 Steel is the most widely used engineering material.

 Steels are alloys of iron and carbon with carbon content up to 2%.
 The properties of steels depend upon the percentage of carbon and the amount of these phases.

Pure Iron, Allotropy :

 I f material is existing in more than one form of crystal structure from room temperature to its
melting temperature is is called s allotropy and materials showing this are called as allotropslike
Fe.
 At room temperature, iron is B.C.C. in lattice structure, whereas on heating at 910°C it changes
to F.C.C.
 Allotropy of Iron is also termed as Polymorphism of Iron.

Iron - Iron Carbide Equilibrium Diagram :

This is the equilibrium diagram showing changes in phases and in its percentages with the change in
% carbon. In this on X axis it shows % carbon from 0 to 6.67% and Y axis shows the temperature till
the melting point of pure Iron.

This diagram covers both Steels and Cast Iron region as both of them are ferrous alloys
δ ferrite:

Interstitial solid solution of carbon in iron of body centred cubic crystal structure (δ iron )
of higher lattice parameter (2.89Å) having solubility limit of 0.09 wt% at 1495°C with respect to
austenite. The stability of the phase ranges between 1394-1539°C.

This is not stable at room temperature in plain carbon steel. However it can be present at room
temperature in alloy steel specially duplex stainless steel.

γ phase or austenite:

Interstitial solid solution of carbon in iron of face centred cubic crystal structure having
solubility limit of 2.11 wt% at 1147°C with respect to cementite. The stability of the phase ranges
between 727-1495°C and solubility ranges 0-0.77 wt%C with respect to alpha ferrite and 0.77-2.11
wt% C with respect to cementite, at 0 wt%C the stability ranges from 910-1394°C
Fe3C or cementite:

Interstitial intermetallic compound of C & Fe with a carbon content of 6.67 wt% and
orthorhombic structure consisting of 12 iron atoms and 4 carbon atoms in the unit cell.

Stability of the phase ranges from low temperatures to 1227°C

Orthorhombic crystal structure of cementite. The purple atoms represent carbon. Each carbon atom
is surrounded by eight iron atoms. Each iron atom is connected to three carbon atoms.

Pearlite: it is a mechanical mixture of ferrite and cementite which is transferred by eutectoid

reaction from Austenite at 727 temperature. It appears in lamellar form. If the cooling from
austenitic region is very fast it leads to fine pearlite and better mechanical properties.

Ledeburite :
 It is a mechanical mixture of cementite and Austenite transferred by eutectic reaction at 1147 from
liquid phase. On further cooling it transforms to pearlite at 727 and at room temperature it is called
as transformed ledeburite.

Critical temperatures:

A0= a subcritical temperature (<A1) = Curie temperature of cementite=210°C

A1=Lower critical temperature=eutectoid temperature=727°C

A2=Curie temperature of ferrite=768/770°C

A3=upper critical temperature=γ+α /γ phase field boundary

=composition dependent=910-727°C

A4=Eutectic temperature=1147°C

A5=Peritectic temperature=1495°C

 For Heating, suffix ‘c’ is used (from the French word chauffage meaning heating) and for Cooling
suffix ‘r’ is used (from French word refroidissement meaning cooling).
E.g. During heating process, A1 is denoted as Ac1 and during cooling, it is denoted as Ar1.

Peritectic Reaction :
 It is a high temperature reaction.
 In general, peritectic reaction is given by,
Constant
Solid1 + Liquid Solid2
temperature

 Transformation occurring at 0.18% C < carbon % < 0.55% C is termed as hyper-peritectic steel.
 The transformation is given by :
1492C
 + L ––––––  + L
Eutectoid Reaction

 Amount of -ferrite and cementite (Fe3C) in the final solid pearlite can be obtained by applying
the lever rule,
EF
Amount of –ferrite =  100
DF
6.67 – 0.8
=  100
6.67 – 0.025
= 88.1%
DE
Amount of cementite (Fe3C) =  100
DF
0.8 – 0.025
=  100
6.67 – 0.025
= 11.9%
Consider slow cooling of 0.4% C steel
 The microstructure at point 1 contains 100% -austenite.
 Point 2 transformation from - to a combination of proeutectoid -ferrite
 At a point just above point 2 the microstructure is 100% solid solution -austenite.
 Cooling from pt. 2 to pt. 3 causes transformation of proeutectoid -ferrite from the -
austenite phase.
 The amount of proeutectoid -ferrite is given by,
l (3E) 0.8 – 0.4
 100 =  100
l (DE) 0.8 – 0.025
= 51.61%
From point 3 to 4, the microstructure contains pearlite and proeutectoid -ferrite
Steel with 0.9% carbon

• Steels are classified on the basis of following criteria :

• (1) Carbon content

• (2) Content of alloying elements

• (3) De-oxidation method employed

• (4) Grain Coarsening Characteristics

• (5) Manufacturing Method

• (6) Depth of Hardening

• (7) Applications (form and use)

• On the basis of Carbon content :

• Plain carbon steels are classified into three groups on the basis of carbon content as follows:

• Low Carbon Steel (0.008 – 0.30%C)

• Medium Carbon Steel (0.30 – 0.60%C)

• High Carbon Steel (0.60 – 2.00%C)

Classification based on content of alloying elements

• (i) Low alloy steel (< 10% total alloying elements)

• (ii) High alloy steel (> 10% total alloying elements)

Classification based on de-oxidation method employed

 • During the extraction of iron (from iron and slag formation), oxygen gets dissolved into iron.

• This dissolved oxygen during solidification forms blow holes and porosity.

• Hence, it is necessary to remove the oxygen.

Based on the method employed for de-oxidation, steels are classified as :

• Rimmed s

• Killed steel steels

• Semi-killed steels

• Classification based on the Manufacturing method

Steels can be classified as follows :

(a) Basic Open Hearth

(b) Electric furnace

(c) Basic Oxygen process

(d) Acid Open Hearth

(e) Acid Bessemer

Classification based on depth of hardening

a) Non-hardenable steels :

Contains less carbon and almost no alloying elements.

(b) Shallow hardening steels :

It contains medium carbon percentage with or without alloying elements.

It gets hardened only at the surface and hence is sometimes used for gears, camshafts and similar
applications.

(c) Deep hardening steels

Classification based on form and use (Applications)

(a) Boiler steels

(b) Case hardening steels

(c) Deep drawing steels

(d) Corrosion and heat resistant steels

(e) Electrical steels

(f) Tool steels

(g) Free cutting steels

(h) Spring steels

(i) Structural steels

(j) Die steels

Specification of steel:

Indian Standard Designation System (I.S.)

Symbol Fe E denotes minimum yield strength (N/mm2).

e.g. Fe E 220  Steel with minimum yield strength of 220 N/mm2.

e.g. Fe 220 K  Killed steel with minimum tensile strength of 220 N/mm2

Symbol St is used when tensile strength is indicated in kg/mm 2.

e.g. St 52  Steel with minimum tensile strength of 52 kg/mm2.

Actual carbon content is given by a number indicating 100 times the average % of carbon.

e.g. C 30  Steel with average carbon of 0.3 %.

e.g. 35 C 6  Steel with average C – 0.35%, Mn – 0.6%

20 C 6 S 20 – Steel with average composition of C - 0.2%, S - 0.6%, Mn – 2%.

• T 35 Cr 5 Mo 1 V 30 – Tool Steel with average composition of C – 0.35%,

Cr – 5%, Mo – 1%, V – 0.30%.

AISI - SAE Classification System AISI XXXX

4 digit number

1st number is the major alloying element

2nd number designates the subgroup alloying element OR the relative percent of primary alloying
element.

last two numbers approximate amount of carbon (expresses in 0.01%)

British standards: EN stands for Emergence Number