering of water table (if high).
2. Improving infiltration rate of the soil.
3. Leaching of salts in saline soils and providing adequate
sub-surface drainage.
4. Replacing excessive exchangeable Na by Ca salts and
removing the replaced products.
5. Suitable management practices.
Characteristics of Good Tile Drain
Clay or concrete tile should have the following
characteristics
1. Resistance to weathering and deterioration in
the soil;
2. Sufficient strength to support static and impact
loads under conditions for which they are
designed;
3. Low water absorption, that is a high density;
4. Resistance to alternate freezing and dissolving;
5. Relative freedom from defects, such as cracks
and ragged ends;
6. Uniformity in wall thickness and shape,
• Type of Materials of Tile
1) Concrete Tile
Concrete tile should be made with high-
quality materials and be properly cured.
Concrete tile is made of sand and cement, the
usual proportion being 1 part cement to 3 or 4
parts sand. Good-quality concrete tile are
resistant to freezing and dissolve but may be
subject to deterioration in acid alkaline soils,
the tile should be extra-quality and made with
cements having specific chemical
characteristics. Curing methods will also
depend on the degree of acidity or alkalinity of
the soil (Miller and Manson, 1948).
2) Clay Tile
Clay drain tile is classified as either
common or vitrified. Clay tile should be well
burned, with no checks and cracks and should
have a distinct ring when tapped with metal object.
Ordinary drain tile are not burned as hard as
vitrified sewer tile. Clay tile made from shale are
more durable and usually have less absorption
than those made from surface clays. Clay tile are
not generally affected by acid or alkaline soils.
When subjected to frequent alternate freezing and
dissolving conditions, it is safer to use concrete
tile, although most clay tile are resistant to frost
damage. Where clay tile are laid with less than 0.7
m of cover, they should be extra-quality.
3) Corrugated Plastic Tubing (CPT )
The use of plastic pipes for drainage especially
corrugated tubing’s is becoming increasingly popular. CPT
is not damaged by soil chemicals is light in weight and
is shipped in long lengths. Tubing should be uniform in
color and density and free from visible defects. Parallel
plate stiffness when deflected at 127 mm per minute
should not be less than 0.17 N/mm per millimeter of length
at 5 percent deflection and 0.13 N/mm per millimeter of
length at 10 percent deflection for diameter up to
200mm. Standards for PVC tubing (more common in
Europe) are covered in ASTM F800. The CPT are made in
size 4 to 10 cm. diameter for laterals. Larger sizes are
available for collector drains. They are made in black,
white or other colours, depicting on the pigment used.
The most common resin materials are PVC
(polyvinyl chloride) and HDPE (high density
polyethylene). Both are made from
thermoplastics and are subject to damage by
heat and brightness when exposed to sunlight.
Plastic tubing’s can be easily joined together by
means of slight, exposures to about one year.
Plastic tubing’s can be welded. To allow water to
enter, the plastic drainage pipe is perforations
(slits) are 30 to 60 in number per meter and the
usually 0.6cm wide and 2.5 cm long and
represent a total area of 4.5 or 9 sq.cm per
running metre.
Layout of Drainage Systems
The combinations of two or more of these types
are frequently required for the effective drainage of
an area.
1) Random Drainage System
The random or natural system of drain lines is
used where there are scattered wet areas in a field
somewhat isolated from each other. Drain lines are
laid more or less at random to drain these wet areas. In
most cases the drain main follows the largest natural
depression in the field and sub mains and laterals
extend to the individual wet areas. If the individual wet
areas are large, the arrangement of the submain and
lateral for each wet area may utilize the gridiron or
herringbone tile pattern to provide the required
drainage.
2) Herringbone Drainage System
The herringbone system consists of parallel
laterals that enter main at an angle, usually
from both sides. This system is used where
the main or sub main lies in a narrow
depression. In this system, there is
considerable double drainage, where the
laterals and mains join and the system may not
be very economical. However, it is
particularly suitable, where the laterals are
requires thorough drainage.
Fig. (a) Random or natural, (b) Herringbone,
(c) Gridiron and (d) Interceptor or Cutoff
3) Gridiron Drainage System
The gridiron or parallel system is similar to the
herringbone system except that the laterals enter the
main from only one side. It is used on flat regularly
shaped fields and on uniform soil. It is more
economical than the herringbone system because the
number of junctions and the double drained areas are
reduced. Where there is a broad flat depression, which
is frequently a natural water course, a main may be
placed on both sides of the waterway. This system,
known as double main system, is essentially to
separate gridiron patterns. Placing a main on each side
of the depression serves a dual purpose; it intercepts
the seepage water and provides an outlet for the tile
laterals.
4) Interceptor Drainage and Relief Drainage
The intercept or cut off system is used to
intercept seepage water from hillsides; wet
areas are formed by seepage water moving
horizontally through permeable layers, which
lie over an impermeable layer. This condition is
indicated by seepage along horizontal plane
near the foot of the slope or at a break in
grade. The intercept drain should be laid along
the bottom of the permeable layer in order to
intercept the seepage causing the damage.
Drain Envelop (Socks)
An envelope (or socks)is defined as the material
placed around the pipe drains. Envelop/Filter is an
essential component of a subsurface drainage system,
especially in irrigated region and in non-cohesive soils
having clay fraction less than 40%.
Functions of envelope are as follows :
• Filter Function : to prevent to restrict the soil particles
from entering the pipe where they may settle and eventually
clog the pipe;
• Hydraulic Function: to constitute a medium of good
permeability around the pipe and thus reduce entrance
resistance.
• Bedding Function: to provide all-round support to the pipe
in order to prevent damage sue to the soil load. Note that
large-diameter plastic pipe is embedded in gravel especially
for this purpose.
• In view its functions, the envelope should be so designed
that it prevents the entry of soil particles into the pipe,
although a limited flow of clay particles will do little harm,
because they mainly leave the pipe in suspension.
• A wide variety of materials are used as envelopes for
drain pipes, ranging from organic and mineral, to
synthetic and mineral fibers.
• Several types of sheet filters called geotextiles, are
available commercially.
• Filters are made from nylon, polypropylene and other
materials.
• One recommendation is that the 50 percent particle size
of the soil should be greater than or equal to the
average diameter of openings in the filter.
• In humid areas, it is often sufficient to place the topsoil
or permeable material from the sides of the trench
around the tile, which serves as the only filter material.
• The most effective filter material is well-
graded gravel.
• Gravel filters of pit run or graded materials are
extensively used in tile installation in the arid
regions.
• The filter material should be more previous than
the base soil so that hydraulic pressure will not
build up.
• The voids between the filter particles must be
small enough to prevent soil particles from
entering the tile through the filter material.
• Clogging of the filter or excessive settlement due
to soil movement may occur if the voids in the
filter material are too large.
• The minimum thickness of filter material
placed around the tile should be 7.5 cm.
• Fine textured soils with clay content of more than about
0.25 and 0.30 are characterized by a high structural
stability and they mainly do not require the envelope.
• There is a need of a permanent envelope, completely
surrounding the pipe, only as an effective filter, because
there is no high entrance resistance. A thin geotextile
envelope is probably the best solution here.
• In the finer-textures soils of this category (clay content
less than 0.25 to 0.30, but more than 0.10 to 0.15), the
trench backfill remain stable and of good permeability.
• At the coarse-textured side of the intermediate soils
(soils with a clay content below 0.5 and high silt
content), the trench backfill is likely to be unstable, and
also, the trench backfill may become poorly permeable
through a rearrangement of the soil particles. I
2) Synthetic Envelopes
Many of the drawbacks of gravel envelops can
be overcome with the use of synthetic envelopes.
The wide variety in their materials, however and in
their characteristics make it extremely difficult to
develop sound design criteria. Consequently, many
criteria have been developed which most of them
based on the opening size of the envelope
material.
3) Organic Envelopes
Design specifications of organic envelopes
are based on the same principles as those for
synthetic envelopes. The lifetime of organic
envelopes, however, is limited because of their
origin. The lifetime depends on micro-biological
activity in the soil, which is a function of
temperature, soil chemical properties, and the
presence of oxygen. Hence, the rate of
decomposition is slower in temperate climates
under reduced (submerged) conditions.
Consequently, organic envelopes are mainly
used in Western Europe and are not
recommended for arid and semi-arid regions.
Installation of Drainage System
• Prior to making a field survey for drain pipe installation,
preliminary investigation and inspection of field to be
drained are made. The various factors affecting drainage
are carefully investigated and considered.
• Before deciding on a pipe drainage scheme, it should be
established that the soil will respond to pipe drainage and
there are no soil physical conditions prohibiting its
installation. A suitable outlet (an open ditch or stream) is
necessary.
• An accurate contour map of the area is needed to locate
the pipe system, except where the proper layout can be
determined by field inspection.
• A careful study is made of the best way to run the lines of
pipe and of the pipe drainage system to use.
• The pipe outlets are placed at the most advantageous
points and the number of outlets is kept to a minimum.
• Pipe lines are given as much slope as possible. Economy is
obtained by using the longest possible laterals and
reducing the average length of mains per unit area.
The topography and soil conditions will
determine the placement of laterals with
respect to slope. Often, several arrangements of
tile lines will have to be plotted determine
which is the most efficient and economical one.
Each line of tile is given a letter or number in order
to distinguish it from others (e.g. main A or B,
laterals 1,2,3,etc.). This numbering will help in
labeling profiles and making the bill of materials.
After the tile drains have been located on the map,
they are staked out on the field at the places
corresponding to those on the map.
Stakes are driven at every 15m or7.5 m as with
profile leveling.
System Layout
• The goal of drainage system layout and design is to
provide adequate and uniform drainage of field or
area.
• It's best to create a topography map of methods may
be used to create the map, including standard
topography survey, a GPS or a laser system.
• The topography map helps the designer assess overall
grade and identify the high or low spots in a field that
might pose challenges.
• The system outlet, whether an open channel or a closed
pipe, must be large enough to carry the desired drainage
discharge from a field quickly enough to prevent
significant crop damage.
• Drainage outlets are typically located three to five
feet below the soil surface.
• Drainage outlets must be kept clean of weeds,
trash, and rodents.
• These goals include removing water from an
isolated problem area, improving drainage in an
entire field, intercepting a hillside seep and so on.
• Even if a drainage system is installed on an
incremental basis-some this year, more next year
and so on system planning should not be
piecemeal.
• When selecting a layout pattern for a
particular field or topography, lateral drains, or
field laterals, should be oriented with the field's
contours as much as possible.
Fig. Pipe drainage layout adopted to uniform slope of
the land surface
In the areas with a uniform land slope (i.e. with
parallel equidistant contours), the collector is
preferably installed in the direction of the main
slope, while the field drains run approximately
parallel to the contours. To take the advantage
of the slope for the field drains also
herringbone system can be applied.