ABSTRACT

KHAN, MEHNAZ AKHTER. Bi-directional DC-DC and DC-AC Converter Systems for
Vehicle-to-Grid and Grid-to-Vehicle Power Transfer in Plug-in-Electric Vehicles. (Under the
direction of Dr. Iqbal Husain).

The dissertation presents a bi-directional buck-boost DC-DC converter and its control for

vehicle charging as well as for vehicle-to-grid (V2G) energy transfer. The cascaded buck-boost

topology allows overlapping input and output voltage ranges with a higher intermediate DC

bus voltage. The intermediate DC-link capacitor voltage is varied to improve the transient

performance of the converter. The reference voltage of this capacitor is set based on the input

and output voltage levels, and the power demand. The modularity, control flexibility and

transient performance of the converter have been evaluated with simulation and experiments.

The performance analysis and comparison of two different types of bi-directional cascaded

DC-DC converters is presented for use in PEV application. The comparison of the two

converters is based on device requirements, switch and passive component ratings, control

strategy and performance. Each of the converter topologies has some advantages over the

other in certain aspects. Feasibility studies have been carried for practical applications.

Simulation and experimental results are provided for both converter types to support the

theoretical findings.

Hybridization with different electric energy sources and the usage of diverse auxiliary outputs

in PEV application have led to innovative topologies for the power converter system. This

thesis presents a novel bidirectional DC-DC converter with multi-input and multi-output

capability for PEV applications. A control algorithm with current controller has been
developed and implemented for the converter system. A passive auxiliary circuit has been used

to enable soft switching technique in the multiple input case to improve the overall system

efficiency. Simulation and experimental results have been provided to emphasize the control

approach.

Minimizing the size and weight of the onboard charging components in a Plug-in EV/HEV is

desirable to increase the driving range of these vehicles between charging. An integrated

traction machine and converter topology with bi-directional power flow capability between an

electric vehicle and the DC or AC supply or grid is presented. The inductances of the traction

motor windings are used for bi-directional converter operation to transfer power eliminating

the need for extra inductors for charging and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) converter operations. These

operations are in addition to the vehicle traction mode of operation. The electric powertrain

system size and weight can be minimized with this approach. The concept has been analyzed

with finite element coupled simulation using a dynamic analysis software. Experimental results

are also provided with a reconfigurable power converter and electric machines. The

interleaving technique has been used with the inductors to share the current and reduce the

converter switching stresses.

© Copyright 2015 by Mehnaz Akhter Khan

All Rights Reserved

 Bi-directional DC-DC and DC-AC Converter Systems for Vehicle-to-Grid and Grid-to-
Vehicle Power Transfer in Plug-in-Electric Vehicles

by
Mehnaz Akhter Khan

A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of

North Carolina State University
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

Electrical Engineering

Raleigh, North Carolina

2015

APPROVED BY:

_______________________________ ______________________________
Dr. Iqbal Husain Dr. Srdjan Lukic
Committee Chair

________________________________ ________________________________
Dr. Aranya Chakrabortty Dr. Ilse Ipsen
 ii

DEDICATION

To my husband and mom.

 iii

BIOGRAPHY

Mehnaz Akhter Khan received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees from Bangladesh University of

Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh in Electrical and Electronic

Engineering (EEE) in 2006 and 2009, respectively. She received her Ph.D. degree from the

department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at North Carolina State University,

Raleigh, NC. Her research interests are in the area of Power Electronics, Renewable Energy,

and Electric and Plug-in Hybrid Electric vehicles.

 iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Iqbal Husain, for his guidance,

and sincere encouragement throughout my graduate studies. His technical and editorial advice

was essential to the completion of this research.

My thanks also go to all the members of my PhD committee for their comments and

suggestions. I would like to thank Dr. Yilmaz Sozer for his support and encouragement in my

research.

Finally, the support and inspiration from my husband Rajib Mikail, my father M. A. Mazid

Khan, my mother Dilara Mazid and my son Ryman Murfy provided the moral strength during

all these years.

 v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................................... viii

LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Research Background ................................................................................................................. 2
1.2 Vehicle-to-Grid and Grid-to-Vehicle Power Transfer.............................................................. 6
1.3 DC-DC Converters used in Vehicles ........................................................................................ 9
1.4 Research Motivations .............................................................................................................. 10
1.5 Dissertation Outline .................................................................................................................. 12
Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 14
DC-DC POWER CONVERTERS ................................................................................................... 14
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 15
2.2 Voltage-fed and Current-fed converters ..................................................................................... 15
2.3 Non-isolated Bi-directional DC-DC Converters ........................................................................ 21
2.4 Multi-input and Multi-output DC-DC Converters...................................................................... 25
2.5 Integrated DC-DC Converter ..................................................................................................... 29
2.6 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................ 32
Chapter 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 33
BI-DIRECTIONAL CONVERTER WITH OVERLAPPING INPUT AND OUTPUT VOLTAGE
RANGES .......................................................................................................................................... 33
3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 34
3.2 Cascaded DC-DC Converter ...................................................................................................... 34
3.2.1 Converter Topology............................................................................................................. 35
3.2.2 Converter Component Sizing .............................................................................................. 38
3.2.3 Optimum Pulse Positioning ................................................................................................. 41
3.3 Controller Analysis and Design.................................................................................................. 46
3.3.1 Small Signal Model ............................................................................................................. 46
3.3.2 Controller Parameter Selection ............................................................................................ 50
3.4 Simulation Results .................................................................................................................... 52
 vi

3.5 Experimental Results ............................................................................................................... 55

3.6 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 63
Chapter 4 ............................................................................................................................................. 64
ANALYSIS OF CASCADED DC-DC CONVERTERS ................................................................. 64
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 65
4.2 Stability Analysis of the Cascaded Converters........................................................................... 66
4.3 Comparison of the Cascaded Topologies ................................................................................... 70
4.3.1 Switching Mechanism ......................................................................................................... 70
4.3.2 Switch Rating and Size ........................................................................................................ 70
4.3.3 Inductor and Capacitor Ratings and Sizes ........................................................................... 72
4.3.4 Interleaving Capability ........................................................................................................ 74
4.3.5 Multiple Inputs and Outputs Capability .............................................................................. 74
4.4 Simulation Results ...................................................................................................................... 77
4.5 Experimental Results .................................................................................................................. 82
4.6 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................ 88
Chapter 5 ............................................................................................................................................. 89
SOFT SWITCHING IN MULTI-INPUT DC-DC CONVERTER................................................... 89
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 90
5.2 Multi-input and Multi-output system ......................................................................................... 91
5.3 Controller Design ....................................................................................................................... 93
5.4 Soft Switching ............................................................................................................................ 95
5.5 Simulation Results .................................................................................................................... 102
5.6 Experimental Results ................................................................................................................ 106
5.7 Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 108
Chapter 6 ........................................................................................................................................... 110
INTEGRATED ELECTRIC MOTOR DRIVE AND POWER ELECTRONICS ......................... 110
6.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 111
6.2 Converter Topology.................................................................................................................. 113
6.3 System Analysis .................................................................................................................... 120
6.4 Simulation Results .................................................................................................................. 124
 vii

6.4.1 Coupled Simulation with PMSM .................................................................................... 124

6.4.2 Simulation with Induction Machine ................................................................................ 127
6.4.2.1 Mode 1 and Mode 2 Simulation ................................................................................. 127
6.4.2.2 Mode 4 and Mode 5 Simulation ................................................................................. 130
6.5 Experimental Results .............................................................................................................. 135
6.5.1 Experiment with Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine .......................................... 136
6.5.2 Experiment with Induction Machine ............................................................................... 139
6.6 Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 144
Chapter 7 ........................................................................................................................................... 145
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK ..................................................................................... 145
7.1 Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 145
7.2 Future Works ............................................................................................................................ 148
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 149
APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................. 163
Appendix A: Parameter Specifications .......................................................................................... 164
Appendix B: State space modeling for CBB-CIM ......................................................................... 165
Appendix C: State space modeling for CBB-IIM .......................................................................... 168
 viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 BEV and PHEV charging Structure [6].................................................................................. 4

Table 3.1 Input, output and DC-link capacitor voltage ranges. ............................................................ 52
Table 3.2 Maximum levels for experiment .......................................................................................... 57
Table 3.3 Varying intermediate stage reference voltage ...................................................................... 58
Table 3.4 Varying output reference voltage ......................................................................................... 58
Table 3.5 Varying input voltage ........................................................................................................... 58
Table 3.6 Experimental results at higher voltage levels ....................................................................... 62
Table 3.7 Power and efficiency analysis .............................................................................................. 63
Table 4.1 Peak Voltage for CBB-IIM .................................................................................................. 71
Table 4.2 Average Current through Switches and Diodes (CBB-IIM, CBB-CIM) ............................. 71
Table 4.3 Inductor Ratings and Average Currents ............................................................................... 73
Table 4.4 Capacitor Ratings ................................................................................................................. 73
Table 4.5 Losses and Efficiency of CBB-CIM..................................................................................... 78
Table 4.6 Losses and Efficiency of CBB-IIM ...................................................................................... 79
Table 5.1 Parameter Specifications .................................................................................................... 100
Table 5.2 Efficiency analysis for the system without ZVS ................................................................ 105
Table 5.3 Efficiency analysis for the system with ZVS ..................................................................... 105
Table 6.1 Switch Positions and Converter States ............................................................................... 115
Table 6.2 Parameter specification for analysis ................................................................................... 121
Table 6.3 Power flow at different levels in Mode 4 ........................................................................... 133
Table 6.4 Power flow at different levels for in Mode 5 .................................................................... 135
Table 6.5 Results with PMSM............................................................................................................ 137
Table 6.6 Parameter specifications for Experiment............................................................................ 140
Table 6.7 Results with Induction Machine ......................................................................................... 142
 ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1.1. Consumption of petroleum and other liquids by sector, 1990-2040 (million barrels per day)
[1]. .......................................................................................................................................................... 2
Fig. 1.2. Oil consumption for PEVs compared to other mid-sized cars [7][8]. ...................................... 5
Fig. 1.3. The structure of the vehicles to grid interface. ......................................................................... 7
Fig. 2.1. Conventional voltage-fed converter. ...................................................................................... 15
Fig. 2.2. Conventional current-fed converter. ...................................................................................... 16
Fig. 2.3. Current-fed converter with active clamped auxiliary circuitry. ............................................. 17
Fig. 2.4. Bi-directional voltage-fed converter and current-fed converter. ............................................ 18
Fig. 2.5. Bi-directional DC-DC converter combining half-bridge voltage-fed and full-bridge current-
fed topology. ......................................................................................................................................... 18
Fig. 2.6. Bi-directional DC-DC converter combining half-bridge voltage-fed and half-bridge current-
fed topology. ......................................................................................................................................... 19
Fig. 2.7. Bi-directional DC-DC converter combining two voltage-fed full-bridges. ........................... 19
Fig. 2.8. Bi-directional DC-DC converter combining two voltage-fed half-bridges. ........................... 20
Fig. 2.9. Bi-directional DC-DC converter combining voltage-fed one half-bridge and one full-bridge.
.............................................................................................................................................................. 20
Fig. 2.10. Bi-directional Half-bridge buck/boost converter. ................................................................ 21
Fig. 2.11. (a) Cuk Converter, (b) SEPIC/Luo Converter. ..................................................................... 22
Fig. 2.12. Cascaded Buck-Boost Converter (CBB-IIM). ..................................................................... 23
Fig. 2.13. Interleaved Converter. .......................................................................................................... 24
Fig. 2.14. Interleaved Converter with auxiliary circuit for ZVS. ......................................................... 28
Fig. 2.15. Typical integrated DC-DC Converter. ................................................................................. 29
Fig. 2.16. Integrated Converter with two machines. ............................................................................ 30
Fig. 3.1. Developed Bi-directional DC-DC Converter (CBB-CIM). ................................................... 36
Fig. 3.2. Flow diagram of the operating principles. ............................................................................. 37
Fig. 3.3. CCM mode inductor current. ................................................................................................. 39
Fig. 3.4. Inductor size depending on the power transfer and current ripple. ........................................ 39
Fig. 3.5. DCM mode inductor current. ................................................................................................. 40
Fig. 3.6. DCM power transfer as a function of on-time t1 at different input voltages. ........................ 40
Fig. 3.7. Pulse Positioning (a) Optimum (b) Arbitrary. ........................................................................ 41
Fig. 3.8. Energy transfer through the intermediate stage capacitor with % of overlap of two gate
signals for (a) 𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 𝑣𝑜, (b) 𝑣𝑖𝑛 < 𝑣𝑜, (c) 𝑣𝑖𝑛 > 𝑣𝑜. ......................................................................... 42
Fig. 3.9. Optimum pulse positioning for 𝑉𝑖𝑛 > 𝑉𝑜.............................................................................. 44
Fig. 3.10. Effect of overlapping of two gate signals on the capacitor current ripple............................ 44
Fig. 3.11. Relation between capacitance and current ripple. ................................................................ 45
Fig. 3.12. Effect of input voltage on the system poles. ........................................................................ 47
Fig. 3.13. Effect of input side inductance value on the system poles. .................................................. 47
Fig. 3.14. Effect of load changing on the system pole pairs................................................................. 48
 x

Fig. 3.15. Average model of the converter. .......................................................................................... 49

Fig. 3.16. Converter system with PI controller. ................................................................................... 49
Fig. 3.17. Average model outputs (a) intermediate stage voltage and (b) output voltage. ................... 51
Fig. 3.18. Actual model outputs (a) intermediate stage voltage and (b) output voltage. ...................... 52
Fig. 3.19. Converter voltages and currents for 𝑉𝑐1𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 500 𝑉 and 𝑉𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 300 𝑉. ..................... 53
Fig. 3.20. Transient change of the DC bus voltage (𝑉𝑜) for an instantaneous load change. ................ 53
Fig. 3.21. Various losses with load variation for a fixed input voltage of 350 V. ................................ 54
Fig. 3.22. Efficiency with load and input voltage variations. ............................................................... 55
Fig. 3.23. Three phase IGBT module. .................................................................................................. 56
Fig. 3.24. Controller board. .................................................................................................................. 57
Fig. 3.25. Experimental results showing the initial transient response of voltages and currents. ........ 59
Fig. 3.26. Experimental results for 1.5 kW load................................................................................... 60
Fig. 3.27. Transient response with change in intermediate stage reference voltage............................. 60
Fig. 3.28. Transient response with change in load reference voltage. .................................................. 61
Fig. 3.29: Experimental results for 3.8 kW load. ................................................................................. 62
Fig. 4.1. Cascaded Buck Boost Capacitor in the middle (CBB-CIM). ................................................. 65
Fig. 4.2. Cascaded Buck Boost Inductor in the middle (CBB-IIM). .................................................... 65
Fig. 4.3. Effect of input voltage change in system poles (a) Pole trajectories of CBB-CIM (b) Pole
trajectory of CBB-IIM. ......................................................................................................................... 68
Fig. 4.4. Effect of output load power level in system poles (a) Pole trajectories of CBB-CIM (b) Pole
trajectory of CBB-IIM. ......................................................................................................................... 69
Fig. 4.5. (a) Multi output case in CBB-CIM (b) Vin<VCM (Boost mode) and VCM>Vout1 and Vout2
(Buck mode). ........................................................................................................................................ 75
Fig. 4.6: (a) Multi input case in CBB-CIM (b) 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 and 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 < 𝑉𝐶𝑀 (Boost mode) and VCM >
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (Buck mode). .............................................................................................................................. 76
Fig.4.7: (a) Multi output case in CBB-IIM (b) 𝑉𝑖𝑛<𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡1 and 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡2 (Boost mode) (c) 𝑉𝑖𝑛>𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡1
and 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡2(Buck mode)........................................................................................................................ 77
Fig. 4.8. Efficiency with load variation for CBB-CIM and CBB-IIM. ................................................ 79
Fig. 4.9. Simulation results for CBB-CIM with multiple outputs. ....................................................... 80
Fig. 4.10: Simulation results for CBB-CIM with multiple inputs (V2G mode). .................................. 81
Fig. 4.11: Simulation results for CBB-CIM with multiple inputs (G2V mode). .................................. 81
Fig. 4.12: Simulation results for CBB-IIM with multiple outputs. ...................................................... 82
Fig. 4.13: Experimental Set up ............................................................................................................. 84
Fig. 4.14: Experimental results for CBB-CIM. (a) Results for 3.8 kW (Ch1- input voltage, Ch2-
intermediate stage voltage, Ch3- output voltage, Ch4- output current). (b) Experimental result shows
the initial transient response of voltages (Ch1- intermediate stage voltage, Ch2- output voltage). ..... 84
Fig. 4.15: Experimental results for CBB-IIM (a) Results for 71.3 kW (Ch1- output voltage, Ch2-
input voltage, (ChM=Ch3+Ch4)- charging current at steady state) (b) Response while battery
charging current changes from 0A to 90 A and 90 A to 50 A(Ch1-output voltage, Ch2-input voltage,
Ch3-charging current). ......................................................................................................................... 85
 xi

Fig. 4.16: Gate signals and currents of output inductors. ..................................................................... 86

Fig. 4.17: Efficiency with load variation of CBB-CIM topology for multiple output case.................. 86
Fig. 4.18: Gate signals and currents of input inductors. ....................................................................... 87
Fig. 4.19:Efficiency with load variation of CBB-CIM topology for multiple input case..................... 87
Fig. 5.1. Multi-input and Multi-output Converter. ............................................................................... 92
Fig. 5.2. Converter with parasitic resistances. ...................................................................................... 92
Fig. 5.3. Block diagram of the DC-DC converter controller. ............................................................... 94
Fig. 5.4. Converter with passive circuit for ZVS implementation........................................................ 95
Fig. 5.5. Both gate signals 𝑆1 and 𝑆3 are in overlapping position. ...................................................... 96
Fig. 5.6. Gate signals 𝑆1 and 𝑆3 in non-overlapping position. ............................................................ 97
Fig. 5.7. State of the converter system for time intervals (a) 𝑡𝑜 < 𝑡 < 𝑡1; (b) 𝑡1 < 𝑡 < 𝑡2; (c) 𝑡2 <
𝑡 < 𝑡3; (d) 𝑡3 < 𝑡 < 𝑡4; (e) 𝑡4 < 𝑡 < 𝑡5; (f) 𝑡5 < 𝑡 < 𝑡6; (g) 𝑡6 < 𝑡 < 𝑇. ....................................... 98
Fig. 5.8. Gate signals, inductor currents and voltages for overlapping case. ..................................... 101
Fig. 5.9. Switch voltages and gate signals (a) Lower switches, (b) Upper switches. ......................... 102
Fig. 5.10. Gate signals, inductor currents and voltages for non-overlapping case. ............................ 103
Fig. 5.11. Switch voltages and gate signals for four switches in multiple input side. ........................ 104
Fig. 5.12 Comparison in efficiency between the systems with and without ZVS. ............................. 105
Fig. 5.13. Experimental set up of the system with the auxiliary branch............................................. 106
Fig. 5.14. Experimental results: Switch voltages and gate signals, (a) Ch1- 𝑆1, Ch3 - 𝑉𝑐𝑒1, (b) Ch2 -
𝑆2, Ch3 - 𝑉𝑐𝑒2, (c) Ch1- 𝑆3, Ch3 - 𝑉𝑐𝑒3, (d) Ch2 - 𝑆4, Ch3 - 𝑉𝑐𝑒4................................................ 107
Fig. 5.15. Experimental results: Efficiency comparison with ZVS and without ZVS. ...................... 108
Fig. 6.1. Converter with switches capable of interfacing with both AC and DC grid (a) Combined, (b)
Details................................................................................................................................................. 114
Fig. 6.2. Circuit with all switches in State1. ....................................................................................... 116
Fig. 6.3. Circuit with Switch2 and Switch5 in State2 for V2G boost or G2V buck operation with
vehicle side inductors interleaved. ..................................................................................................... 117
Fig. 6.4. Circuit with Switch3 and Switch4 are in State1 for V2G buck or G2V boost operation with
DC grid side inductors interleaved. .................................................................................................... 117
Fig. 6.5. Circuit with Switch1 is in State2 for traction mode operation. ............................................ 118
Fig. 6.6. Circuit configuration for bi-directional interface with a single phase AC grid. ................... 118
Fig. 6.7. Effect of input voltage change on the system pole1 and pole2. ........................................... 122
Fig. 6.8. System block diagram with closed loop feedback control. .................................................. 123
Fig. 6.9. Frequency response from duty cycle to output voltage. ....................................................... 123
Fig. 6.10. Coupled simulation of Flux 2D and MATLAB/Simulink.................................................. 125
Fig. 6.11. Converter circuit with motor coil conductors. ................................................................... 125
Fig. 6.12. DC output voltage from coupled simulation. ..................................................................... 126
Fig. 6.13. Phase currents in the three windings of the machine from coupled simulation. ................ 126
Fig. 6.14. Integrated converter and induction machine operation with DC grid; (a) V2G boost mode of
operation,(b) V2G buck mode of operation........................................................................................ 127
 xii

Fig. 6.15. Output voltage in Mode 1 and Mode 2 of the integrated motor/converter: (a) for boost
operation, and (b) for buck operation. ................................................................................................ 128
Fig. 6.16. Input current in boost mode of operation and shared input currents in the three phase
windings on the machine. ................................................................................................................... 129
Fig. 6.17. Output current in buck mode of operation and shared output currents in the three phase
windings on the machine. ................................................................................................................... 130
Fig. 6.18. Power flow between battery and AC grid: (a) From battery to AC grid (Mode 4), and (b)
from AC grid to battery (Mode 5). ..................................................................................................... 131
Fig. 6.19.Voltages and currents in Mode 4: (a) Grid voltage and grid current, and (b) Command 𝒊𝒅
and 𝒊𝒒currents. ................................................................................................................................... 132
Fig. 6.20. Voltages and currents in Mode 5: (a) Grid voltage and grid current, and (b) Command 𝒊𝒅
and 𝒊𝒒currents. ................................................................................................................................... 134
Fig. 6.21. Experimental Setup: (a) Three phase IGBT module, and (b) Controller Board. ............... 135
Fig. 6.22. Experimental set up with PMSM. ...................................................................................... 137
Fig. 6.23. Experimental Result with PMSM: Input voltage, Output voltage, Input and Output currents.
............................................................................................................................................................ 137
Fig. 6.24. Experimental Result with Induction Machine: (a) Input voltage and current and output
voltage in low power level, and (b) Input voltage and output voltage and current in high power level.
............................................................................................................................................................ 141
Fig. 6.25: Experimental result of Vgrid and Igrid for Mode 4 (Power flow from battery to single
Phase AC grid). .................................................................................................................................. 143
 1

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Research Background

1.2. Vehicle-to-Grid and Grid-to-Vehicle Power Transfer
1.3. DC-DC Converters used in Vehicle
1.4. Research Motivations
1.5. Dissertation Outline
 2

1.1 Research Background

The U.S. dependence on imported oil has been gradually increasing over the years, which has

become an important issue in national and global energy considerations. The largest share of

oil consumption is in the transportation sector as shown in Fig. 1.1, although its share is

expected to fall to 68% in 2040 from 72% in 2012 as a result of improvements in vehicle

efficiency and the incorporation of CAFE (Corporate Average Fuel Economy) standards in

Light Duty Vehicles (LDV) and Heavy Duty Vehicles (HDV) [1].

Fig. 1.1. Consumption of petroleum and other liquids by sector, 1990-2040 (million barrels

per day) [1].

Fuel price that is gradually increasing and the world’s supply of fossil fuel that is diminishing

through the years are critical issues that need to be considered. Environmental pollution is

another important concern where the main source of carbon dioxide emissions is from the
 3

transportation sector. Approaches to curb the emissions must be developed and evaluated.

Alternative vehicles that eliminate or minimize the size of the internal combustion (IC) engines

of the conventional vehicles can be used to ease this problem. Electric vehicles, hybrid electric

vehicles, plug-in hybrid vehicles and fuel cell vehicles which are all termed as alternative

vehicles use advanced technologies alternative to the conventional IC engine vehicles [2]. In a

hybrid vehicle, there are two or three types of sources that deliver propulsion power. An IC

engine and one or two electric machines are used in the powertrain of a hybrid vehicle.

Depending on the type of hybrid vehicle architecture, the traction electric motors can operate

independently or combined with the IC engine. The arrangement of the hybrid powertrain

components classifies the hybrid vehicles as series, parallel and series-parallel hybrids. In

series hybrid, only one converter provides propulsion power and in parallel hybrid, more than

one energy conversion device delivers propulsion power. PHEVs are generally hybrid vehicles

but they have a higher capacity energy storage system. The power electronic converter

interfaces with grid to restore the energy of the storage system from grid. These vehicles can

operate in battery-only mode to provide power for propulsion during the daily commute and

IC engine provides additional power and capability for longer range of driving.

Plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) with their alternative powertrains help minimize fossil fuel

usage and reduce emissions. PEV can be generalized for PHEV (Plug-in-Hybrid Electric

Vehicle), EV (Electric Vehicle) or BEV (Battery Electric Vehicle). According to the IEEE

definition, a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle is any hybrid electric vehicle which contains at

least: (1) a battery storage system of 4 kWh or more used to power the motion of the vehicle;
 4

(2) a means of recharging that battery system from an external source of electricity; and (3) an

ability to drive at least ten miles in all-electric mode without consuming any gasoline [4].

PHEV can be recharged to store energy in an onboard battery which is then on demand by the

vehicle propulsion system. The essential property of PHEV is the use of the internal

combustion engine for propulsion in highway driving when the battery is depleted. PHEVs can

typically travel from 15-45 miles in the electric-only mode and can go more than 300 miles in

the gasoline-electric hybrid mode before needing to be refueled. On the other hand, EV consists

of the following features: (1) the energy source is portable and electrochemical or

electromechanical in nature, and (2) traction effort is supplied only by an electric motor [5].

Table 1.1 BEV and PHEV charging Structure [6]

Chargin Power Supply Charger Power Miles of Range Charging Times(From

g Level for 1 hour of Empty to Full)
Charge BEV PHEV
Level 1 120 VAC 1.4kW @12
Single Phase amp ~ 3 – 4 miles ~ 17 ~7 Hours
(on-board Hours
charger)
Level 2 240 VAC 3.3 kW(on- ~ 8 – 10 miles ~7 Hours ~3 Hours
Single Phase board)
Up to 19.2 6.6 kW ~ 17 – 20 miles ~ 3.5 ~ 1.4 Hours
KW (on-board) Hours
(Up to 80
amps)
DC Fast 200 – 450
Charge VDC 45 kW (off- ~ 50 – 60 miles ~ 30 – 45 ~ 10 Minutes
Level 2 Up to 90 kW board) (~ 80% per 0.5 Minutes (to ~ 80%)
(approximatel hr charge) (to ~ 80%)
y 200 amp)
 5

A full range EV can travel between 70-300 miles. If the battery is charged during the off-peak

hour, the equivalent fuel cost for PEV is about $1 per gallon [6]. Charging time depends on

the size of the battery, the size of the on-board charger and power levels. Typical charging

times for PEV with different types of charging stations are shown in Table 1.1[6].

In the transportation sector, PEV provides the opportunity to use the grid electricity. The U.S.

electricity grid has the potential to deliver sufficient amounts of energy for daily requirement

of light duty vehicles. It is expected that 37 million PHEVs on the road in U.S. will demand

electricity in 2030 for an average driving distance is 33 miles per day [3].

PEVs help to reduce emissions both directly and indirectly. Directly it reduces GHG emissions

and indirectly it can help the environment by using electricity obtained from renewable

generation. PEVs can reduce the U.S. dependence on the imported oil by utilizing the

electricity produced from different sources. According to US Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA), 33.7 kW/h is equivalent to one gallon per gasoline energy. Fig. 1.2 shows the

oil consumption of 20 mile range PEVs compared to other mid-sized cars.

600
500
Oil Consumption
(gallons/yr)

400
300
200
100
0
Conventional Hybrid Electric PEV
Vehicle

Fig. 1.2. Oil consumption for PEVs compared to other mid-sized cars [7][8].
 6

1.2 Vehicle-to-Grid and Grid-to-Vehicle Power Transfer

Transportation electrification and renewable energy generation are linked not only through the

common power electronics based technologies, but also complement each other from a policy

point of view. The increased penetration of renewable energy sources into the power grid will

help ease our dependence on fossil fuel based energy sources. Renewable sources such as wind,

solar, wave are naturally intermittent; the energy throughput variability problem associated

with the renewable energy sources can be alleviated through an interconnected energy storage

system that can be provided by the electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.

The battery packs in a fleet of PEVs can serve as a distributed energy storage system to address

the variability issue of renewable energy sources. The PEVs can help stabilize the grid when

sufficiently large numbers of them are on service. These vehicles can provide the grid support

by storing energy in their battery packs during periods of low demand and delivering the energy

during periods of high demand. The technologies required to facilitate this energy exchange

between the grid and the PEVs are called the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) and grid-to-vehicle (G2V)

technologies. The conventional vehicles with IC engine are totally detached from the grid, but

PEVs have electric propulsion motor with on-board power electronics and energy storage that

can take power from grid and provide power to grid if the technologies have bi-directional

capability of power flow. The research presented in this dissertation is focused on developing

these bi-directional power electronics based technologies.

A number of vehicles with a DC output are envisioned to be connected to the DC bus of the

charging station as shown in Fig. 1.3. If the battery of the vehicle is undercharged and needs
 7

energy, it will then draw power from the grid; conversely, if the battery has reserve capacity

that is more than it needs for the commute and the power demand on the grid is high, then it

can deliver power to the grid. The power exchange between the grid and the vehicle is required

for a large number of different types of vehicles with different input and output voltage ranges.

A municipal parking deck charging station with DC power distribution bus has been shown to

employ bi-directional DC-DC charger to allow V2G operation [51]. A bi-directional converter

with overlapping input output voltage range would enhance the operational flexibility for G2V

or V2G applications.

DC- Bus

Inverter
Grid

Fig. 1.3. The structure of the vehicles to grid interface.

The impact of PEVs on the environment can be found in several research publications [10]-

[13]. In the power system, this electric mobility will penetrate the power system as additional

load. The penetration of the large number of PEVs in distribution system may cause

overloading, voltage deviation, increased harmonics, and increased line losses. A large number
 8

of vehicles are likely to be connected in one region that will cause the overloading in the overall

distribution system. Voltage instability may occur for uncontrolled recharging infrastructure.

Individual vehicle behavior is also an important factor to evaluate the whole system. The power

converter system should be robust, efficient and reliable to solve these problems.

Three elements are required to enable the V2G technology for PEVs: (a) power connection to

the grid for electrical energy flow, (b) control or logical connection for communication with

grid operators, and (c) precision metering on-board the vehicle [9]. PEVs should have real-

time control as it can help transfer power to grid. Electric power system stability must be

ensured and sufficient power should be left in the battery for driving. The driver should have

the capability to determine how much power he wants to sell. The power electronics of PEVs

are to be designed to handle the fluctuations of power over short periods, which is essential for

interaction with the grid. An aggregator in the power system sector can provide frequency

regulation for V2G technology which can make efficient use of the power that can be gathered

from the vehicles [14]. It is very important to calculate the amount of power that can be derived

from the PEVs. Han et al. developed the method to estimate the achievable power capacity

from this PEV distributed battery power generation [15]. V2G operation can be useful to inject

real or reactive power to the grid to ensure current harmonic filtering or load balancing. V2G

technology can improve the performance of the grid such as efficiency, stability and reliability

and provide reactive power support with variable renewable sources as well [17]. An optimum

scheduling of V2G can provide a flexible system with integrating the intermittent renewable

energy sources [18],[19].

 9

For successful operation of V2G and G2V scenarios, a bi-directional DC-DC converter with

flexible properties and the associated control strategy is needed to establish a robust algorithm.

1.3 DC-DC Converters used in Vehicles

The power electronic circuit in a PEV powertrain consists of DC-DC converter that converts

the DC voltage available from the battery storage or fuel cell into a stable voltage level to

maintain the desired operating point of the vehicle. The onboard power electronics for PHEV

to charge the battery is similar to that of BEV. Therefore, the selection of DC-DC converters

for the charging infrastructure is common in EV and PHEV.

The DC-DC converter in PEVs provides the suitable voltage levels and stabilizes the bus

voltage for the electric motor drive based propulsion system. Different types of converters are

used in PEV applications. Depending on the use, the converters can be classified into isolated

and non-isolated converters. The non-isolated converter is used generally in powertrain to

boost the battery voltage to higher levels for propulsion and isolated converters are used in

high to low voltage conversion where isolation is needed to provide the necessary 12 V for

auxiliary circuits. Half-bridge and full-bridge converters, cascaded converter, buck-boost

converter, Cuk and SEPIC/Luo converters are examples for non-isolated converters. Each

converter has its own pros and cons in this application. Additional components are added with

the basic converters to improve the efficiency and reliability of the converter. In PEV

applications, the converter should have bi-directional power transfer capability so that the

battery can be charged from the grid and to provide power to the propulsion system.
 10

The electronic interface between the energy storage system and the grid provides the electricity

pathway between the PEV energy storage and the utility grid. The bi-directional DC-DC

converter used to serve the purpose should be capable of power compensation, voltage

regulation and peak shaving [22]. The cascaded buck-boost topology used in [23][24] has a

lower maximum overall efficiency, and the efficiency drops significantly for large voltage

transfer ratios [50]. Thrimawithana et al. presented a contactless bi-directional converter

topology with reversible rectifiers on each side of an inductive power transfer system to control

the amount and direction of power flow [25]. Garcia et al. used interleaved buck converters to

reduce the filtering requirement, and to improve the dynamic response and power management

[26]. A multilevel converter topology was used to decrease the voltage stress on the transistors

and to reduce the need for large inductors. Different types of isolated converters used in EV

applications are reported in [27]-[29].

1.4 Research Motivations

The PEV vehicle battery packs are designed for higher energy density and not suitable for

supplying a large amount of power in a very short period of time. Another energy storage

device, the ultra-capacitor has the ability to supply the large amount of power in a short time.

Battery can store a large amount of energy, whereas ultra-capacitor has low storage capacity.

The battery can provide power at light loads for a longer time while ultra-capacitor can help in

acceleration and regeneration operations. Ultra-capacitor and battery can be used together to

improve the performance of the overall energy source by meeting both storage and peak power

demands. The power electronic converter topology will be different depending on the type of
 11

energy source or storage such as battery, ultra-capacitor, or fuel cell [20][21]. The number of

inputs may also be more than one, and the number of outputs required may also vary depending

on the number of auxiliary outputs. Therefore, the DC-DC converter to interface between the

energy storage devices or sources and the electric motor drive for the PEV application need to

be appropriately designed.

Size, cost and weight are challenging issues in the power conversion system. Off-board

chargers are less constrained by size and weight. However, size and weight of the converter

are critical issues in the case of on-board chargers. These chargers provide the flexibility to the

consumer to charge the car anywhere outside the home. The multi-purpose use of the power

electronic converter in the drivetrain of an electric vehicle is an interesting concept that can be

utilized topic to minimize the system size, weight and cost. The windings of the traction

machine can be used as an integral part of the converter as the vehicle powertrain is idle during

the charging period. Several research activities for integrating the battery charging system with

the traction drive have been reported [64][65][93]. In one approach, the traction motor

windings have been used as the inductors for the converter to develop the charging system

without any additional component [66]. An on-board integrated charger has been proposed

with reconfiguration of the stator windings of a special electric machine in [69]. A battery

charger is developed for the electric scooter where interior permanent magnet traction motor

is used for charging with power factor correction [65].

The technical issues addressed so far serve as the motivation to develop an efficient DC-DC

converter for PEV application with bi-directional power transfer capability and overlapping
 12

input and output voltage ranges. A bi-directional DC-DC converter with modularity, control

flexibility and excellent transient performance should be chosen for V2G and G2V operations.

However, hybridization with different sources having different characteristics and effective

configuration with different auxiliary outputs in PEV applications served as the motivation for

developing multi-input and multi-output converter system. Besides these, the further

improvement of the system by reducing switching loss to enhance system efficiency motivates

to develop and implement a soft switching technique on multi-input side of the converter.

Advanced power electronics converter technology can reduce the overall system size, weight

and cost through integration of the traction machine with the converter; the converter system

can then reduce the number of elements required to transfer power in both directions of power

transfer for charging and supporting the grid. In addition, the implementation of the

interleaving technique with the three branches of the traction machine provides the flexibility

of the input current sharing and the reduction of the switching stress.

1.5 Dissertation Outline

Chapter 1 gives an introduction of Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) and Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V) power

transfer capability. DC-DC converters used in vehicles are discussed briefly and the research

motivations are presented.

Chapter 2 presents the literature review on DC-DC converters. Voltage-fed and current-fed

converters, non-isolated converters, multi-input and multi-output converters and integrated

converters are given for PEV applications.

 13

Chapter 3 presents bi-directional converter topology with overlapping input and output

ranges. The operational principles of the topology and converter component sizing have been

discussed in this chapter. A small signal model has been developed and the controller

parameter selection is discussed. Simulation and experimental results are provided to support

the developed topology.

Chapter 4 provides the evaluation of two cascaded converter topologies. For comparison of

the two topologies, switching mechanism, stresses on switches and diodes, rating of the passive

components, size of the passive components, interleaving capability, and multiple input and

output capability have been considered. Simulation and experimental results have been

provided in this chapter to support the analysis.

Chapter 5 presents the converter developed with multi-input and multi-output capability for

PEV applications. Passive auxiliary circuit has been incorporated in the converter to enable

soft switching that helps reduce the switching loss and improve the system efficiency. The

converter has been analyzed and evaluated with simulation and experiments.

Chapter 6 presents the topology of the integrated electric motor drive and power electronics.

In this chapter, system analysis is provided. Simulation and experimental results have been

provided for verification of the integrated converter topology.

Chapter 7 presents the conclusions and future works in the area of power converters for PEV

applications.
 14

Chapter 2

DC-DC POWER CONVERTERS

2.1. Introduction
2.2. Voltage-fed and Current-fed converters
2.3. Non-isolated Bi-directional DC-DC Converters
2.4. Multi-input and Multi-output DC-DC Converters
2.5. Integrated DC-DC Converters
2.6. Conclusions
 15

2.1 Introduction

The power electronic converter for PEV powertrain applications should have bi-directional

power transfer capability. This power converter stabilizes the bus voltage providing the desired

DC voltage level. The converter processes power to charge the battery and helps transfer power

to grid for V2G applications. The converter with suitable specifications for PEV application is

an interesting and important research topic. In the case of on-board vehicle battery charger,

size and weight is the most important factor; hence, integrating the battery charger and the

propulsion system is being addressed in the emerging research of recent years.

2.2 Voltage-fed and Current-fed converters

In some applications, isolated DC-DC converters are needed where galvanic isolation is

available. Depending on the input circuit, the converters are classified as voltage-fed and

current-fed converters. The voltage-fed converter is fed ideally by a zero Thevenin impedance

voltage source means that there is no input impedance. Fig. 2.1 shows a typical isolated

voltage-fed converter.

S1 S3 D1 D3

Vin C

S2 S4 D2 D4

Fig. 2.1. Conventional voltage-fed converter.

 16

Voltage boosting is achieved by the winding ratio of the transformer, which requires a high

winding ratio. Due to high transformer ratio, the leakage inductance of the transformer

becomes large. The main problem with the full bridge voltage-fed converter is the pulsating

current at input which increases the filter size; a snubber is also needed in the secondary side.

On the other hand, the current ripple is low in current-fed converter due to the use of the input

inductor as shown in Fig. 2.2. Voltage boosting operation can be achieved with a lower winding

ratio. High voltage application is designated between several kilovolts and several hundred

kilovolts. Due to high voltage stress on the inductor, the output filter inductor should be large,

which makes the converter expensive. Therefore, voltage-fed converter where output filter is

required is not suitable for high voltage applications. In case of current-fed converters, output

filter inductor may not be required as there is input inductor, and hence, it is suitable for high

voltage applications.

S1 S3 D1 D3

Vin C

S2 S4 D2 D4

Fig. 2.2. Conventional current-fed converter.

Severe voltage overshoots occur at turn-off due to the leakage inductance of the transformer.

An additional auxiliary active clamping circuit is used to absorb the turn-off voltage spike that
 17

limits the peak voltage across the device and helps to select low voltage devices. Rathore et al.

presented the snubberless naturally clamped bi-directional current-fed converter for fuel cell

vehicles [37]; the converter provides ZCS for the primary side and ZVS for the secondary side

active switches. The secondary side modulation clamps the primary side voltage of the device

and it eliminates the voltage spike in case of turn-off switching. Rathore et al. also discusses

the active clamped current-fed converter [38] which is shown in Fig. 2.3. This converter

provides ZVS for all switches and the additional clamping branch eliminates the turn-off

voltage spike which helps to reduce the voltage ratings of the power devices.

S1 S3 D1 D3
Sa
C1 R
Vin C2
Ca
S2 S4 D2 D4

Fig. 2.3. Current-fed converter with active clamped auxiliary circuitry.

Fig. 2.4 shows a typical bi-directional current-fed and voltage-fed converter [39] which in the

direction from V1 to V2 works as a current-fed converter and on the other direction works as

voltage-fed converter [39]. This converter was developed for hybrid vehicles to interface the

low battery voltages to high voltage dc-link of the motor drive. There is always voltage spike

on the switch due to leakage inductance of the transformer, and hence, the topology is not

suitable for high power applications of several tens of kilowatts. The topology can be improved
 18

to use in high power level applications with several modifications. Snubber circuit can be used

to reduce the voltage stress on the switches as [40][41].

+ S1 S3 S5 S7 +
V1 C1 C2 V2

S2 S4 S6 S8
- -

Fig. 2.4. Bi-directional voltage-fed converter and current-fed converter.

For low power applications, a converter topology with half-bridge on the primary side and a

current-fed push-pull on the secondary side of a high frequency transformer can be used [42].

Different types of converters with combination of half or full bridge topology of voltage-fed

and current-fed converters are reported in the literature.

+ S1 C11 S3 S5 +
V1 C1 C2 V2

S2 S4 S6
C12
- -

Fig. 2.5. Bi-directional DC-DC converter combining half-bridge voltage-fed and full-bridge

current-fed topology.
 19

In [43], a bi-directional converter has been proposed which is the combination of voltage-fed

half-bridge and current-fed full bridge converter as shown in Fig. 2.5. Active clamped circuit

has been used in the current-fed side of the converter. A dual half-bridge topology has been

developed as shown in Fig. 2.6 which does not need extra snubber circuit or auxiliary active

clamped circuit [44].

+ S1 C11 S3
C21
L
V1 C1

C2
+V2
S2 S4 C22
C12
- -
Fig. 2.6. Bi-directional DC-DC converter combining half-bridge voltage-fed and half-bridge

current-fed topology.

Several researches have been developed by combining half and full bridge voltage-fed

topologies as shown in Fig. 2.7, Fig. 2.8 and Fig. 2.9 [45]-[48].

+ S1 S3 S5 S7 +
V1 C1 C2 V2

S2 S4 S6 S8
- -

Fig. 2.7. Bi-directional DC-DC converter combining two voltage-fed full-bridges.

 20

+ S1 C11 S3 +
C21

V1 C1 C2 V2

S2 S4 C22
C12
- -

Fig. 2.8. Bi-directional DC-DC converter combining two voltage-fed half-bridges.

S1 C11 S5 S7 +

C1 C2 V2

S2 S6 S8
C12
-

Fig. 2.9. Bi-directional DC-DC converter combining voltage-fed one half-bridge and one

full-bridge.

The Dual Active Bridge (DAB) shown in Fig. 2.7 combined two voltage-fed full bridges and

is currently popular in the intermediate DC-DC stage of solid state transformers.

The literature review of different types of voltage-fed and current-fed converters helps to

choose the appropriate converter in PEV applications. In a PEV application, bi-directional DC-

DC converter is essential as the power transfers from battery for propulsion operation and also

the power transfers to the battery for charging operation. Therefore, the current-fed converter

consisting of the input inductor can provide bi-directional power flow having less input current

ripple which can reduce the current ratings of the devices as well as the size of the overall

system.
 21

2.3 Non-isolated Bi-directional DC-DC Converters

Non-isolated bi-directional converters have simple structure, high efficiency, high reliability

and low cost. The basic non-isolated converter consists of a single switch and a single diode

and may have one inductor and one capacitor as storage elements. There are other non-isolated

converters having two switches, two diodes and additional energy storage elements. Non-

isolated converters are commonly used in PEV application. Several non-isolated DC-DC

converters are reported in [49]-[53]. Micah et al. used a common simple half bridge structure

to transfer power between battery and ultra-capacitor as shown in Fig. 2.10 [49] for PEV

application. The high voltage DC side with capacitor C1 is connected with the battery, while

the lower voltage DC side with capacitor C2 is connected with ultra-capacitor.

+ S1

L
V1 C1
+
S2 C2 V2
- -
Fig. 2.10. Bi-directional Half-bridge buck/boost converter.

The half-bridge topology works in a buck mode by switching S1 and transferring energy from

battery to ultra-capacitor and works in boost mode by switching S2 and transferring energy

from ultra-capacitor to battery. The same half-bridge topology is used in HEV applications as
 22

the powertrain boost converter for boosting the battery voltage to a higher level DC-link

voltage for the traction electric motor drive [54][55].

The non-isolated converters, Half-bridge, Cuk, SEPIC and Luo converters, can be used in HEV

applications and a comparison of these converters appear in [23]. The non-isolated converters

are shown in Fig. 2.11. The impact of the wide input voltage range on the device stress has

been discussed. Each converter has its own pros and cons over the other converters. It has been

observed that Cuk and Combined SEPIC and Luo converters need active devices with larger

current handling capability. The conduction losses of the active components of the Half-bridge

converter are lower than the other converters.

+ L1 L2
- + L1
+
S2
C C
V1 C1 C2 V2 V1 C1 C2 V2

L2
S1 S2 S1
- + - -

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.11. (a) Cuk Converter, (b) SEPIC/Luo Converter.

The rms current and peak current of the output capacitor for half-bridge and SEPIC converters

are greater than that of other converters [23]; therefore, the energy handling capability should

be higher for the output capacitor and as well as the value of the output capacitor is higher.

Waffler et al. implemented a cascaded buck-boost converter for HEV and Fuel cell vehicles as

shown in Fig. 2.12 [50]. This converter is named as Cascaded Buck-Boost Inductor-in-the
 23

middle (CBB-IIM) converter. The DC bus voltage is typically higher than the battery voltage

in electric vehicles with a boost stage, but depending on the characteristics of the batteries and

design of the propulsion system, the battery voltage may overlap with the nominal DC bus

voltage. Therefore, the converter must have the capability to handle the input and output side

voltages with overlapping ranges. The same topology has been discussed in [84][23][51].

+ S1 S3
+
L
C2 V2
V1 C1

S2 S4
- -
Fig. 2.12. Cascaded Buck-Boost Converter (CBB-IIM).

Several different types of bidirectional DC-DC converters along with their comparison appear

in the literature [84][23]. Most of them require fewer components and simple control

techniques, but cannot provide bidirectional buck-boost power flow capability. R. M.

Schupbach addressed the active and passive component’s stress issues due to the wide input

voltage range of hybrid electric vehicle power management converters [23]. Different non-

isolated bidirectional DC-DC converters have been analyzed and compared for PHEV charging

applications in [51]. Three-level bidirectional DC-DC converters have been found to be more

efficient than other converters. The output voltage is smoother with these three level converters
 24

having three possible values of the output voltage. These converters have low switch voltage

stress and smaller energy storage devices.

Interleaving techniques as shown in Fig. 2.13 is another techniques that is used in power

converters to reduce the input current ripples and minimize the stress on the switches [56]-

[58]. Load variations can degrade the performance in interleaved converters used for fuel cell

energy processing; an adaptive control scheme can regulate the output voltage and enable equal

current sharing in the interleaved converter [56].

S1 S3
+
L1
C2 V2
L2
+
V1 C1 S2 S4
- -
Fig. 2.13. Interleaved Converter.

In [57], a three phase bi-directional interleaved converter has been designed which operates in

Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM) to eliminate the passive inductor required to maintain

ZVS. The current ripples are reduced by using the interleaving technique. The control scheme

diverts the current into the antiparallel diode of the active switch by turning on the other non-

active switch to maintain ZVS. Interleaving technique helps to replace the aluminum

electrolytic capacitors with film or ceramic capacitor and improves the reliability and power

density while reducing the equivalent series resistance [59]. Liqin et al. described a 16-phase

interleaved bi-directional converter for hybrid vehicle applications which has been used
 25

between ultra-capacitor pack and battery pack in hybrid vehicles. The same topology has been

used to implement hybrid energy storage system to protect batteries of an EV from high-peak

currents and extend the lifetime of the batteries [60]. Suyong et al. described a two phase

interleaved converter and developed a digital current sharing method to solve the unequal

current distribution in the parallel DC-DC converters [61]. The research involved with

coupled-inductor interleaved boost converters and comparison between independent phase and

coupled phase interleaved converters have been found in [62][63].

In case of onboard DC-DC converters in PEV application, the size of the converter is an

important factor during selection of the converter type. The non-isolated converter reduces the

overall size of the converter by eliminating the transformer which is used in the isolated type;

interleaving technique also reduces the converter size with reduced current and voltage ratings

of the device.

2.4 Multi-input and Multi-output DC-DC Converters

Multi-input and multi-output converters allow the hybridization of a vehicle with different

sources and the usage of diverse auxiliary outputs. A combination of energy storage devices

can be used in hybrid electric vehicles to meet the power demand in an effective way [111].

Thounthong et al. discussed the effectiveness of the hybridization of different sources in fuel

cell vehicles [112]. Slow dynamics of the fuel cell deteriorate the overall performance of the

system as high voltage drop occurs for fast load demand. Improving the system performance

requires an auxiliary power source of battery or supercapacitor to meet the short duration high

power demand [112]. The complementary features of battery and supercapacitor can be used
 26

to satisfy the high energy density demand for EV range requirements and to meet the high

power density demand for regeneration and acceleration in EV application [104]. A buck-boost

converter has been used to share energy between battery and supercapacitor [102] where

supercapacitor module is connected to the DC link through a bidirectional DC-DC converter.

Several topologies for hybridization of energy storage devices have been discussed in [103].

Solero et al. discussed on the improvement of the efficiency of the fuel cell vehicles by utilizing

the characteristics of battery and ultra-capacitor together with the fuel cell [21]. Yalamanchili

et al. provided the overview on different types of multi-input DC-DC converters in [113].

In a PEV application, several auxiliary outputs with different output voltage levels are required

to meet the demand of the customers such as climate control system, lighting loads, power

steering etc. [106]. The converter having multiple auxiliary outputs is more useful in heavy

hybrid vehicles such as fleet trucks, where the powertrain is less integrated with multiple DC

voltage level requirements [105] [106].The electrically driven compressor from a high voltage

output is used for the climate control system to reduce the usage of the IC engine [108][109].

These requirements serve as the motivation to develop a DC-DC converter with multiple inputs

and multiple outputs for PEV applications.

The size of the converter can be reduced by switching the power devices at a high frequency.

However, the switching loss increases significantly with increased switching frequencies, and

the overall performance of the conversion system becomes poor. Hard turn-on and turn-off of

the power devices are the main sources of the switching losses. Different methods are available

in the literature that use auxiliary circuits for soft switching to help reduce the switching losses
 27

by switching the power devices at zero voltage (ZV) or zero current (ZC) [94]-[98]. Auxiliary

circuits consisting of active switches and diodes are called active auxiliary circuit, and the

circuits consisting of passive components such as inductors, capacitors are named as passive

auxiliary circuit. The zero voltage switching (ZVS) and zero current switching (ZCS) circuits

can be classified into two types, resonant circuit and non-resonant circuit. Dual auxiliary circuit

where there is a combination of resonant and non-resonant circuit has also been reported [99].

The active auxiliary circuit helps to discharge the capacitor voltage across the main switch

which provides ZVS during turn-on of the main switch. The auxiliary switch turns on before

the turn-on of the main switch and turns off after the turn-on of the main switch. The main

problem of such converters is the use of the extra components of the active elements and

passive components. The other issue of the active auxiliary circuit is that there may be hard

switching of the auxiliary switch which may reduce the overall efficiency of the system.

The interleaving technique can reduce the input current ripple to mitigate the switching stress,

and additionally, the converter can achieve ZVS with the addition of an auxiliary active circuit

[94][95]. The problem of these converters is the use of the two auxiliary circuits for the two

branches of the converter which increases the cost and complexity of the overall system.

Interleaved converter with ZVS in critical conduction mode has been reported in [100], but it

has the limitation of maximum power handling capacity as the input current ripple is high for

the critical conduction operation.

 28

S1 S3

L1
L2 C R

Battery +
S2 S4
-

Fig. 2.14. Interleaved Converter with auxiliary circuit for ZVS.

A passive auxiliary circuit consisting of one inductor and one capacitor has been used to

implement ZVS as shown in Fig. 2.14 in the interleaved converter [101]. Two interleaving

branches with 180 degrees phase shifting have been used to provide reactive current for ZVS

implementation. The auxiliary circuit has high frequency inductor and a DC blocking capacitor

which is required to eliminate the DC current due to the mismatch of the duty ratios of the two

phases. This auxiliary circuit provides the reactive current to charge and discharge the parasitic

capacitor of the switch to enable ZVS.

Soft switching technique such as active clamped circuit consisting of semiconductor devices

can achieve ZVS in high step up bi-directional converter with two input sources [110]. The use

of the active circuit can bring extra losses and complexity in the system.

In this research, a passive auxiliary circuit has been used to implement the soft switching

technique in the converter system with multiple inputs to maintain high efficiency of the

converter in PEV applications.

 29

2.5 Integrated DC-DC Converter

The multi-purpose use of the power electronic converter in the drivetrain of an electric vehicle

has become an interesting topic to minimize the system size, weight and cost. Off-board

chargers are less constrained by size and weight, but weight and size of the converter are

challenging issues in the case of on-board chargers which otherwise provides the flexibility of

charging the vehicle anywhere. The vehicle is not driven during the period of charging, and

hence, the traction motor and inverter of the powertrain can be used as an integral part of the

converter. The windings of the traction motor can serve as the inductors of the power converter

along with power devices of the traction inverter to transfer power. A typical integrated

converter is shown in Fig. 2.15. The power converter of the electric vehicle can draw power

from the grid when it requires, and also can deliver power to the grid during the peak time

when grid needs power. During a significant part of the day, most vehicles remain idle in the

parking lot when the integrated power converter can use the traction motor and its drive to

transfer power to the grid.

Three phase DC-DC

Battery
Inverter Converter

Traction
Motor

Fig. 2.15. Typical integrated DC-DC Converter.

 30

Several research activities for integrating the battery charging system with the traction drive

have been reported [64][65]. In one approach, the traction motor windings have been used as

the inductors for the converter to develop the charging system without any additional

component [66]. The three-phase supply is connected with each phase of the machine and the

battery is always connected to the DC bus. The research showed the use of a poly-phase

machine for the charger. Other topologies have been used for battery charging systems with

traction motor windings used as filter components [67][68]. An on-board integrated charger

has been proposed with reconfiguration of the stator windings of a special electric machine in

[69]. A battery charger has been developed for the electric scooter where interior permanent

magnet traction motor is used for charging with power factor correction [65].

S1 S3 S5 S11 S21 S31

+
Battery

DC-DC
- Converter
C1

S12 S22 S32

S2 S4 S6

Machine1

Machine2

AC Input

Fig. 2.16. Integrated Converter with two machines.

 31

Research of the integrated converters with two machines as shown in Fig. 2.16 are available in

the literature [70]-[73]. Lixin Tang et al. proposed the integrated converter where two three

phase motors has been used for the two inductors and the two neutral points of the three phase

motors are connected with the ac input to charge the battery [70]. The two motor drives and

battery are connected to a common DC bus, each motor drive unit consists of an

inverter/converter and a motor/generator. Gui Jia et al. added two half bridge converters and a

14 V converter which is coupled through a high frequency transformer with the same integrated

converter with two machines [71]. The control of two converters is complex, extra hardware is

needed and the cost is higher than other converters.

Integrated converters with two power converters and one induction motor have been reported

in [74][75]. The control of the converters also in the proposed approach is fairly complex.

Integrated converters with one power converter and one motor have been reported in [68] [76]-

[78]. Induction machine and permanent magnet machine were used in these cases. The system

control is simple, and the size and weight are less than the other two topologies. Other machines

such as Synchronous Reluctance motor and Permanent-Magnet Assisted Synchronous

Reluctance Machine have also been used in the integrated battery charger in [79][80].

The opportunity to develop a converter that minimizes the number of power devices and

passive elements used in a PEV application led to the development of the proposed integrated

reconfiguration converter in this research. The integrated reconfigurable power conversion

system with reduced parts count and high efficiency can help achieve the goals of smaller size
 32

and lower weight for PEV applications. The reconfigurable converter can provide the power

transfer bi-directionally by utilizing the machine windings to reduce the size of the converter.

2.6 Conclusions

The performance of an EV battery-pack depends to a great extent on the characteristics of the

charger and charging infrastructure. The battery charger should be reliable, efficient and should

have high power density, low cost, low weight and size. The off-board charger can be designed

for high power level and it is less constrained by weight and size, but volume, space, size and

weight are very important issues to choose the component of the converter especially in case

of the onboard charger. The literature review on different types of converters helped to identify

the type of converter system that is suitable to meet the requirements in a PEV application.

Therefore, the converter system that has been developed through his research can effectively

meet the requirements in a PEV application with reduced size and weight, and improved

efficiency compared to what is currently available.

 33

Chapter 3

BI-DIRECTIONAL CONVERTER WITH

OVERLAPPING INPUT AND OUTPUT

VOLTAGE RANGES

3.1. Introduction
3.2. Cascaded DC-DC Converter
3.2.1. Converter Topology
3.2.2. Converter Component Sizing
3.2.3. Optimum Pulse Positioning
3.3. Controller Analysis and Design
3.3.1. Small Signal Model
3.3.2. Controller Parameter Selection
3.4. Simulation Results
3.5. Experimental Results
3.6. Conclusions
 34

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents a cascaded buck-boost DC-DC converter [35] which is the combination

of two half-bridge converters connected with an intermediate DC stage. The developed DC-

DC converter allows the input and output voltage ranges to overlap with a capacitor bank in

the middle providing an intermediate stage. The DC-DC converter topology provides modular

design and allows individual modules to be interleaved on either the input or the output side;

this allows component size reduction and integration of multiple vehicles into the charging

system.

3.2 Cascaded DC-DC Converter

The power exchange between the grid and the vehicle is required for a large number of different

types of vehicles with different input and output voltage ranges. A bi-directional cascaded DC-

DC converter that can operate in both buck and boost modes with a wide range of voltage

levels in either direction is necessary to achieve the objective. The DC-DC converter plays a

vital role for power exchange between vehicle and grid allowing power transfer in either

direction according to the need. A boost converter is often used in the electric drivetrain of an

electric/hybrid vehicle to boost the battery voltage so that the DC-link voltage supplying the

traction inverter operates at a higher voltage. However, the DC bus voltage range of the

charging station may need to be at a lower voltage. The battery voltage also varies around a

nominal voltage which could overlap with the DC bus voltage range of the charging station. A

DC-DC converter which is configured by cascading two half-bridge converters has been
 35

developed and presented; the converter has the capability to allow a wide and overlapping input

and output voltage ranges.

3.2.1 Converter Topology

The developed cascaded DC-DC converter topology that is capable of operating in both buck

and boost modes in either direction is shown in Fig. 3.1. This cascaded converter can be termed

as Cascaded Buck-Boost Capacitor in-the-middle (CBB-CIM) converter. The topology is

suitable for the interfacing the high voltage battery with the high voltage DC-bus where an

electrical isolation is not required. The cascaded buck-boost converter has an intermediate

stage to store energy at a higher voltage and allows the overlap between battery voltage and

DC bus voltage in the whole operating range. The high efficiency operation is achieved in the

topology through the switching of only one switch in a bridge, and reducing the voltage stress

on the switches through the bridge. The input and output side controls of the developed

converter are independent of each other, which make the topology suitable for multi-input and

multi-output applications and EV charging station. The converter topology is suitable for a

vehicle architecture where DC-link bus voltage can be flexibly regulated for adding or

removing auxiliary components in the DC-link such as in a heavy hybrid vehicle. This

converter can perform boost and buck operation in both directions which would be useful in

certain vehicle systems such as fuel cell electric vehicles.

 36

S2 S4
IL1 IL2

C1
L1 L2

DC BUS
Battery S1 S3 C2 Inverter GRID

Stage1 Stage2

Fig. 3.1. Developed Bi-directional DC-DC Converter (CBB-CIM).

The power is transferred between the input and output DC stages utilizing the DC-link

capacitor as an intermediate storage unit. The converter has two stages each one of which can

act either as a buck converter or a boost converter. For example, during the power flow from

the battery to the DC source, stage-1 will act as a boost converter and stage-2 will act as a buck

converter. The DC-link capacitor voltage is maintained at a level set by the converter controller.

Conversely, when power is to flow from the DC bus to the battery, stage-2 operates in the boost

mode and stage-1 operates in the buck mode. Half of the switches are utilized for power flow

control in any given direction. The controller turns off the PWM signals when power flow

direction is required to be changed and waits for the inductor current to reach zero. Then the

controller starts operation with new control commands based on the new operating condition.

The controller flow diagram of the operation is shown in Fig. 3.2.

 37

Start

Read input, output

currents and voltages

Set the
intermediate stage
reference Voltage

Y Battery Voltage>nominal N
voltage and SOC

N N
Vc1<Vc1_ref Vc1>Vc1_ref

Y Y

Vload>Vload_ref Vload<Vload_ref

N Y Y Y Y N

Stage 2 Stage 2 Stage1 Stage1 Stage 2 Stage 2

Buck Boost Boost Buck Buck Boost

Fig. 3.2. Flow diagram of the operating principles.

The intermediate stage and DC bus voltage is regulated using two separate PI controllers. The

set point of the intermediate capacitor voltage is adjusted according to the battery state-of-

charge and load voltage. In case of a single input and single output application, the set point

for the intermediate voltage will be close to the output voltage. In case of multiple output

applications such as in heavy duty hybrid electric vehicles, this voltage can be set to the larger

output voltage level. When there are undesired variations in one of the output voltages due to

load disturbances, the intermediate stage is set to a higher level to protect power flow from one

output stage to the other lower level output stages. The loads are not affected by one another

with this approach. The converter has the inherent capability to enhance the stability of the

multi output system.

 38

3.2.2 Converter Component Sizing

The half bridge switch configuration in the cascaded DC-DC converter helps to reduce the

switching stresses compared to the single switch topologies; switching at higher frequencies

helps minimizing the reactive component sizes. The size of the inductors depends on the

maximum allowable ripple in the inductor current and the size of the capacitors depends on the

maximum allowable ripple on the capacitor voltage. The size of these components can be

obtained from the following relations:

𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡_𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷1_𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 (𝑉𝑐1_𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉𝑐2_𝑚𝑖𝑛 )𝐷2_𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇

𝐿1 = , 𝐿2 = … (3.1)
△𝐼𝐿1 △𝐼𝐿2

𝐼𝐿1_𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷1_𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 𝐼𝐿2_𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷2_𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇

𝐶1 = , 𝐶2 = … (3.2)
△𝑉𝑐1 △𝑉𝑐2

Here, T is switching period; 𝐷1_𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 and 𝐷2_𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 depend on the maximum on-time of 𝑆1,

and 𝑆4 . △ 𝐼𝐿1 ,△ 𝐼𝐿2 , △ 𝑉𝑐1 and △ 𝑉𝑐2 are the maximum allowable ripple currents and ripple

voltages of the circuit reactive components.

Power transfer characteristics are analyzed separately in the CCM and DCM to appropriately

size the inductor. 𝐼𝑜1 is the inductor steady state current. Fig. 3.3 shows the typical CCM

inductor current waveform. In CCM, the power transfer equation can be derived as

𝑇𝑉𝑖𝑛 2 (𝑉𝑐1 −𝑉𝑖𝑛 )

𝑃1 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑜1 + … (3.3)
2𝑉𝑐1 𝐿1
 39

Fig. 3.3. CCM mode inductor current.

60
%Ripple in current

Vin = 300V
40
Vin = 350V
Vin = 400V
20

0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
-3
x 10
14
Power transfer(kW)

Vin = 400V
Vin = 350V Vin = 300V
12

10

8
0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Inductance (H) x 10
-3

Fig. 3.4. Inductor size depending on the power transfer and current ripple.

At different power levels, selection of the inductance value depends on the current ripple

allowed in the inductor. The inductance can be chosen from the characteristics of Fig. 3.4

based on the design specifications for different power levels. For example, if an input voltage

is 300 V at 10 kW and with a specification of maximum 40% current ripples; the inductor value

should be chosen as 600 µH.

 40

Fig. 3.5 shows the typical DCM current waveform. In DCM mode, the power transfer equation

is
2
𝑉𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡1 2 (𝑉𝑐1 −𝑉𝑖𝑛 )2 (𝑡2 2 −𝑡1 )
𝑃1 = − … … … … (3.4)
2𝑇𝐿1 2𝐿1

𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑡2 = 𝑡1 √1 − ( )2 … … … … (3.5)
𝑉 𝑐1 −𝑉𝑖𝑛

iL1

I1

t1 t2 T t

Fig. 3.5. DCM mode inductor current.

2500

2000
Power transfer(Watt)

Vin = 400V

1500
Vin = 350V

1000 Vin = 300V

500

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
t1(sec) -5
x 10

Fig. 3.6. DCM power transfer as a function of on-time t1 at different input voltages.
 41

The power transfer as a function of on-time 𝑡1 in the DCM power transfer for three input

voltage levels is shown in Fig. 3.6. The inductor value depends on the time interval 𝑡1 , power

level, input voltage for the fixed intermediate stage DC voltage, and fixed switching period as

expressed in equations 3.4 and 3.5. Fig. 3.6 helps to choose the power level for the

corresponding time interval with the variation of input voltages, and then provide the

appropriate inductor value for the converter system.

3.2.3 Optimum Pulse Positioning

An optimum positioning of the gate pulses for the input and output stage switches is required

to minimize the current ripple in the intermediate stage capacitor current. The optimized pulse

positioning also helps to reduce the size of the capacitor. Fig. 3.7 shows the optimum and

arbitrary pulse positioning.

S1 S1

T T
S4 S4

T T
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.7. Pulse Positioning (a) Optimum (b) Arbitrary.
 42

Ec Ec Ec

(a) (b) (c)

0% 100% 0% 100% 0% 100%

%overlap % overlap % overlap

Fig. 3.8. Energy transfer through the intermediate stage capacitor with % of overlap of two

gate signals for (a) 𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 𝑣𝑜 , (b) 𝑣𝑖𝑛 < 𝑣𝑜 , (c) 𝑣𝑖𝑛 > 𝑣𝑜 .

The amount of energy stored and transferred via the intermediate stage capacitor depends on

the capacitor voltage level and the overlapping percentage of the input and output stage switch

pulse positions. If input and output are the same and the pulses are arbitrarily positioned, then

more energy may end up being stored in the capacitor before being transferred to the output;

this will result in higher ripple in the capacitor current, which will require a larger capacitor.

However, with the pulse positioning technique, energy transfer to the output will be guaranteed

to be more direct, which will ensure the minimum possible capacitor current ripple. If input

and output voltages are the same, the intermediate capacitor do not need to store energy that

needs to be transferred to the load with zero overlapping percentage of two gate signals as

shown in Fig. 3.8 (a); the input energy flows to the load directly irrespective of the intermediate

stage voltage level. When overlapping percentage is 100%, the voltage change at the

intermediate stage is

1 𝑇⁄ 𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑇
∆𝑣𝑐1 = 2𝐼
𝐶1
∫0 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑡 =
𝐶1 2
… … … … (3.6)
 43

and energy transfer from the intermediate stage capacitor is

𝑇
𝐸𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐1 𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 … … … … (3.7)
2

For 𝑣𝑖𝑛 < 𝑣𝑜 , an overlap of the input and output stage pulses is essential, but it should be

maintained at the minimum level possible. The energy transfer from 𝐶1 for the minimum

overlap case is 𝑉𝑐1 𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑂𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 where 𝑇𝑂𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 is the minimum overlapping time. The capacitor

energy is a linear function of the overlapping period. When the overlapping percentage is

100%, the energy transfer amount from the intermediate stage capacitor is

𝐸𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐1 𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑂𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 … … … … (3.8)

where 𝑇𝑂𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum overlapping time. The optimum switching condition is when

the overlap is minimum as shown in Fig. 3.8(b).

For 𝑣𝑖𝑛 > 𝑣𝑜 , there is a region where the input and output pulses can be positioned with no

overlap as shown in Fig. 3.8(c). The energy transfer amount as a function of overlapping

percentage is given by

𝐸𝑐 −𝐼𝑖𝑛 (𝑉𝑖𝑛 −𝑉𝑜 )𝑇

%𝑂𝐿 = 100 … … … … (3.9)
𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜 𝑇
 44

40
IL1
30
20
6.49 6.4901 6.4902 6.4903 6.4904
40
IL2

30
20
6.49 6.4901 6.4902 6.4903 6.4904
50
Ic1

0
-50
6.49 6.4901 6.4902 6.4903 6.4904
10
Ic2

0
-10
6.49 6.4901 6.4902 6.4903 6.4904
20
Io

0
6.49 6.4901 6.4902 6.4903 6.4904
1.5
1
S1

0.5
0
6.49 6.4901 6.4902 6.4903 6.4904
1.5
1
S4

0.5
0
6.49 6.4901 6.4902 6.4903 6.4904
Time(sec)

Fig. 3.9. Optimum pulse positioning for 𝑉𝑖𝑛 > 𝑉𝑜 .

Fig. 3.9 shows the simulation with optimum pulse positioning where the input voltage is 350

V, intermediate stage reference voltage is 500 V, and output reference voltage is 300 V. The

optimum pulse positioning minimizes the intermediate capacitor current ripple which helps

minimizing the capacitor size.

140

120
Load
/I

100
rms
ripple

80
Vin<Vo
%Ic

60

40
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% Overlap

Fig. 3.10. Effect of overlapping of two gate signals on the capacitor current ripple.
 45

Fig. 3.10 shows the effect of overlapping of two gate signals on the capacitor ripple current.

The ripple increases with the increase of overlap of two gate signals. For 𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 𝑣𝑜 , minimum

overlap is zero. For 𝑣𝑖𝑛 > 𝑣𝑜 , the minimum ripple is obtained at zero percentage of

overlapping. But when 𝑣𝑖𝑛 < 𝑣𝑜 , there is a minimum overlap which cannot be avoidable. The

analysis has been done for the particular values of 𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 200 𝑉, intermediate stage voltage,

𝑣𝑐1 = 500 𝑉 and 𝑣𝑜 = 300 𝑉. For the particular values of 𝑣𝑖𝑛 and 𝑣𝑜 , the ripple is minimum

as 20% as shown in Fig. 3.10. The relationship between capacitor value and current ripple at

different voltage levels is shown in Fig. 3.11 as a reference [81]. For a particular value of

capacitor voltage, the current ripple increases with increased capacitance. The minimum

overlapping cannot be avoided and current ripple is also unavoidable when the pulses overlap

as shown in Fig. 3.10.

50

40
Current Ripple(ARMS)

30

20

400V
10
450V
500V
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Capacitance( H)

Fig. 3.11. Relation between capacitance and current ripple.

 46

3.3 Controller Analysis and Design

The controller is designed with parameters that ensure stable operation. A small signal model

for the converter system has been developed to aid the selection of the appropriate controller

parameters.

3.3.1 Small Signal Model

The stability analysis of the converter for PEV application is presented in this section.

Considering the internal resistance of the inductors and capacitors, the system matrix of the

converter can be derived as

𝐷1′ 𝑟𝑐𝑀 𝑟𝐿1 𝐷2 𝐷1′ 𝑟𝑐𝑀 𝐷1′

−( + ) − 0
𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿1
𝐷2 𝐷1′ 𝑟𝑐𝑀 𝐷2 𝑟𝑐𝑀 𝑟𝐿2 𝑟𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 𝐷2 𝑅𝐿
−( + + ) −
𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝑟𝑐2 𝐿2 + 𝑅𝐿 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝑟𝑐2 𝐿2 + 𝑅𝐿 𝐿2
𝐴=
𝐷1′ 𝐷2
− 0 0
𝐶𝑀 𝐶𝑀 1
𝑅𝐿 0 −
0 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 )
( 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) )
1
𝐿1
𝑟 𝑅
𝑐2 𝐿 𝑅𝐿
𝐵= 0 𝐶 = (0 𝑟 +𝑅 0 𝑟𝑐 +𝑅𝐿) , 𝐷 = 0 … … … . (3.10)
𝑐2 𝐿
0 2

(0)
Here, 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 stand for duty cycles of 𝑆1 and 𝑆4 gates respectively as shown in Fig. 3.1 and

𝐷1 ′ = 1 − 𝐷1 , 𝑟𝐿1 and 𝑟𝐿2 are internal resistances of inductors 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 , respectively. 𝑟𝑐1

and 𝑟𝑐2 are ESRs of capacitor 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 respectively; 𝑅𝐿 represents the load.
 47

-104 -104

Real part of system pole

Real part of system pole
System Pole Pair1 System Pole Pair2
-105 -105

-106 -106

-107 -107

-108 -108
100 200 300 400 100 200 300 400
Input voltage (V) Input voltage (V)

Fig. 3.12. Effect of input voltage on the system poles.

The analysis of the system for a 9 kW converter with parameters given in the Appendix A

shows that the real part of the system poles are negative for the input voltage variations from

100 V to 400 V (Fig. 3.12); this means that the system is stable for the designed input voltage

range. The inductors in the converter are sized based on the ripple current limit specified. The

ripple current requirement can be relaxed to reduce the values of the inductor.

4
Real part of system pole

Real part of system pole Real part of system pole

x 10
0 0

-1000 System
System
-5 Pole 2
Pole 1
-2000

-10 -3000
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Input side inductance ( H) Input side inductance ( H)
Real part of system pole

0 0

-200 -200
System System
-400 Pole 3 -400 Pole 4

-600 -600
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Input side inductance ( H) Input side inductance ( H)

Fig. 3.13. Effect of input side inductance value on the system poles.
 48

A fault in the inductor may result in its value going all the way down to zero, but the analysis

shows that the system is still stable with negative values for the real part of the poles (Fig.

3.13). The range of load for which the system is stable can be determined from a similar

analysis for the given system (Fig. 3.14).

-100 -100
Real part of system pole

Real part of system pole

-110 -110
System Pole Pair1 System Pole Pair2
-120 -120

-130 -130

-140 -140

-150 -150

-160 -160
0 50 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Load resistance( ) Load resistance( )

Fig. 3.14. Effect of load changing on the system pole pairs.

The dynamic behavior of the circuit may shift away from the normal behavior due to

disturbance in source, load, circuit parameters and perturbation in switching time [82]. An

average modeling approach can be used to design the controller that manages the dynamics.

̃1 and perturbed
The perturbation of output voltage depends on the perturbed duty cycle 𝑑

intermediate stage voltage 𝑣̃

𝑐1 . Again, intermediate stage voltage changes with the small

̃1 . From the average model of the converter, the transfer function from
change of duty cycle 𝑑

duty cycle to intermediate voltage is given by,

 49

𝐼 𝐷 ´𝑉
𝑣̃ −( 𝐿1 )(𝑠− 1 𝑐1 )
𝑐1 𝐶1 𝐼𝐿1 𝐿1
̃1
= 2 … … … … (3.11)
𝑑 𝐷2 𝐷1 ´
2
(𝑠 +( )𝑠+ )
𝑅𝐿 𝐶1 𝐿1 𝐶1

The transfer function from output to duty cycle is

𝑉𝑐1
𝑣̃𝑜 𝐿2 𝐶2
̃2
= 1 1
… … … … (3.12)
𝑑 (𝑠 2 +( )𝑠+ )
𝑅𝐿 𝐶 2 𝐿2 𝐶2

-+
+

-
+

Fig. 3.15. Average model of the converter.

+
PI Controller
-

+ PI Controller
-

Fig. 3.16. Converter system with PI controller.

 50

3.3.2 Controller Parameter Selection

The analysis with the average model shown in Fig. 3.15 helps to evaluate the system behavior

due to the perturbation of the system parameters. Two PI controllers as shown in Fig. 3.16 have

been used to control the intermediate stage voltage and output voltage. 𝑘𝑝 and 𝑘𝑖 for the

controller have been chosen depending upon the closed loop poles’ position on the left half s-
1
plane. The loop transfer function is 𝑙(𝑠), the sensitivity function is 𝜇(𝑠) = 1+𝑙(𝑠) and system

𝑙(𝑠)
transfer function is 𝑇(𝑠) = 1+𝑙(𝑠). The fractional change in the system transfer function for a

𝑑𝑇(𝑠) 𝑑𝑙(𝑠)
fractional change in the loop transfer function is = 𝜇(𝑠) [82]. The sensitivity
𝑇(𝑠) 𝑙(𝑠)

function of the system should be stable for system stability. For the boost stage, the sensitivity

function is
2
𝐷2 𝐷́
𝑠 3 +( )𝑠 2 + 1 𝑠
𝑅𝐿 𝐶1 𝐿1 𝐶1
𝜇(𝑠) = 2 𝐷́1 𝑉𝑐1 𝑘𝑝1 𝐼𝐿1 𝑘𝑖1 𝐷́ 𝑉 𝑘
… … … … (3.13)
𝐷 𝐼𝐿1 𝑘𝑝1 𝐷́
𝑠 3 +( 2 − )𝑠 2 +( 1 + − )𝑠+ 1 𝑐1 𝑖1
𝑅𝐿 𝐶 1 𝐶1 𝐿1 𝐶1 𝐿1 𝐶1 𝐶1 𝐿1 𝐶1

The boundary conditions for 𝑘𝑝1 and 𝑘𝑖1 to keep all the closed loop poles in the left half plane

are
𝐷2
𝑘𝑝1 < 𝑅 .
𝐿 𝐼𝐿1

2
𝐷́1 + 𝐷́1 𝑉𝑐1 𝑘𝑝1
𝑘𝑖1 <
𝐼𝐿1 𝐿1

The discrete time transfer function for the boost stage is

(𝑉𝑐1 𝑇 2 𝑅𝐿 𝐷́1 −2𝑇𝑅𝐿 𝐼𝐿1 𝐿1 )𝑧 2 +2𝑉𝑐1 𝑇 2 𝑅𝐿 𝐷́1 𝑧+(2𝑇𝑅𝐿 𝐼𝐿1 𝐿1 + 𝑉𝑐1 𝑇 2 𝑅𝐿 𝐷́1 )
𝐺(𝑧) = 2 2 … (3.14)
(4𝑅𝐿 𝐿1 𝐶1 +2𝐷2 𝐿1 𝑇+ 𝑇 2 𝑅𝐿 𝐷́1 )𝑧 2 +(2𝑇 2 𝑅𝐿 𝐷́1 −8𝑅𝐿 𝐿1 𝐶1 )𝑧+(4𝑅𝐿 𝐿1 𝐶1 −2𝐷2 𝐿1 𝑇+ 𝑇 2 𝑅𝐿 𝐷́1 )
 51

The sensitivity function for the buck stage is

1 1
𝑠3 +( )𝑠2 + 𝑠
𝑅𝐿 𝐶2 𝐿2 𝐶2
μ(s) = 1 1 𝑘𝑝2 𝑉𝑐1 𝑘 𝑉 … (3.15)
𝑠3 +( )𝑠2 +( + )𝑠+ 𝑖2 𝑐1
𝑅𝐿 𝐶2 𝐿2 𝐶2 𝐿2 𝐶2 𝐿2 𝐶2

The boundary conditions for 𝑘𝑝2 and 𝑘𝑖2 for system stability is

𝑘𝑖2 > 0

𝑅𝐶2 𝑘𝑖2 𝑉𝑐1 − 1

𝑘𝑝2 >
𝑉𝑐1
Intermediate Stage Voltage(V)

500 300
Output Voltage(V)

400
(a) (b)
200
300

200
100
100

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time(sec) Time(sec)

Fig. 3.17. Average model outputs (a) intermediate stage voltage and (b) output voltage.

The average model wave shapes for the intermediate stage voltage and load voltage follow the

same pattern as that obtained from the actual model for the same range of PI controller

parameters as shown in Fig. 3.17 and Fig. 3.18.

 52
Intermediate Stage Voltage(V)

500 300

Output Voltage(V)
450 (a) 200 (b)

400 100

350 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time(sec) Time(sec)

Fig. 3.18. Actual model outputs (a) intermediate stage voltage and (b) output voltage.

3.4 Simulation Results

The voltage ratings of the cascaded DC-DC converter with overlapping input and output

voltage ranges design for simulation analysis are given in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Input, output and DC-link capacitor voltage ranges.

Voltage Range
Input battery (𝐕𝐛𝐚𝐭𝐭 ) 150 V-400 V
Intermediate Stage (𝐕𝐂𝟏 ) 400 V-600 V
DC bus voltage (𝐕𝐨 ) 100 V-400 V

The simulation has been carried out for a nominal battery voltage of 350 V, intermediate stage

reference voltage of 500 V and a grid DC bus voltage of 300 V. A 9 kW load is connected on

the DC bus and the current limit on the DC bus side is maintained at 30 A. The power transfer

from the battery to the DC bus is simulated assuming a state-of-charge for the battery higher

than its nominal value and DC bus voltage lower than its nominal value. Fig. 3.19 shows that

the intermediate stage voltage (𝑉𝑐1 ) reaches its reference voltage of 500 V, output DC bus
 53

voltage (𝑉𝑜 ) attains its reference voltage of 300 V and the output current (𝐼𝑜 ) is regulated at 30

A to deliver 9 kW of output power.

40
IL1

20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
600
Vc1

400
200
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
40
IL2

20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
40
Io

20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
400
Vo

200
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time(sec)

Fig. 3.19. Converter voltages and currents for 𝑉𝑐1𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 500 𝑉 and 𝑉𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 300 𝑉.

100
IL1

50
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
600
Vc1

400
200
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
100
IL2

50
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
100
Io

50
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
400
Vo

200
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time(sec)

Fig. 3.20. Transient change of the DC bus voltage (𝑉𝑜 ) for an instantaneous load change.
 54

A transient test has been carried out with a step change in the load current. Fig. 3.20 shows the

overshoot in the load voltage (𝑉𝑜 ) and load current (𝐼𝑜 ) waveforms for step changes in load,

although the effect is moderate. The overshoot varies with the different set points for the

intermediate capacitor voltage. The overshoot increases with increasing values of the

intermediate capacitor reference voltage set point.

The inductor DC resistance (DCR) loss, conduction loss, switching loss and efficiency have

been calculated using PLECs circuit simulator for different loads. In case of switching loss,

the actual IGBT (SKM 145GB128D) rise time and fall time have been considered. The losses

with load variation for an input voltage of 350 V are shown in Fig. 3.21. The switching loss

can be observed to be the dominant loss for the entire load range. The inductor DCR loss is the

loss in the winding DC resistance of the inductor.

250

Inductor DCR Loss

200 Conduction Loss
Switching Loss
Losses(W)

150

100

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Load(kW)

Fig. 3.21. Various losses with load variation for a fixed input voltage of 350 V.
 55

Fig. 3.22 shows the efficiency variation with the load and input voltage variations. The

efficiency level saturates with the increase of load for a particular input voltage; however, the

efficiency increases with the increase of input voltage. In the case of lower input voltage, the

efficiency decreases with increasing load since the losses at lower input voltage levels is

comparatively higher than that at higher input voltage levels.

96

94

92
%Effeciency

90
Vin = 150V
88 Vin = 200V
Vin = 250V
86 Vin = 300V
Vin = 350V
84
Vin = 400V

82
0 2 4 6 8 10
Load(kW)

Fig. 3.22. Efficiency with load and input voltage variations.

3.5 Experimental Results

A prototype converter of the developed topology has been built using a three-phase, six-switch

inverter IGBT module as shown in Fig. 3.23. The voltage and current ratings of the switches

are 1200 V and 100 A, respectively. Each of the three bridge legs has separate current sensors

that can provide three branch currents. The rise time and fall time of the IGBT switches are 40
 56

ns and 65 ns respectively. The DC bus capacitor in the intermediate stage of the converter is

3300μF. In this experiment, the input and output inductors are connected to the mid-points of

the two bridge legs for power transfer.

Fig. 3.23. Three phase IGBT module.

The control algorithm has been developed using microchip dSPIC33 digital signal processor.

The controller board shown in Fig. 3.24 has the processor, voltage sensor, analog input

components and several fault protection circuit components. All of the fault and diagnostic

information is processed in the DSP. The power circuitry for the IGBT modules and the

controller electronics have been kept separate from the control circuitry for control signal

integrity and EMI noise immunity.

 57

Fig. 3.24. Controller board.

Table 3.2 Maximum levels for experiment

Input voltage 300 V
Intermediate stage voltage 500 V
Output voltage 300 V
Input current 30 A
Output current 30 A
Power 9 kW

The inverter and grid side shown in Fig. 3.1 has been emulated with resistive loads depending

on the power transfer direction. The maximum voltage and current levels for the experiments

are given in Table 3.2. The parameter values used are given in Appendix A. Table 3.3, Table

3.4 and Table 3.5 show the experiment results. The results show that the system follows the

reference voltage of the intermediate stage and the load voltage remains unchanged (Table

3.3). The load voltage follows the reference value while others remain the same is shown in

Table 3.4. Table 3.5 shows that the intermediate voltage and load voltage remain the same with

changes in the input voltage. The results demonstrate that this topology allows the overlapping

input and output voltage ranges while accommodating a wide input voltage range (Table 3.4
 58

and Table 3.5). The system is versatile enough to manage any type of reference change or input

supply variation or output load variation.

Table 3.3 Varying intermediate stage reference voltage

Input Intermediate stage Intermediate stage Output Output
Voltage reference voltage (V) measured voltage reference measured
(V) (V) voltage (V) voltage (V)
120 125 124.60 100 99.88
120 135 135.20 100 100.00
120 150 149.80 100 100.10
120 160 159.30 100 100.10
120 170 169.70 100 100.10

Table 3.4 Varying output reference voltage

Input Intermediate Intermediate Output Output
Voltage stage stage reference measured
(V) reference measured voltage voltage
voltage (V) voltage (V) (V) (V)
120 170 170.00 90 89.82
120 170 169.70 100 99.97
120 170 169.90 120 120.20
120 170 169.90 140 140.70
120 170 170.50 150 151.20

Table 3.5 Varying input voltage

Input Measured Intermediate Intermediate Output Output
Voltage Input stage stage reference measured
(V) voltage reference measured voltage voltage
(V) voltage (V) voltage (V) (V) (V)
90 89.92 150 149.80 100 100.00
100 99.90 150 149.80 100 100.10
110 110.60 150 150.10 100 100.10
120 119.70 150 149.90 100 100.20
130 130.70 150 149.80 100 100.10
140 140.40 150 149.70 100 100.20
 59

Fig. 3.25 shows the experimental initial transient response where the intermediate stage voltage

(Ch2) follows its reference voltage of 170 V and the load voltage (Ch3) follows its reference

voltage of 120 V. The result shows the converter response to a step command input.

The steady state condition for 1.5 kW system output with 150 V input voltage, 172 V

intermediate reference voltage, and 146 V load reference voltage is shown in Fig. 3.26. The

high frequency spikes in the waveforms are due to measurement noise. The topology can

adequately respond to reference changes in both the intermediate stage and load side

simultaneously.

Output Current
Intermediate
stage Voltage
Output Voltage
Input Voltage

Fig. 3.25. Experimental results showing the initial transient response of voltages and

currents.
 60

Intermediate
stage Voltage

Input Voltage
Output Voltage
Input Current

Fig. 3.26. Experimental results for 1.5 kW load.

The response of the intermediate stage voltage (Ch2) for a step change in reference from 140

V to 170 V is shown in Fig. 3.27. In this case, the load voltage (Ch3) and load current (Ch4)

maintain at the same original values before and after the step command. Similarly, the load

voltage also follows the reference command change.

Output Current
Intermediate
stage Voltage
Input Voltage
Output Voltage

Fig. 3.27. Transient response with change in intermediate stage reference voltage.
 61

The load voltage (Ch3) response for a step command change from 90 V to 110 V while

maintaining the intermediate stage voltage at its previous value is shown in Fig. 3.28. The load

current (Ch4) is following the output voltage change since a resistive load has been used in the

experiment.

Output Current

Intermediate
stage Voltage

Input Voltage
Output Voltage

Fig. 3.28. Transient response with change in load reference voltage.

The experimental results have been carried out up to 3.8 kW; the intermediate reference voltage

is 300 V and the load reference voltage is 180 V in this case. The 3.8 kW experimental results

are shown in Fig. 3.29. Table 3.6 gives the higher voltage test results with the converter.
 62

Output Current

Intermediate stage
Voltage
Input Voltage

Output Voltage

Fig. 3.29: Experimental results for 3.8 kW load.

Table 3.6 Experimental results at higher voltage levels

Input Intermediate stage Intermediate stage Output Output

Voltage reference voltage (V) measured voltage reference measured
(V) (V) voltage (V) voltage (V)
120 170 169.90 120 120.20
150 200 199.50 120 119.90
150 200 199.40 140 140.40
200 250 247.80 150 150.70
200 300 291.00 180 183.10

Experimental efficiency has been evaluated at two representative data points as shown in Table

3.7. From simulations, the efficiency at these two data points of 4 kW and 2 kW are found to

be 94.41 % and 94.20 %, respectively. The experimental efficiency results in Table 3.7 are

lower than the simulation results since some of the nonlinear switching behavior and parasitic
 63

effects are not modeled in the simulation. The efficiency numbers are also subject to devices

selected in the converter. The efficiency numbers can be improved with the selection of better

devices.

Table 3.7 Power and efficiency analysis

Input Input Input Intermediate Output Output Output

Voltage Current Power stage voltage voltage Current Power η
(V) (A) (kW) (V) (V) (A) (kW)
197 21.01 4.15 291.2 183.1 20.75 3.80 91.61%
147.70 16.32 2.41 199.4 140.4 15.92 2.24 92.73%

3.6 Conclusions

A bi-directional DC-DC converter topology that allows overlap of input/output voltage ranges

is presented for electric vehicles with V2G capability. The topology has an intermediate DC-

link capacitor that enables the input-output voltage overlap. The use of half-bridge switches in

the two stages minimizes the switching stresses that lead to higher efficiencies in the converter.

The intermediate DC bus voltage set point control allows improving the transient operation of

the power converter. Component sizing, parameter selection and control with stability analysis

of the converter have been presented. Experimental results conform to the transient behavior

obtained in simulation. The developed topology provides modularity, control flexibility and

excellent transient performance while allowing individual modules to be interleaved for PEV

applications.
 64

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF CASCADED DC-DC

CONVERTERS

4.1. Introduction
4.2. Stability Analysis of the Cascaded Converters
4.3. Comparison of the Cascaded Topologies
4.3.1 Switching Mechanism
4.3.2 Switch Rating and Size
4.3.3 Inductor and Capacitor Rating and Size
4.3.4 Interleaving Capability
4.3.5 Multiple Inputs and Outputs Capability
4.4. Simulation Results
4.5. Experimental Results
4.6. Conclusion
 65

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, a comparison between the developed cascaded buck-boost DC-DC converter

capacitor-in-the-middle (CBB-CIM) and another conventional bi-directional cascaded buck-

boost converter (CBB-IIM) mentioned earlier in section 2.3 is presented to evaluate the

benefits and the drawbacks of the topologies for PEV applications. The developed converter is

shown in Fig. 4.1 and the other converter shown in Fig. 4.2 has been adopted from its original

application and subsequent modifications [84][23][50][51]. Both converters provide the input

and output voltage overlapping capability. The comparison presented in this chapter is based

on system stability, component sizing, ratings and multiple input/output flexibility.

1 3

L1 L2
CM

C1 C2
V1 2 4 V2
EV

Fig. 4.1. Cascaded Buck Boost Capacitor in the middle (CBB-CIM).

1 3

L
C1 C2
V1
V2

2 4

Fig. 4.2. Cascaded Buck Boost Inductor in the middle (CBB-IIM).

 66

4.2 Stability Analysis of the Cascaded Converters

System stability is a major concern in case of high power converters and should be considered

in the design procedure. In this section, stability analysis of the open loop system is provided

in terms of state space model based representation [82][89][90]. The basic CBB-CIM and

CBB-IIM topologies with single-input single-output configurations have the following state

space representation containing the unavoidable parasitic resistances.

𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑣𝑖𝑛 … … … (4.1)
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑣𝑖𝑛 … … … (4.2)
For CBB-CIM, the following state space matrix was developed considering the switching of

𝑆2 and 𝑆3 . 𝐷2 and 𝐷3 are the duty cycles of 𝑆2 and 𝑆3 , respectively. The derivation of the

equations is given in Appendix B.

𝐷2′ 𝑟𝑐𝑀 𝑟𝐿1 𝐷3 𝐷2′ 𝑟𝑐𝑀 𝐷2′

−( + ) − 0
𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿1
𝐷3 𝐷2′ 𝑟𝑐𝑀 𝐷3 𝑟𝑐𝑀 𝑟𝐿2 𝑟𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 𝐷3 𝑅𝐿
−( + + ) −
𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝑟𝑐2 𝐿2 + 𝑅𝐿 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝑟𝑐2 𝐿2 + 𝑅𝐿 𝐿2
𝐴=
𝐷2′ 𝐷3
− 0 0
𝐶𝑀 𝐶𝑀 1
𝑅𝐿 0 −
0 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 )
( 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) )
1
𝐿1
𝑟𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
𝐵= 0 𝐶 = (0 0 , 𝐷=0
𝑟𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 𝑟𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 )
0
(0)
 67

𝑑𝑖𝐿1
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝐿1
𝑑𝑡
𝑥̇ = 𝑑𝑣𝐶𝑀 , 𝐷2′ = 1 − 𝐷2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝐶2
( 𝑑𝑡 )
where 𝑟𝐿1 , 𝑟𝐿2 , 𝑟𝑐1 , 𝑟𝑐2 , 𝑟𝑐𝑀 are the resistances of the passive elements.

The CBB-IIM on the other hand is a second order system since at most two energy storing

elements experience the switching at a time. The following state space model is applicable for

CBB-IIM considering switching of 𝑆1 and 𝑆4 . 𝐷1 and 𝐷4 are the duty cycles of 𝑆1 and 𝑆4 ,

respectively. The derivation of the equations is given in Appendix C.

𝑟𝐿 𝐷4′ 𝑅𝐿 𝑟𝑐2 𝐷4′ 𝑅𝐿

−( − ) 𝐷1
𝐿 𝐿𝑅𝐿 +𝐿𝑟𝑐2 𝐿𝑅𝐿 +𝐿𝑟𝑐2
𝐴= ( ′ ) 𝐵 = ( 𝐿 ),
𝐷4 𝑅𝐿 1
− 0
𝐶2 𝑅𝐿 +𝐶2 𝑟𝑐2 𝐶2 𝑅𝐿 +𝐶2 𝑟𝑐2
𝐷4′ 𝑟𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
𝐶 = (𝑟 𝑟𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 ) , 𝐷=0
𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿
𝑑𝑖𝐿

𝑥̇ = (𝑑𝑣𝑑𝑡𝐶 ), 𝐷4′ = 1 − 𝐷4
2
𝑑𝑡
For analyzing the stability of the open loop circuit, three different situations are considered.

The first test performed is to observe the effect of input voltage change while maintaining a

constant output voltage level at constant load current. For CBB-CIM, the input voltage was

considered to be varying from 100V to 400V while maintaining output voltage at 300V and

intermediate capacitor voltage at 500V. This covers a wide operating range containing both

buck and boost operations. State matrix of CBB-CIM provided two complex conjugate poles

with real part trajectories as shown in Fig. 4.3(a) which are always in the negative axis.

Although passive elements were designed considering the rated conditions using Table 4.3 and
 68

Table 4.4, the system seems to be stable at operating points well beyond the nominal region.

Real part of the pole trajectory for CBB-IIM is presented in Fig. 4.3(b) and is found to be in

the stable region as well.

-120

-140
Real part of system pole

-160
Pole Pair1
-180

-200

-220

-240

-260

-280 Pole Pair 2

100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Input Voltage (V)

(a)

-28
Real Part of System Pole

-30

-32

-34

-36

-38
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Input Voltage (V)

(b)
Fig. 4.3. Effect of input voltage change in system poles (a) Pole trajectories of CBB-CIM (b)

Pole trajectory of CBB-IIM.

The sensitivity to load changes was also analyzed for the two converters. The converter output

varies to meet the required power level, and the system must be robust over a wide range of

power level. The load resistance was varied from 1Ω to 50 Ω with output voltage maintained
 69

at 300V, which corresponds to output power levels of 90 kW to 1.8 kW. The real part pole

trajectories of CBB-CIM are shown in Fig. 4.4(a), while the real part pole trajectory for CBB-

IIM is shown in Fig. 4.4(b). Both the converters have real poles in the negative x-axis at all

power levels.

-150

Pole Pair1
-200
Real part of system pole

-250

Pole Pair2
-300

-350

-400
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Load Resistance ( )
(a)
0
Real Part of System Pole

-50

-100

-150

-200
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Load Resistance ( )
(b)
Fig. 4.4. Effect of output load power level in system poles (a) Pole trajectories of CBB-CIM
(b) Pole trajectory of CBB-IIM.
 70

4.3 Comparison of the Cascaded Topologies

Comparisons of the two cascaded DC-DC converter topologies are done for the following

aspects: i) Switching mechanism ii) Stresses on switches and diodes, iii) Ratings of the passive

components, iv) Size of the passive components, v) Interleaving capability, and vi) Multi input

output capability.

4.3.1 Switching Mechanism

Both the converters basically require only one switch to be switched at a particular frequency

to operate either as buck or boost converter. Another switch is required to be in the ON state

for the full switching period for current conduction [24]. An alternative strategy for switching

both the switches with different duty ratios and maintaining a particular intermediate voltage

for CBB-CIM appears in [85]. This strategy results in a higher intermediate voltage across the

central capacitor CM which can be used as for a multi-output converter.

4.3.2 Switch Rating and Size

Stress on the switches is one of the prime concerns for the practical implementation of the

converters. Equipment size, weight and cost are largely dependent on the ratings of the

switches. Comparison tables including the component ratings are given in this section. All the

tables presented in this section are based on single input single output circuits shown in Fig.

4.1 and Fig. 4.2.

 71

Both the basic converters with single input single output configuration comprise of four

switches with freewheeling diodes. Although all four of them are never used together, all of

them must be there to ensure complete flexibility. For the CBB-IIM, peak voltage across any

switch depends on the operation mode as provided in Table 4.1. For CBB-CIM, all the switches

and diode experience the same voltage stress which is equal to the voltage across the central

capacitor. Therefore, voltage across the central capacitor must be limited up to the maximum

voltage that the switches are designed to withstand.

Table 4.1 Peak Voltage for CBB-IIM

𝑽𝟏 to 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟏 to 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 to 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 to 𝑽𝟏
Buck Boost Buck Boost
D1/ S1 V1 0 0 V1

D2/ S2 V1 V1 V1 V1

D3/ S3 0 V2 V2 0

D4/ S4 V2 V2 V2 V2

Table 4.2 Average Current through Switches and Diodes (CBB-IIM, CBB-CIM)
V1 to V2 V1 to V2 V2 to V1 V2to V1
Buck Boost Buck Boost
CBB-IIM CBB-CIM CBB-IIM CBB-CIM CBB-IIM CBB-CIM CBB-IIM CBB-CIM

D1 0 P/V1 0 P/V1 P/V1 0 P/V2 0

D2 P/V2 0 0 0 0 P/V1 0 0

D3 P/V2 0 P/V1 0 0 P/V2 0 P/V2

D4 0 P/V2 0 0 P/V1 0 0 0
S1 P/V2 0 P/V1 0 0 P/V1 0 P/V1

S2 0 0 0 P/V1 0 0 P/V2 0

S3 0 P/V2 0 P/V2 P/V1 0 P/V2 0

S4 0 0 P/V1 0 0 0 0 P/V2
 72

Table 4.2 provides average currents through all switches and diodes; these currents play a

significant role in the decision making for choosing the converter topology. Significant losses

occur during switching in the circuit and switching losses increase if amount of current in the

element is high while switching takes place. Thus, lower current and voltage across switches

are desirable. Both of the converters have essentially the same type of average current through

the switches if the same type of control mechanism is applied (maintaining duty cycle at 100%

for one of the switches in all operating modes).

4.3.3 Inductor and Capacitor Ratings and Sizes

Inductors are the heaviest and the most expensive passive building element in any high power

converter. The inductor size can strongly influence the selection of one topology over the other.

CBB-IIM requires only one inductor whereas CBB-CIM requires two. For the final selection,

inductor ratings and sizes must be calculated. In both circuits, required inductor rating depends

on the operating condition. For successful operation, inductor must be sized and designed

considering the worst case scenario. Table 4.3 provides the inductor ratings of the two

converters for different modes of operation. Table 4.3 also provides the values for average

inductor currents. For CBB-CIM, average current through inductor largely depends on mode

of operation and operating voltages at any side. Considering the worst case design scenario,

the inductor must be capable of carrying the maximum possible currents. On contrary, the

inductor currents in CBB-CIM are fixed for each inductor depending on the operating voltage

at the side it is connected to.

 73

Table 4.3 Inductor Ratings and Average Currents

Inductance Average Inductor Current
CBB-IIM CBB-CIM CBB-IIM CBB-CIM
L L1 L2 L L1 L2
𝑉2 2 (1 − 𝐷1 )
V1 to V2 ∆𝑖
𝑓 𝐿𝑃 P/V2 P/V1 P/V2
Buck 𝐼𝐿
𝑉2 2 (1 − 𝐷3 )
∆𝑖
𝑉1 2 𝐷4 𝑓 𝐿𝑃
𝐼𝐿
V1 to V2 ∆𝑖
𝑓 𝐿𝑃 P/V1 P/V1 P/V2
Boost 𝐼𝐿

𝑉1 2 (1 − 𝐷3 )
V2 to V1 ∆𝑖
𝑓 𝐿𝑃 P/V1 P/V1 P/V2
Buck 𝐼𝐿
𝑉12 (1 − 𝐷1 )
∆𝑖
𝑉1 2 (1 − 𝐷2 )2 𝐷2 𝑓 𝐿𝑃
𝐼𝐿
V2 to V1 ∆𝑖
𝑓 𝐿𝑃 P/V2 P/V1 P/V2
Boost 𝐼𝐿

Table 4.4 Capacitor Ratings

V1 to V2 V1 to V2 V2 to V1 V2 to V1
Buck Boost Buck Boost
(1 − 𝐷3 ) 𝑃𝐷2
∆𝑣 ∆𝑣
C1 8𝐿𝑓 2 1 𝑓𝑉12 1
𝑉1 𝑉1
(1 − 𝐷1 ) 𝑃𝐷4
∆𝑣 ∆𝑣
C2 8𝐿𝑓 2 2 𝑓𝑉22 𝑉 2
𝑉2 2

Table 4.4 provides the required capacitance values for both the converters. Both the converters

have the same expression for minimum required capacitance. The required values are

calculated considering certain allowed voltage ripple across the capacitor.

 74

4.3.4 Interleaving Capability

Interleaving technique can be applied to both the converter topologies to reduce the switching

stresses and the voltage and current ratings of the switches. Effective switching frequency also

increases with the introduction of interleaving which in turn helps in reducing ripples in output

voltage and inductor currents [86][87][88]. In both converters, there is the flexibility of

applying input side interleaving or output side interleaving or both. The CBB-CIM can be used

as DC to AC converter by adding one extra half-bridge leg, but for CBB-IIM an extra H- bridge

element is needed.

4.3.5 Multiple Inputs and Outputs Capability

DC-DC converter with multi-input and multi-output capability is useful for EV/HEVs that use

multiple input sources or require multiple auxiliary outputs. Multiple input options are needed

to connect two sources such as an ultra-capacitor and a battery pack combination [102]-[104].

In heavy hybrid vehicles such as fleet trucks, multiple auxiliary outputs would require different

output voltage levels [105] [106]. In recent days, mechanical engine-belt compressor for air

conditioning system has been replaced by electrically driven compressor to reduce emissions

and improve gas mileage. The compressor motor is driven by high voltage (220 V – 400 V) at

3-5 kW power requirements [107]-[109].

 75

S2

IL1
S5 S3
S1 IL2
S3
IL1
L2 Vout1
Vin
CM IL2
L1 Vout2
L3
IL3
S5
C1 S2 C4
S6 S4 C3
IL3

(a) (b)
Fig. 4.5. (a) Multi output case in CBB-CIM (b) Vin <VCM (Boost mode) and VCM >Vout1 and

Vout2 (Buck mode).

The use of CBB-CIM and CBB-IIM topologies with multiple input and/or multiple outputs is

analyzed in the following. The CBB-CIM topology with auxiliary outputs connected to 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡1

and 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡2 is shown in Fig. 4.5 (a).

The duty cycles 𝐷2 , 𝐷3 and 𝐷5 for the gate switching signals of 𝑆2 , 𝑆3 and 𝑆5 , respectively can

be represented based port voltages such as :

VCM
𝐷2 = 1 − … … … (4.3)
𝑉𝑖𝑛

𝑉0𝑢𝑡1
𝐷3 = … … … (4.4)
VCM

𝑉0𝑢𝑡2
𝐷5 = … … … (4.5)
VCM

The CBB-CIM converter can also be used in the V2G mode with the battery pack and ultra-

capacitor bank serving as multiple input sources, and a DC external load connected across C4

at Vout in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.6 (a). The duty cycles 𝐷2 , 𝐷4 and 𝐷5 for the gate switching

signals of 𝑆2 , 𝑆4 and 𝑆5 , respectively are as follows:

 76

V
𝐷2 = 1 − 𝑉CM … … … (4.6)
𝑖𝑛1

V
𝐷4 = 1 − 𝑉CM … … … (4.7)
𝑖𝑛2

𝑉
𝐷5 = V𝑜𝑢𝑡 … … … (4.8)
CM

where VCM is the intermediate stage voltage.

S2

IL1 S1 S3 S5
L1 IL1

Vin1 IL3
Vout S4
Vin2 CM
L3
L2 IL2
IL2
C1 C4
C2 S5

S2 S4 S6
IL3

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.6: (a) Multi input case in CBB-CIM (b) 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 and 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 < 𝑉𝐶𝑀 (Boost mode)

and VCM > 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (Buck mode).

The CBB-CIM converter can also be used in the G2V charging mode with the battery pack

and ultra-capacitor bank serving as multiple outputs. C4 then becomes the charging port

connected to a rectified DC source for charging of battery or ultra-capacitor at the C1 and C2

ports.

The CBB-IIM converter can be used with one input and multiple outputs similar to the CBB-

CIM topology. The duty cycles D4 and D6 for the gate switching signals of S4 and S6 ,

respectively are,
 77

𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐷4 = 1 − 𝑉 … … … (4.9)
𝑜𝑢𝑡1

𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐷6 = 1 − 𝑉 … … … (4.10)
𝑜𝑢𝑡2

The gate signal control of the CBB-IIM topology is complex for certain operating modes. In

case of multiple outputs buck operation an extra freewheeling mode is required for the lower

output branch as shown in Fig.4.7(c).

Vout1
Vin
Vout2

S4 S1
S1 IL1 S3 S5
L1 IL1 IL1
C11
C1 C12
L2 S6
S6
IL2
S2 S4 S6
IL2 IL2

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.4.7: (a) Multi output case in CBB-IIM (b) 𝑉𝑖𝑛 <𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡1 and 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡2 (Boost mode) (c)

𝑉𝑖𝑛 >𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡1 and 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡2(Buck mode).

Both the converters are suitable for multiple output capabilities. But CBB-IIM topology is not

suitable for multi-input operation since there will be circulating current in the input loop due

to the common connection point of the two inductors in the output leg of the converter.

4.4 Simulation Results

Efficiency analysis has been carried out for different load conditions for both converter

topologies using PLECs circuit simulator. Inductor DCR loss, conductor loss and switching
 78

loss have been considered in the analysis. In simulation, input and output voltages were set at

155 V and 400 V for both converter topologies.

Table 4.5 Losses and Efficiency of CBB-CIM

Inductor
Conduction Switching
Pin(W) DCR Pout(W) Efficiency
Loss(W) Loss(W)
Loss(W)

1001.30 4.80 4.53 54.78 937.19 93.60%

2052.20 20.06 11.5 70.39 1950.25 95.03%

4068.75 78.87 28.08 100.55 3861.25 94.90%

6048.10 174.01 48.15 130.57 5695.37 94.17%

8264.60 323.94 72.86 164.47 7703.33 93.21%

10364.85 508.71 98.89 196.87 9560.37 92.24%

The losses and efficiency of the two converter topologies are shown in Table 4.5 and Table

4.6. The efficiency results for the two topologies are also shown in Fig. 4.8. Simulations were

carried out for CBB-CIM multiple output case with an input battery voltage of 300 V. The

intermediate stage voltage is set to 750 V, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡1 is controlled at 650 V and 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡2 is controlled

at 350 V. Load1 is 80kW and load2 is 5 kW. Fig. 4.9 shows the simulation result of the gate

signals, and input and output inductor currents.

 79

Table 4.6 Losses and Efficiency of CBB-IIM

Inductor
Conduction Switching
Pin(W) DCR Pout(W) Efficiency
Loss(W) Loss(W)
Loss(W)

1002.85 4.19 8.24 54.82 935.60 93.29%

2018.1 16.95 20.38 69.90 1910.86 94.69%

4081.15 69.33 51.17 100.89 3859.76 94.58%

6108.55 155.31 88.24 131.62 5733.38 93.86%

8311.1 287.51 133.33 165.44 7724.82 92.95%

10490.4 458.06 184.15 199.26 9648.93 91.98%

95.5

95
CBB-CIM
94.5
CBB-IIM
% Efficiency

94

93.5

93

92.5

92

91.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Load(kW)

Fig. 4.8. Efficiency with load variation for CBB-CIM and CBB-IIM.
 80

1.5

Gate2
1
0.5
0
2 2.0001 2.0002 2.0003
280

IL1
260
240
2 2.0001 2.0002 2.0003
1.5

Gate3
1
0.5
0
2 2.0001 2.0002 2.0003
130
IL2

120
110
2 2.0001 2.0002 2.0003
1.5
Gate5

1
0.5
0
2 2.0001 2.0002 2.0003
20
IL3

0
-20
2 2.0001 2.0002 2.0003
Time(sec)

Fig. 4.9. Simulation results for CBB-CIM with multiple outputs.

Simulation was also carried out for the CBB-CIM with converter specifications chosen for a

typical passenger electric vehicle. Voltages considered for multi-input simulation are: ultra-

capacitor voltage, 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 = 400 V, battery voltage, 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 = 200 V, and intermediate stage

voltage, 𝑉𝐶𝑀 = 600 V. The load is assumed to be 20 kW. The results as shown in Fig. 4.10

prove the satisfactory operation of the CBB-CIM topology with multiple inputs.

The input voltage chosen for charging mode simulation is rectified DC voltage of 110√2 V.

The multiple storage devices are ultracapacitor bank at 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡1 = 400 V and battery pack at

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡2 = 200 V. The charging loads used are 4 kW and 10 kW for ultra-capacitor and battery,

respectively. The results shown in Fig. 4.11 prove the satisfactory operation of the CBB-CIM

topology in the G2V mode of operation.

 81

1.5

Gate2
1
0.5
0
1.2 1.2001 1.2001 1.2001 1.2002 1.2003 1.2003 1.2003 1.2004
20
IL1 10

0
1.2 1.2001 1.2001 1.2001 1.2002 1.2003 1.2003 1.2003 1.2004
1.5
Gate4

1
0.5
0
1.2 1.2001 1.2001 1.2001 1.2002 1.2003 1.2003 1.2003 1.2004
90
IL2

80

70
1.2 1.2001 1.2001 1.2001 1.2002 1.2003 1.2003 1.2003 1.2004
Time(sec)

Fig. 4.10. Simulation results for CBB-CIM with multiple inputs (V2G mode).

1.5
Gate6

1
0.5
0
3.2 3.2001 3.2002 3.2003 3.2004
100
IL3

90
80
3.2 3.2001 3.2002 3.2003 3.2004
1.5
Gate1

1
0.5
0
3.2 3.2001 3.2002 3.2003 3.2004
20
IL1

10
0
3.2 3.2001 3.2002 3.2003 3.2004
1.5
Gate3

1
0.5
0
3.2 3.2001 3.2002 3.2003 3.2004
60
IL2

50
40
3.2 3.2001 3.2002 3.2003 3.2004
Time(sec)

Fig. 4.11. Simulation results for CBB-CIM with multiple inputs (G2V mode).
 82

The multiple output case for the CBB-IIM is considered the same as that of the CBB-CIM for

the simulation. The input battery voltage is 300 V, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡1 = 650V and 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡2 = 350 V. The

loads are 80 kW and 5 kW for traction inverter and auxiliary power, respectively. The results

shown in Fig. 4.12 prove the satisfactory operation of the CBB-IIM topology with multiple

outputs.

1.5
Gate4

1
0.5
0
3.5 3.5001 3.5002 3.5003 3.5004
280
IL2

260

240
3.5 3.5001 3.5002 3.5003 3.5004
1.5
Gate6

1
0.5
0
3.5 3.5001 3.5002 3.5003 3.5004
20
IL3

15

10
3.5 3.5001 3.5002 3.5003 3.5004
Time (sec)

Fig. 4.12. Simulation results for CBB-IIM with multiple outputs.

4.5 Experimental Results

The experimental set-up developed for evaluating the CBB-CIM and CBB-IIM converter

topologies is shown in Fig. 4.13. Interleaved converters were built for both the topologies. For
 83

CBB-CIM, 450𝜇𝐻 inductance was used at both the input and output sides. Intermediate stage

capacitor, 𝐶𝑀 is 3300μF. Microchip dSPIC33 was used for the controller implementation.

For the CBB-IIM, a larger unit was built with 4950 𝜇𝐹 capacitors at both input and output

terminals. 800 𝜇𝐻 inductance was used as the center inductor while TI2812 processor was

chosen for controller implementation.

Experimental results for CBB-CIM and CBB-IIM are shown in Fig. 4.14 and Fig. 4.15,

respectively. Steady state and transient responses are provided for both topologies. Fig. 4.14(a)

shows steady state output voltage (Ch3) for CBB-CIM at 183.1 V while supplying a 3.8 kW

load with 20.75 A current (Ch4). The converter was operated in buck mode with 197 V input

voltage (Ch1) with 291.2V intermediate voltage (Ch2) across the center capacitor. Another

test run performed to observe the transient response is presented in Fig. 4.14(b). In Fig. 4.14(b),

output voltage (Ch2) changes from 0V to 50 V, while intermediate voltage (Ch1) changes from

80V to 100 V.

Fig. 4.15(a) shows steady state response of CBB-IIM with 630 V input (Ch2) and 410V output

(Ch1) voltage. The total output current of 174 A (ChM) was maintained which was measured

using two separate current probes (Ch3, Ch4) as seen in the figure. Two separate signals Iout1

and Iout2 were added and shown in Fig. 4.15(a) indicated as ‘M’ and labeled Icharging. Fig.

4.15(b) shows the transient response of the system while charging current (Ch3) was changed

from 0 to 90 A and then from 90 A to 50 A while maintaining average output voltage (Ch1)

close to 360 V. The battery voltage in Fig. 4.15(b) increased with the increased level of the

charging current.
 84

Control Circuit for

Whole set up for CBB-CIM
CBB-CIM

Control Circuit
CBB-IIM

Fig. 4.13. Experimental Set up

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.14. Experimental results for CBB-CIM. (a) Results for 3.8 kW (Ch1- input voltage,
Ch2-intermediate stage voltage, Ch3- output voltage, Ch4- output current). (b) Experimental
result shows the initial transient response of voltages (Ch1- intermediate stage voltage, Ch2-
output voltage).
 85

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.15. Experimental results for CBB-IIM (a) Results for 71.3 kW (Ch1- output voltage,
Ch2- input voltage, (ChM=Ch3+Ch4)- charging current at steady state) (b) Response while
battery charging current changes from 0A to 90 A and 90 A to 50 A(Ch1-output voltage,
Ch2-input voltage, Ch3-charging current).

The multiple output case for CBB-CIM was experimentally evaluated with two output ports.

Fig. 4.16 shows the gate signals and currents of output inductors where input voltage is 330 V,

intermediate stage voltage is 400 V, load1 voltage is 170 V and load2 voltage is 150 V, load1

is 4.1 kW and load2 is 1.1kW.

 86

Fig. 4.16. Gate signals and currents of output inductors.

Efficiency of CBB-CIM topology for multiple outputs with load variation in the experiments

is shown in Fig. 4.17. It is observed that the efficiency increases as load is increased.

95

94.5

94
% Efficiency

93.5

93

92.5

92
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
Load(kW)

Fig. 4.17. Efficiency with load variation of CBB-CIM topology for multiple output case.

The multiple input case for CBB-CIM was also experimentally evaluated with two input ports.

Fig. 4.18 shows the gate signals and currents of input inductors where input1 voltage is 250 V,
 87

input2 voltage is 150 V, and output voltage is 170 V. Experiment has been completed up to

5.2 kW.

Fig. 4.18. Gate signals and currents of input inductors.

Efficiency of CBB-CIM for multiple inputs with load variation in the experiments is shown in

Fig. 4.19. It is observed that the efficiency increases with the increased load.

95.5

95
% Efficiency

94.5

94

93.5

93
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Load(kW)

Fig. 4.19. Efficiency with load variation of CBB-CIM topology for multiple input case.
 88

4.6 Conclusions

The performance analysis and comparison of the developed bi-directional DC-DC converter

with the conventional converter for PEV applications are presented. Both the converters have

their own advantages and disadvantages. The appropriate converter can be chosen based on

the specific application. For PEV charging station with multi-input and multi-output scenario,

CBB-CIM can have better performance since input side and output side controls are

independent. System control flexibility and reliability is better with CBB-CIM. CBB-IIM on

the other hand requires fewer components.

 89

Chapter 5

SOFT SWITCHING IN MULTI-INPUT DC-

DC CONVERTER

5.1. Introduction
5.2. Multi-input and Multi-output system
5.3. Controller Design
5.4. Soft Switching Technique
5.5. Simulation Results
5.6. Experimental Results
5.7. Conclusions
 90

5.1 Introduction

Hybridization with different electric energy sources and the usage of diverse auxiliary outputs

in PEV application have led to innovative topologies in the converter system. Different kinds

of storage systems consisting of different characteristics are available for the vehicular system.

A comprehensive energy storage system for the vehicle improves the overall system efficiency

by a combination of the sources available. Batteries, ultra-capacitors, fuel cells etc. are used as

power sources in electric vehicles to operate the electric motors for the propulsion system. The

efficiency of fuel cell generator decreases at the light load condition compared the other source

to meet the vehicle power demand. Batteries and ultra-capacitor can be used to support the

system. These additional sources can also provide the opportunity to save the energy from

regenerative braking which is not possible with fuel cell or IC engines. In addition, batteries

are the primary source in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV), but the power density of batteries

is inherently low. The ultra-capacitors have high specific power, fast charge acceptance which

is very significant to capture regenerative energy in a short period of time. Therefore, the

combination of the complementary characteristics of battery and ultra-capacitor improves the

system efficiency in an electric vehicle.

Hybridization with different sources has become an important topic for electric and hybrid

electric vehicles. The terminal voltages of the sources are lower than the DC voltage of the

traction motor operation, and therefore, it is required to step up the voltage. On the other hand,

the battery and ultra-capacitor are needed to recharge and they can provide support in

regenerative braking. In this situation, the bidirectional DC-DC converter consisting of the
 91

flexibility of multiple inputs is essential. On the other hand, multiple auxiliary outputs are

useful in heavy hybrid vehicles. Air conditioning system having mechanical engine-belt

compressor is being replaced by electrically driven compressor which reduces the emissions

and improves the gas mileage. Hence, DC-DC converter consisting of multi-input and multi-

output capability is useful in PEV application.

The switching loss dominates over other losses of the converter system, and therefore, if the

switching loss can be reduced the system efficiency will be improved. This chapter discusses

the converter system where multiple sources can be connected to meet the requirements and

enhance the overall system performance by incorporating a soft switching technique for the

converter. A passive auxiliary circuit has been used to implement the soft switching in multiple

input side of the DC-DC converter.

5.2 Multi-input and Multi-output system

The CBB-CIM converter has been elaborated to facilitate multiple inputs and multiple outputs

as shown in Fig. 5.1. The intermediate stage of the converter consisting of the capacitor branch

provides the input-output voltage overlapping capability as in the case of the CBB-CIM

converter shown earlier in chapter 3. Multiple sources and multiple auxiliary outputs of a PEV

can be connected on the input side and output side, respectively of this CBB-CIM converter

topology.
 92

IL1 S2 S4 S6 S8
L1 IL3 Vout1
Vin1
L3 Vout2
Vin2 CM
L4
L2 IL4
IL2 C4 C3
C1 C2 S1 S3 S5 S7

Fig. 5.1. Multi-input and Multi-output Converter.

The soft switching in multi-input CBB-CIM DC-DC converter is the focus of this chapter. At

first the multi-input converter system without soft switching is analyzed to set the benchmark

for improvements. For simplicity, the system having two inputs and one output has been

chosen.

S2 S4 S6
iL1 rCM
rL1 L1 iL3
+
CM vCM rL3 L3 +
rL2 L2
iL2 _ rc2
RL vo
Vin1 S1 S3 S5 +
Vin2 vC2 C2
_ -

Fig. 5.2. Converter with parasitic resistances.

 93

The resistive parasitic components have been considered as shown in Fig. 5.2. The parasitic

resistances for inductors are 𝑟𝐿1 , 𝑟𝐿2 and 𝑟𝐿3 , and the parasitic resistors for intermediate

capacitor and output side capacitor are 𝑟𝐶𝑀 and 𝑟𝑐2 , respectively. 𝐷1 , 𝐷3 and 𝐷6 are the duty

cycles of switches 𝑆1 , 𝑆3 and 𝑆6 . 𝐷1′ = 1 − 𝐷1 , 𝐷3′ = 1 − 𝐷3 and 𝐷6′ = 1 − 𝐷6 . The state space

equations for the system are

𝑑𝑖𝐿1 1 ′
𝐷3′ 𝑟𝐶𝑀 𝐷6 𝐷1′ 𝑟𝐶𝑀 𝐷1′ 𝑉𝑖𝑛1
= − (𝐷1 𝑟𝐶𝑀 + 𝑟𝐿1 )𝑖𝐿1 − 𝑖 𝐿2 + 𝑖 𝐿3 − 𝑣𝐶𝑀 + … … … (5.1)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿1

𝑑𝑖𝐿2 1 ′
𝐷1′ 𝑟𝐶𝑀 𝐷6 𝐷3′ 𝑟𝐶𝑀 𝐷3′ 𝑉𝑖𝑛2
= − (𝐷3 𝑟𝐶𝑀 + 𝑟𝐿2 )𝑖𝐿2 − 𝑖 𝐿1 + 𝑖 𝐿3 − 𝑣𝐶𝑀 + … … (5.2)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐿2

𝑑𝑖𝐿3 𝐷6 𝐷1′ 𝑟𝐶𝑀 𝐷6 𝐷3′ 𝑟𝐶𝑀 1 𝑟𝑐 𝑅𝐿 𝐷6

= 𝑖 𝐿1 + 𝑖𝐿2 − (𝐷6 𝑟𝐶𝑀 + 𝑟𝐿3 + 2 ) 𝑖 𝐿3 + 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝐿3 𝐿3 𝐿3 𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 𝐿3 𝐶𝑀
𝑅𝐿
− 𝑣𝑐 … … … (5.3)
𝐿3 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 2
𝑑𝑣𝐶𝑀 𝐷1′ 𝐷3′ 𝐷6
= 𝑖 𝐿1 + 𝑖 𝐿2 − 𝑖 … … … (5.4)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑀 𝐶𝑀 𝐶𝑀 𝐿3

𝑑𝑣𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 1
= 𝑖 𝐿3 − 𝑣𝑐 … … … (5.5)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 2

5.3 Controller Design

Controlling the input currents are essential in PEV applications. The characteristics of the

sources are different. Therefore, if the currents can be controlled, then a high performance

controller can be designed by controlling the current particularly due to the different

characteristics of multiple input sources. Two control loops have been developed to control the

intermediate stage voltage; one loop is the inner current control loop and the other one is the
 94

outer voltage control loop. Two separate PI controllers are used to control the two input

inductor currents.

According to the reference point of the intermediate stage, a PI controller produces the

reference current 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 . The current sharing algorithm decides how much current will be shared

by each of the sources according to the following equations.

𝐼1_𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑆𝑂𝐶1, 𝑆𝑂𝐶2, 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 ) … … … (5.6)

𝐼2_𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑆𝑂𝐶1, 𝑆𝑂𝐶2, 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 ) … … … (5.7)

𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝐼1_𝑟𝑒𝑓 + 𝐼2_𝑟𝑒𝑓 … … … (5.8)

This algorithm depends on the state of the sources such as the state of charge of the battery and

the available voltage of the sources. The algorithm works for multiple input sources. Separate

PI controllers are used to control the currents of the sources according to the reference points

of the currents generated from the current sharing algorithm.

I_ref Current I1_ref PI

vCM_ref + PI +
- Controller Sharing
- Controller S1
Algorithm I2_ref S2
vCM i1 S3
Pulse
PI Generator
S4
+ Controller S5
-
S6
i2
PI
vo_ref + Controller
-
vo
Fig. 5.3. Block diagram of the DC-DC converter controller.
 95

Another PI controller is used to control the output voltage for the second stage of the converter.

The outputs of all the PI controllers are used to generate the gate signal pulses of all the IGBT

switches as shown in Fig. 5.3.

5.4 Soft Switching

Implementing soft switching is very challenging in the converter system with multiple inputs.

The evaluation of soft switching technique with zero voltage switching (ZVS) in the input side

is first evaluated.

S2 S4 S6
IL1
L1
Vin1 Laux Caux
L3 Vo
Vin2 CM
L2 IL3
IL2
C1 C3
C2 S1 S3 S5

Fig. 5.4. Converter with passive circuit for ZVS implementation.

The ZVS has been achieved with a passive auxiliary circuit connecting the mid-points of the

two converter legs as shown in

Fig. 5.4. This passive circuit is composed of an inductor and a capacitor. The main objective

of adding this branch is to charge and discharge of the output capacitors of the switches such

a way that the diode can conduct before the turn-on of the switch.
 96

The analysis has been done for two distinct cases of duty cycles of bottom two switches which

are the voltage ratios of the corresponding input and output voltage; one case is considered

when both gate signals are in overlapping position and another case is considered when both

gate signals are in non-overlapping position.

S1

S2

S3

S4
to t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 T t

Fig. 5.5. Both gate signals 𝑆1 and 𝑆3 are in overlapping position.

Fig. 5.5 shows the gate signals for both gate signals when they are in overlapping position.

Duty cycles of both gate signals are greater than 50% in this case to make the overlapping.

The switching period 𝑇 has been divided into eight time intervals. 𝑆1, 𝑆2 , 𝑆3 and 𝑆4 are the

gate signals for the four switches in the multi-input side as shown in

Fig. 5.4; 𝐷1 , 𝐷3 are the duty cycles of 𝑆1 and 𝑆3 , respectively. 𝑆1, 𝑆2 and 𝑆3 , 𝑆4 are the

complementary signals and the dead time between the two signals is 𝑡𝑑 . 𝑡𝑜 is zero and 𝑡1 is

(𝐷3 − 0.5)𝑇, where 𝐷3 is the duty cycle of 𝑆3 . 𝑡2 is 𝑡1 + 𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡3 is 0.5𝑇 − 𝑡𝑑 . 𝑡4 , 𝑡5 , 𝑡6 and 𝑡7

are 0.5𝑇, 𝐷1 𝑇, 𝐷1 𝑇 + 𝑡𝑑 and 𝑇 − 𝑡𝑑 , respectively.

 97

Fig. 5.6 shows the two gate signals when they are in non-overlapping position. The patterns of

the gate signals for this case where both duty cycles are less than 50% and one is less than 50%

and another one is greater than 50% are the same as shown in Fig. 5.6.

S1

S2

S3

S4
to t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 T t

Fig. 5.6. Gate signals 𝑆1 and 𝑆3 in non-overlapping position.

The switching period, 𝑇 has been divided by seven sections, the time intervals are as below,

𝑡𝑜 = 0, 𝑡1 = 𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡2 = 𝐷1 𝑇, 𝑡3 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡4 = 𝑇 − 𝐷3 𝑇 − 𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡5 = 𝑇 − 𝐷3 𝑇 and 𝑡6 = 𝑇 −

𝑡𝑑 .

Fig. 5.7 shows the state of the converter for different time intervals. During time interval 𝑡𝑜 <

𝑡 < 𝑡1 , gate pulse is applied to 𝑆1; however, the antiparallel diode of this switch is still on as it

depends on the current direction of the auxiliary branch. This is the dead time between two

gate signals for 𝑆3 and 𝑆4 . The inductor current 𝐼𝐿2 remains at its maximum value.
 98

S2 S4 S6 S2 S4 S6
IL1 IL1
L1 L1
Laux Caux Laux Caux
L3 L3
Vo Vo
CM CM
L2 IL3 L2 IL3
Vin1 IL2 IL2
Vin2 C3 R Vin1 Vin2 S1 C3 R
S1 S3 S5 S3 S5

(a) (b)

S2 S4 S6
IL1 S6
IL1 S4
L1 S2
Laux Caux L1
Laux Caux
L3
Vo L3
CM Vo
L2 IL3 CM
L2 IL3
Vin1 IL2 IL2
Vin2 C3 R Vin1 R
S1 Vin2 S1 C3
S3 S5 S3 S5

(c) (d)

S4 S6 S2 S4 S6
IL1 IL1
S2
L1 L1
Laux Caux Laux Caux
L3 L3
Vo Vo
CM CM
L2 IL3 L2 IL3
Vin1 IL2 Vin1 IL2
Vin2 S1 C3 R Vin2 S1 C3 R
S3 S3
S5 S5

(e) (f)
S2 S4 S6
IL1
L1
Laux Caux
L3
Vo
CM
L2 IL3
Vin1 IL2
Vin2 S1 C3 R
S3
S5

(g)
Fig. 5.7. State of the converter system for time intervals (a) 𝑡𝑜 < 𝑡 < 𝑡1 ; (b) 𝑡1 < 𝑡 < 𝑡2 ;

(c) 𝑡2 < 𝑡 < 𝑡3 ; (d) 𝑡3 < 𝑡 < 𝑡4 ; (e) 𝑡4 < 𝑡 < 𝑡5 ; (f) 𝑡5 < 𝑡 < 𝑡6 ; (g) 𝑡6 < 𝑡 < 𝑇.

The auxiliary branch current discharges the output capacitor of 𝑆4 and the voltage across this

capacitor goes to zero and then reaches the forward voltage of the antiparallel diode which

turns the diode on. The voltage across the auxiliary branch 𝑉𝑎𝑢𝑥 goes to −𝑉𝐶𝑀 . The auxiliary
 99

branch current 𝐼𝑎𝑢𝑥 decreases. During the time interval 𝑡1 < 𝑡 < 𝑡2 , gate 𝑆1 turns on with ZVS.

The inductor current, 𝐼𝐿1 increases. The gate pulse is applied to 𝑆4 , but the antiparallel diode

across it is still on. The auxiliary branch voltage is −𝑉𝐶𝑀 ; therefore, 𝐼𝑎𝑢𝑥 decreases and goes

to zero and changes its direction. Then 𝑆4 turns on with ZVS. The inductor current 𝐼𝐿2

decreases. The time interval 𝑡2 < 𝑡 < 𝑡3 is the dead time between two gate signals for 𝑆1 and

𝑆2 . At this time, gate signal for 𝑆1is off. The auxiliary branch current discharges the output

capacitor of switch 𝑆2 , and the voltage across this capacitor goes to zero and reaches to the

diode forward voltage to turn the diode on. The auxiliary branch voltage then goes to zero. The

inductor current 𝐼𝐿1 remains at its maximum value and 𝐼𝐿2 decreases.

During time interval 𝑡3 < 𝑡 < 𝑡4 , the gate pulse is applied to 𝑆2 , but the antiparallel diode

across it is still on. The auxiliary branch voltage is zero, and the inductor currents 𝐼𝐿1 and 𝐼𝐿2

are decreasing. The time interval 𝑡4 < 𝑡 < 𝑡5 is the dead time between two gate signals for 𝑆3

and 𝑆4 . Switch 𝑆4 is off during this time. The auxiliary branch current discharges the output

capacitor of gate 𝑆3 , and the voltage across this capacitor goes to zero and reaches to the diode

forward voltage and makes the diode on.

During time interval 𝑡5 < 𝑡 < 𝑡6 , 𝑆3 turns on with ZVS. The auxiliary branch voltage is 𝑉𝐶𝑀

and the auxiliary current increases and reaches zero before changing its direction, then 𝑆2 turns

on with ZVS. The time interval 𝑡6 < 𝑡 < T is the dead time between two gate signals for 𝑆1

and 𝑆2 . Switch 𝑆2 is off during this time. The auxiliary branch current discharges the output

capacitor of gate 𝑆1, and the voltage across this capacitor goes to zero and reaches to the diode

forward voltage and makes the diode on.

 100

The auxiliary inductor should be designed to hold sufficient energy to charge and discharge

the output capacitors. The dead time between the two complementary gate signals should

provide sufficient time to charge and discharge the output capacitors.

The output capacitor of the switch is 𝐶𝑐𝑒 and the input power of the sources are 𝑃𝑖𝑛1 and 𝑃𝑖𝑛2 .

The storage energy of the auxiliary inductor should be higher than the storage energy of both

inductors and output capacitors of the switches, i.e.,

1 1 𝑃 2
𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑥 𝐼𝑎𝑢𝑥 2 ≥ 𝐿1 (𝑉𝑖𝑛1 ) + 𝐶𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝐶𝑀 2 …. … (5.6)
2 2 𝑖𝑛1

1 1 𝑃 2
𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑥 𝐼𝑎𝑢𝑥 2 ≥ 𝐿2 (𝑉𝑖𝑛2 ) + 𝐶𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝐶𝑀 2 …. … (5.7)
2 2 𝑖𝑛2

Table 5.1 Parameter Specifications

Parameter Value
Input, 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 250 V

Input, 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 150 V

Intermediate stage voltge, 𝑉𝐶𝑀 300 V

Output, 𝑉𝑜 170 V

Inductor, 𝐿1 450 µH

Inductor, 𝐿2 450 µH

Inductor, 𝐿3 450 µH

Auxiliary inductor, 𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑥 120 µH

Capacitor, 𝐶𝑎𝑢𝑥 1µF

Capacitor, 𝐶CM 3300µF

Switcing frequency, 𝑓𝑠 20 kHz

Power 1 kW – 12 kW
 101

The peak current of the auxiliary branch is

𝑉
𝑉𝐶𝑀 (1− 𝑖𝑛2 )
𝑉𝐶𝑀
𝐼𝑎𝑢𝑥 = …. … (5.8)
2𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑥 𝑓𝑠

𝑉𝑖𝑛1 2 (𝑉𝐶𝑀 2 −2𝑉𝐶𝑀 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 +𝑉𝑖𝑛2 2 )/4𝑓𝑠 2

𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑥 ≤ …. … (5.9)
𝐿1 𝑃𝑖𝑛1 2 + 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 2 𝐶𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝐶𝑀 2

The dead time between two complementary gate signals is

(𝐼𝐿2 +𝐼𝑎𝑢𝑥 )𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑥 (𝐼𝐿2 +𝐼𝑎𝑢𝑥 )2 𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑥 2

𝑡𝑑 > + √ − 4𝐶𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑥 …. … (5.10)
𝑉𝐶𝑀 𝑉𝐶𝑀 2

The analysis carried out to choose the dead time for the required power level resulted in the

parameter specifications given in Table 5.1.

Fig. 5.8. Gate signals, inductor currents and voltages for overlapping case.
 102

5.5 Simulation Results

Simulation has been carried out for the overlapping case of the gate signals. The parameter

values used are those given in Table 5.1 and the two input voltages are 300 V and 200 V. while

the output voltage is 650 V.

Fig. 5.8 shows the gate signals and inductor currents and voltages.

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.9. Switch voltages and gate signals (a) Lower switches, (b) Upper switches.

Fig. 5.9 shows satisfactory results of the ZVS implementation for the upper and lower switches

on the multiple input side where switch voltage goes zero before the gate signal is applied for

the corresponding switches.

Another simulation has been carried out for the non-overlapping case. Here both duty cycles

are less than 50%. The same parameter values as those in Table 5.1 are used and the power
 103

level is 5kW. Fig. 5.10 shows the gate signals, and inductor currents and voltages. The results

in Fig. 5.11 show the satisfactory ZVS implementation of the four switches of the multiple

input side.

Fig. 5.10. Gate signals, inductor currents and voltages for non-overlapping case.

Efficiency comparison has been analyzed for the systems with and without ZVS. Simulation

parameters are used as in Table 5.1. Table 5.2 and the efficiency comparison with load

variations for the DC-DC converter system with and without ZVS is shown in Table 5.3. The

results show that the conduction loss increases for the system with ZVS as all switches are
 104

conducting for maintaining ZVS in multiple input side, whereas only two switches conduct for

the system without ZVS.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 5.11. Switch voltages and gate signals for four switches in multiple input side.

However, the switching loss decreases with the implementation of ZVS. The increasing rate

of the conduction loss is lower than the decreasing rate of the switching loss. Therefore, the

overall efficiency increases for the system with ZVS.

 105

Table 5.2 Efficiency analysis for the system without ZVS

Inductor
Conduction Switching
Power(kW) DCR Pin(W) Pout(W) Efficiency
Loss(W) Loss(W)
Loss(W)
2.5 11.47 10.56 102.12 2419.66 2295.89 94.88%
3 16.53 13.29 106.93 2905.91 2769.64 95.31%
3.5 25.84 17.73 114.47 3637.83 3479.79 95.66%
4 33.77 21.05 119.84 4161.48 3986.87 95.80%
4.5 39.20 23.17 123.12 4485.61 4299.61 95.85%

Table 5.3 Efficiency analysis for the system with ZVS

Resistive Conduction Switching
Power(kW) Pin(W) Pout(W) Efficiency
Loss(W) Loss(W) Loss(W)
2.5 11.75 13.89 58.66 2433.90 2347.73 96.46%
3 16.83 16.24 61.84 2911.33 2815.64 96.71%
3.5 26.06 19.99 66.60 3633.40 3524.75 97.01%
4 33.92 23.02 70.05 4154.67 4035.23 97.13%
4.5 39.24 24.77 72.22 4469.94 4345.09 97.21%

Fig. 5.12 shows the efficiency comparison between the two DC-DC converter systems with

and without ZVS.

97.5

97
With ZVS

96.5
Efficiency(%)

96

95.5 Without ZVS

95

94.5
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Load(kW)

Fig. 5.12 Comparison in efficiency between the systems with and without ZVS.
 106

5.6 Experimental Results

An experimental set-up has been developed to verify the theoretical results as shown in

Fig. 5.4. Inductors with 450𝜇𝐻 inductance have been used for both inputs. The intermediate

stage capacitor, 𝐶𝑀 is valued at 3300μF. The Microchip dSPIC33 was used for the controller

implementation.

Fig. 5.13. Experimental set up of the system with the auxiliary branch.

The auxiliary passive branch consisting of a 120µH inductor and 5µF capacitor was connected

between the two mid-points of the two legs of the input side of the converter as shown in Fig.

5.13 to implement ZVS.

The experiment has been done at low power level for the non-overlapping case where both

duty cycles are less than 50%. The current controller has been implemented according to the

algorithm presented in Section 5.3 and the patterns of the gate signals have been set as shown

in Fig. 5.6. The experiment has been performed for the two input voltages of 20 V and 15 V,
 107

output voltage of 30 V and power level is 60 W. From the experiment, it has been found that

the voltage across the switches goes to zero before the gate turns on. The results shown in Fig.

5.14 satisfy the ZVS implementation for all four switches in the multi-input side of the DC-

DC converter system.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 5.14. Experimental results: Switch voltages and gate signals, (a) Ch1- 𝑆1, Ch3 - 𝑉𝑐𝑒1, (b)

Ch2 - 𝑆2 , Ch3 - 𝑉𝑐𝑒2 , (c) Ch1- 𝑆3 , Ch3 - 𝑉𝑐𝑒3 , (d) Ch2 - 𝑆4 , Ch3 - 𝑉𝑐𝑒4 .
 108

100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
EFFICIENCY (%)

With ZVS Without ZVS

60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
40 60 80 100 120 140 160
LOAD (W)

Fig. 5.15. Experimental results: Efficiency comparison with ZVS and without ZVS.

Efficiency comparison has been done experimentally.

Fig. 5.15 shows the efficiency comparison between the systems with and without ZVS. The

efficiency of the system with ZVS is higher than that that of the system without ZVS.

5.7 Conclusions

The CBB-CIM DC-DC converter system consisting of multi-input, multi-output capability is

very useful in PEV applications. Different energy sources with different characteristics can be

connected and different auxiliary units with different voltage levels can be added in the PEV

powertrain with the multi-input, multi-output DC-DC converter system. The multi-input case

has been analyzed, and simulation and experimental results of multi-input CBB-CIM DC-DC
 109

converter with soft switching technique has been presented. The soft-switching helped reduce

the switching loss providing improvement in system efficiency.

 110

Chapter 6

INTEGRATED ELECTRIC MOTOR DRIVE

AND POWER ELECTRONICS

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Converter Topology
6.3 System Analysis
6.4 Simulation Results
6.4.1 Coupled Simulation with PMSM
6.4.2 Simulation with Induction Machine
6.5 Experimental Results
6.5.1 Experiment with PMSM
6.5.2 Experiment with Induction Machine
6.6 Conclusions
 111

6.1 Introduction

This chapter presents an integrated traction machine and converter topology [83] that has bi-

directional power flow capability between an electric vehicle and the DC or AC supply or grid.

The inductances of the traction motor windings are used for bi-directional converter operation

to transfer power eliminating the need for extra inductors for the charging and vehicle-to-grid

(V2G) converter operations. These operations are in addition to the vehicle traction mode

operation. The electric powertrain system size and weight can be minimized with this approach.

The concept has been analyzed with coupled finite element simulation with dynamic analysis

software. Experimental results are also provided with electric machines. The interleaving

technique has been used with the inductors to share the currents and reduce the converter

switching stresses.

The integrated motor-converter presented in this research can be used as the traction motor

drive, a battery charger and a power converter to transfer energy from vehicle-to-grid (V2G)

through reconfiguration of the inverter topology using relays or contactors. The traction

inverter with the presented reconfiguration method can also transfer power from the vehicle to

a DC grid and from a DC grid to the vehicle using the traction motor windings with the

appropriate relay settings. The three-phase machine windings and the three inverter phase legs

can be utilized with an interleaved configuration to distribute the current and reduce the

converter switching stresses. The battery voltage is increased in the boost mode to an output

reference voltage level within the limits of the machine ratings. A soft starter method using

PWM control has been used to reduce the starting current overshot when connecting to a DC
 112

grid. In DC grid connected mode, the voltage drop across the inductor will be the difference

between the inverter output voltage and the DC grid voltage. The DC grid voltage provides

more stable voltage to counteract the rate of change of inductor current and the current ripple

is controlled with an improved approach in the DC grid connected mode.

The developed converter system can also be used for transferring power between a single phase

AC grid and the vehicle in either direction without any extra component. The rated conditions

of the motor and utility interface are quite similar. The inverter is able to regulate the motor

phase current in the entire speed range. When changing from motor control mode to AC grid

connected mode of operation, the back-EMF voltage is replaced with the grid voltage.

Considering the operating conditions with the grid, motor inductance would be enough to

handle the grid connected modes of operation. Also in the blocked rotor condition, motor

magnetizing inductance dominates and contributes to the phase inductance significantly. For

high enough inductance required for AC grid, the rotor can be locked which will give high

inductance in the blocked rotor condition. In the charging mode, the machine is thermally stable

with no electromechanical power flow through the airgap of the machine. The machine ratings

are within limits in all the operating modes as there is only electric loading, and no magnetic

loading except during traction operation. The current limit is higher in converter modes

compared to the traction mode current limit.

The chapter presents the analysis, design and experiments of the integrated traction drive and

power converter for electric/hybrid vehicle applications. The electric machine has been

analyzed using coupled simulation of finite element and dynamic analysis software. The power
 113

converter and controller have been modeled using MATLAB/Simulink. The developed

converter reconfiguration method is advantageous for reducing the size and component of the

electric power train while providing bi-directional power flow capability with connections to

either DC or AC supplies.

6.2 Converter Topology

Different types of topologies have been developed for electric vehicles for battery charging

and bi-directional power flow between the battery and the power supply. However, the traction

inverter uses the standard six-switch configuration that has elements of the various power

converter topologies. The reconfigurable converter topology utilizing the traction inverter

along with the switches used for reconfiguration is shown in Fig. 6.1(a). Fig. 6.1(b) shows the

detailed switch or relay arrangements required for different modes of operation. Several

different configurations can be obtained by appropriate positioning of the switches, which

results in a novel methodology for bi-directional power transfer between a vehicle battery and

DC or AC grid. Including the use of the topology as the traction inverter during vehicle

operation, this power converter can be operated in five different modes: (i) Power flow from

battery to the DC grid, (ii) Power flow from DC grid to battery, (iii) Traction mode, (iv) Power

flow from battery to single phase AC grid and (v) Power flow from single phase AC grid to

battery.
 114

Battery + Traction
- Routing
Box
Motor

DC
GRID

AC
Grid

(a)

Switch1
1
2
3
4
S1 S3 S5 Switch5
1 Switch2
2
L1
1 L2
Battery + 2 C DC
L3
Grid
- 3
4
Traction
Switch3 S2 S4 S6
Motor

1 2
Switch4 AC
Grid
3 4

(b)

Fig. 6.1. Converter with switches capable of interfacing with both AC and DC grid (a)

Combined, (b) Details.

The reconfiguration switches can be realized with relays or contactors depending on the ratings

of the currents. Those relays and contactors are controlled in a coordinated way to
 115

accommodate the different modes of use. The contactors with optimum current capacity should

be used to minimize the size of the contactor. The size of the contactor has to be accommodated

based on the current rating chosen. To minimize the space and size of the contactors, all the

switches can be integrated into a single package.

Table 6.1 Switch Positions and Converter States

Switch State 1 State 2
Switch1 Pole positions:1 Pole positions: 2
and 3 and 4
Switch2 1 and 2 1 and 2 connected
disconnected
Switch3 Pole positions: 1 Pole positions: 2
and 3 and 4
Switch4 1 and 2, and 3 and 4 1 and 2, and 3 and 4
disconnected connected
Switch5 1 and 2 1 and 2 connected
disconnected

The switches will be controlled for the different modes of operation using State1 and State2

configurations given in Table 6.1. Fig. 6.1(b) shows the details of the configuration in the

routing box with the switches which relates to the operations of the switches according to Table

6.1. The terminal numbers are shown in Fig. 6.1(b) inside the switches which are changed to

different positions for the different configurations. When the converter is to connect to a DC

grid, Switch4 will be in State1 to isolate from the AC grid. When the converter is to connect

to an AC grid, Switch5 will be in State1 to isolate from the DC grid. Thus, the traction converter

can be connected to either a DC or an AC grid. Fig. 6.2 shows the off condition where all the

switches are in State1; in this situation, there will be no power transfer. If there is any fault in
 116

one or multiple phases in the motor the converter configuration will be switched to State1 as

shown in Fig. 6.2, and there will be no power transfer between the grid and the battery; the

usual protection schemes for a traction inverter will then take over. The system has inherent

fault protection capability, and extra protection is not needed.

S1 S3 S5
L1
Battery + L2
L3 C DC
- GRID

S2 S4 S6

Fig. 6.2. Circuit with all switches in State1.

Power is transferred from the vehicle battery to the DC grid using boost mode of operation for

the converter with Switch2 and Switch5 in State2, and the other switches in State1; power from

the vehicle battery to the DC grid can also be transferred in buck mode with Switch3 and

Switch4 in State1 and the other switches in State2. When power transfer is needed from DC

grid to the vehicle, Switch2 and Switch5 are in State2 for buck operation and Switch3 and

Switch4 are in State1 for boost operation. From Fig. 6.3, it can be observed that for V2G boost

operation, the interleaved technique can be applied on the battery side with the three

inductances and three legs of the converter; for G2V boost operation, the interleaved technique

can be applied on the DC grid side to reduce the switching stresses as Fig. 6.4. The developed
 117

converter can be used for traction mode with Switch1 in State2 and other Switches in State1 as

shown in Fig. 6.5.

S1 S3 S5
L1
L2
L3 C DC
GRID
Battery +
S2 S4 S6
-

Fig. 6.3. Circuit with Switch2 and Switch5 in State2 for V2G boost or G2V buck operation

with vehicle side inductors interleaved.

S1 S3 S5

L1
C L2
L3
Battery +
DC
- GRID
S2 S4 S6

Fig. 6.4. Circuit with Switch3 and Switch4 are in State1 for V2G buck or G2V boost

operation with DC grid side inductors interleaved.

This converter can be used for bi-directional power transfer between a single phase AC grid

and the vehicle battery. For this configuration, Switch1 and Switch5 are kept in State1, while

all switches are to be in State2. The two phases of traction motor windings are connected with
 118

the single phase AC grid side and another switch connects with the battery as shown in Fig.

6.6. Power can flow in either direction with buck or boost modes of operation.

S1 S3 S5

L1
L2
C
Battery + L3

S2 S4 S6

Fig. 6.5. Circuit with Switch1 is in State2 for traction mode operation.

S1 S3 S5

L2
C
L1 Single
Phase
AC Grid
L3
Battery +
- S2 S4 S6

Fig. 6.6. Circuit configuration for bi-directional interface with a single phase AC grid.

Operating mode 1 in Fig. 6.3 and operating mode 2 in Fig. 6.4 have been verified in simulation.

Operating mode 1 is experimentally verified using two types of machines. Although, operating

mode 2 in Fig. 6.4 is different from operating mode 1, the converter is symmetrical for these

two modes and for experiments they are similar. Therefore, verifying operating mode 1

experimentally is sufficient for both modes. The operation mode in Fig. 6.5 is the typical

traction machine operation which is used in the motor drives of electric and hybrid vehicles.
 119

The typical traction inverter and its controller are designed to have enough bandwidth to

regulate the motor phase currents with reasonable ripple on them. The voltage that appears

across the motor inductances is dependent on the inverter DC bus voltage, amount of motor

inductance, motor back-EMF voltage and the switching frequency of the controller. When the

inverter switches to the grid connection mode, the effect of back-EMF voltage is replaced by

the grid voltage and the rest of the elements would stay close to the motor operation. In fact,

current regulation during traction at low speed is much more challenging than the grid

connected operation since the back-EMF voltage is quite small at low speeds. Therefore, the

machine inductance would be suitable for all the operating modes, since it is the configuration

of the machine winding, and the machine inductances are typically of large values. The

performance depends on the machine specifications. The maximum current limit is within the

thermal limit of the machine and the ripple in current is dictated by the fixed inductance of the

machine as the machine windings cannot be changed. The bus capacitor is selected to handle

the voltage ripple and the appropriate switching frequency is selected beyond the acoustic

range of frequencies. If there is an option to design the machine with the intention of applying

the developed reconfigurable converters, then the machine can be designed with higher current

capability for faster charging and higher winding inductance for minimizing current ripple

without degradation of traction operation.

Traction machines can be of induction, permanent magnet or switched reluctance machine

types. Inductance variations for permanent magnet synchronous and induction machines with

respect to the position change are minimal. However, there are variations of the inductance
 120

value at different rotor positions for interior permanent magnet and switched reluctance

machines. With a DC grid, the rotor is not required to be locked as it will be aligned with the

maximum inductance path. Consequently, the ripple will be lower. With an AC grid, the flux

produced from AC voltage can move the rotor or vibrate the rotor. In this case, the rotor needs

to be locked. The mutual inductances have not been modeled in this analysis. There can be

phase imbalance due to the mutual inductance. Phase current controls with individual phase

current measurements are already in place in a typical traction drive. The current controller

would act to compensate for the variations in the inductance and balance the phase currents.

The difference in the current ripple between the phases could still be an issue, but is not

expected to be a significant one.

Three-phase machines have been considered in this research since this is the practical scenario

with all traction machines. However, if the phase number is larger than three, three phases will

be used and other phases can be distributed and connected to those three branches or the extra

phases could be left disconnected depending on the mode of operation. All modes of operation

as described from Fig. 6.3 through Fig. 6.6 are similarly applicable.

6.3 System Analysis

The converter configuration shown in Fig. 6.3 can be operated as a simple boost converter if the

frequency and duty cycle of the bottom three IGBTs and the top three IGBTs are the same.

The system matrix of the converter is

 121

−𝑟𝐿 −𝐷 ′
𝐿 𝐿
𝐴 = [ 𝐷′ −1
] … … … … (5.1)
𝐶 𝑅𝐿 𝐶

where 𝑟𝐿 is the internal resistance of the inductor, 𝐷 is duty cycle, 𝐷′ is (1 − 𝐷), 𝐿 is the

combination of the motor windings, 𝑅𝐿 is the combined resistance on the grid side.

The system stability can be analyzed using the system matrix. The converter specifications for

stability analysis are given in Table 6.2. For the input voltage range of 100V to 250V with the

desired output voltage of 650V, the real part of the system poles are observed to be negative

(Fig. 6.7). The system is stable within these input-output voltage ranges.

Table 6.2 Parameter specification for analysis

Input voltage range 100V – 250V

Maximum output voltage 650V

Machine Phase Inductance 4.98mH

Output Capacitance 3300µF

Load Resistance 20Ω

Maximum Input current 30A

 122

-650 -150
Real part of pole 1

-700

Real part of pole 2

-200
-750
-250
-800
-300
-850

-900 -350
100 150 200 250 100 150 200 250
Input battery voltage (V) Input battery voltage (V)

Fig. 6.7. Effect of input voltage change on the system pole1 and pole2.

The transfer functions of duty cycle to output voltage and of duty cycle to battery current can

be derived as follows from the small signal analysis of the converter with a PI controller [34].

−𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝐷′ 𝑉𝑜
𝑣̃𝑜 (𝑠− )
𝐶 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝐿
= 2 … … … … (5.2)
𝑑̃ 1 𝐷′
𝑠 2 +( )𝑠+
𝑅𝐿 𝐶 𝐿𝐶

𝑉𝑜 1 𝐷′ 𝐼
𝑖̃𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 (𝑠+ + 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 )
𝐿 𝑅𝐿 𝐶 𝑉𝑜 𝐶
= 2 … … … … (5.3)
𝑑̃ 1 𝐷′
𝑠 2 +( )𝑠+
𝑅𝐿 𝐶 𝐿𝐶
 123

System from
duty cycle to
input inductor
current
( batt / )

i~batt

System from
Controller 2
PI
i* Controller 1 duty cycle to
o

PI
Vref Voltage Controller Current Controller
output
( o/ )

Fig. 6.8. System block diagram with closed loop feedback control.

The converter characteristics in terms of parameter sensitivity and bandwidth can be analyzed

with the closed loop transfer functions. The corner frequency of the closed loop system is

𝐷′
𝑓= … … … …(5.4)
√𝐿𝐶

Bode Diagram
200
Phase (deg) Magnitude (dB)

100

360

270

180

90
1 2 3 4 5 6
10 10 Frequency
10 (rad/s)
10 10 10

Fig. 6.9. Frequency response from duty cycle to output voltage.

 124

The frequency response of the system for 60 percent duty cycle with the bandwidth of 6 kHz

is shown in Fig. 6.9. The response would change with change in duty cycle which suggests the

parameter dependency of the system transfer function. The converter system with feedback

control as shown in Fig. 6.8 depends on the duty cycle nonlinearly, which makes it challenging

to design this converter within the stability and bandwidth limits [91]. The bode diagram is

from the analytical model, which has been used to select the converter parameters.

6.4 Simulation Results

In automotive applications, different kinds and ratings of electric machines are used. The

applicability of the concept on different electric machines used in automotive applications is

tested with simulation models that would provide the most realistic predictions.

6.4.1 Coupled Simulation with PMSM

The integrated machine-converter concept has been analyzed through coupled simulation of

finite element and dynamic analysis software where each simulation tool works simultaneously

and shares information. An automotive permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM) is

used. The electric machine modeled in FEA has been integrated with the vehicle-to-grid (V2G)

converter configuration shown in Fig. 6.3. The machine is modeled in the FEA software

Flux2D, while the power converter and controller are modeled in MATLAB/Simulink as

shown in Fig. 6.10. The electric machine flux characteristics and the interleaving technique

can be analyzed through the coupled simulation with the machine windings sharing the

converter current.
 125

MATLAB / Simulink
Controller Model

FEA

Output voltage, Battery

current, Phase voltages
and Phase currents

Fig. 6.10. Coupled simulation of Flux 2D and MATLAB/Simulink.

The concept has been verified with a small sized three-phase, 500W and surface mount PM

machine. The machine has 9 slots and 6 poles. This machine has been integrated with the

converter for the same converter topology given in Fig. 6.3.

Fig. 6.11 shows the connections between the converter and the windings of the machine in the

finite element software. The simulation parameters are: battery voltage 12V, output reference

voltage 18v, and load resistance 0.5Ω.

Switch 1 Pole position 1 and 3 Switch 2

1 and 2 terminals connected

Switch 3
Pole R
position
Battery

1 and 3 Phase B
Phase A C

Phase C

Converter

Fig. 6.11. Converter circuit with motor coil conductors.

 126

The output voltage settles at the reference voltage of 18V (Fig. 6.12). The converter currents

in the interleaved machine coil windings are shown in Fig. 6.13; the current ripple is high in

these windings since the machine winding inductance is low.

20
Output Voltage (V)

18

16

14

12

10
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
Time(sec)

Fig. 6.12. DC output voltage from coupled simulation.

200

100
Ia

0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
200
100
Ib

0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
200
100
Ic

0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
Time(sec)

Fig. 6.13. Phase currents in the three windings of the machine from coupled simulation.
 127

6.4.2 Simulation with Induction Machine

Induction machine is also a common type of electric machine used in traction applications. A

10 HP, three-phase induction machine where the neutral point is available has been chosen as

a traction machine for experimental verification. Dynamic simulation using

MATLAB/Simulink has been done with the inductances of the machine windings. The power

transfer characteristics and the interleaving technique for distributing the input currents into

the three phase windings can be analyzed with this simulation.

6.4.2.1 Mode 1 and Mode 2 Simulation

Mode 1 is for power flow from battery to the DC grid and Mode 2 is for power flow from DC

grid to battery. In the simulation, three inductors with the same values of the winding

inductance of the induction machine have been used to build the converter as the topology of

Fig. 6.3 for V2G boost mode of operation. The simulation block diagram is shown in Fig.

6.14(a).

Six-switched
Three phase DC Six-switched DC
Battery Battery Three phase
Inverter GRID GRID
Inverter

Induction
Induction Machine
Gate pulses Gate pulses
Machine

Controller Controller

(a) (b)

Fig. 6.14. Integrated converter and induction machine operation with DC grid; (a) V2G boost
mode of operation,(b) V2G buck mode of operation.
 128

The simulation for buck V2G buck mode of operation using the configuration of Fig. 6.4 has

been also done; the simulation block diagram for this mode is shown in Fig. 6.14(b).

The simulation parameters for boost operation are: input voltage is 200V, output reference

voltage is 260V, maximum input current limit is 30A, induction machine phase inductance is

5mH, output capacitor is 3300µF, load resistance is 20Ω, and PWM switching frequency is 20

kHz. From the simulation result shown in Fig. 6.15(a), it is observed that the output voltage is

following the reference voltage of 260V in the boost mode of Fig. 6.3.

The simulation parameters for buck operation are: input voltage is 400V, output reference

voltage is 200V, maximum input current limit is 30A, induction machine phase inductance is

5mH, load resistance is 10Ω, and PWM switching frequency is 20 kHz. From the simulation

result shown in Fig. 6.15(b), it is observed that the output voltage is following the reference

voltage of 200V in the buck mode of Fig. 6.4.

280 250
Output Voltage(V)

Output Voltage(V)

260 200

240 150

220 100
(a) Boost (b) Buck
200 50

180 0
0 0.1 0.2 0 0.1 0.2
Time(sec) Time(sec)

Fig. 6.15. Output voltage in Mode 1 and Mode 2 of the integrated motor/converter: (a) for
boost operation, and (b) for buck operation.
 129

In case of boost operation, the output power level is 4 kW. The interleaving technique has been

applied in the battery side of the system as shown in Fig. 6.3 and Fig. 6.14(a). The results in

Fig. 6.16 show that the input current can be equally shared through the windings of the three

phase induction machine.

40
Input Current (A)
20
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
10
5
0 IL1 (A)
100 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
5
0 IL2 (A)
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
10
5
IL3 (A)
0
0 0.02 0.04 Time(sec) 0.06 0.08 0.1

Fig. 6.16. Input current in boost mode of operation and shared input currents in the three
phase windings on the machine.

In case of buck operation, the interleaving technique has been applied in load side of the system

shown in Fig. 6.4 and Fig. 6.14(b). The results in Fig. 6.17 show that the output current can be

equally shared through the windings of the three phase induction machine.
 130

30
20
10 Output current(A)
0
10 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

5
IL1 (A)
0
10 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

5
IL2 (A)
0
10 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

5
IL3 (A)
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time(sec)

Fig. 6.17. Output current in buck mode of operation and shared output currents in the three
phase windings on the machine.

6.4.2.2 Mode 4 and Mode 5 Simulation

Mode 4 and Mode 5 allow power flow from battery to a single phase AC grid and from a single

phase AC grid to battery, respectively. In the simulation, three inductors of the same values as

that of the induction machine have been used in the topology of Fig. 6.6. The simulation models

for Mode 4 and Mode 5 are given in Fig. 6.18(a) and Fig. 6.18(b). For power transfer between

the battery and an AC grid, the converter is configured in two stages with a DC/DC converter

using one phase leg followed by an H-bridge inverter that interfaces with the AC grid (Fig.

6.6).
 131

Six-switched Six-switched
Three phase Single Phase Single Phase
Battery Inverter AC Grid AC Grid
Three phase Battery
One phase of Inverter One phase of
Induction Two phases Induction
Two phases
Machine of Induction Machine
of Induction
Machine
Machine
Gate pulses
Gate pulses
Current
Controller Current
Controller

(a)
(b)

Fig. 6.18. Power flow between battery and AC grid: (a) From battery to AC grid (Mode 4),
and (b) from AC grid to battery (Mode 5).

A single phase PLL algorithm has been developed to synchronize the inverter with the single-

phase grid. In the PLL algorithm, the grid voltage is first shifted by 90o and then dq-

transformation on the grid and the shifted voltages give the d-axis and q-axis voltages. To lock

the phase, the q-axis voltage has been kept at zero by using a loop filter. The converter is

operated in the current controlled mode when interfaced with the grid. Current regulation in

the dq domain has been used in the grid connected mode using grid current feedback converted

to dq current [92]. The amount of power transferred from grid to vehicle and vehicle to grid

depends on the 𝑖𝑑 and 𝑖𝑞 current commands. The current regulator design is based on the

following dynamic equations

𝑑𝑖𝑑
𝑣𝑑 (𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖𝑑 (𝑡) + 𝐿 − 𝜔𝐿𝑖𝑞 (𝑡) + 𝑒𝑑 (𝑡) … … … … (5.5)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖𝑞
𝑣𝑞 (𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖𝑞 (𝑡) + 𝐿 + 𝜔𝐿𝑖𝑑 (𝑡) + 𝑒𝑞 (𝑡) … … … … (5.6)
𝑑𝑡

Fig. 6.19(a) and Fig. 6.19(b) show the grid voltage and grid current in Mode 4 with a current

command 𝑖𝑑 of 30A and 𝑖𝑞 of zero. In this case, the power is being transferred from the vehicle
 132

to the single phase AC grid. The power transferred and the grid currents for different current

commands 𝑖𝑑 are given in Table 6.3.

X: 0.03747
200 Y: 169
Vgrid
150

100
X: 0.03741
50 Y: 30.07 Igrid
0

-50

-100

-150

-200
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time(sec)
(a)

40

30

id
20

10
iq
0

-10
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time(sec)
(b)
Fig. 6.19.Voltages and currents in Mode 4: (a) Grid voltage and grid current, and (b)
Command 𝒊𝒅 and 𝒊𝒒 currents.
 133

Table 6.3 Power flow at different levels in Mode 4

id Vgrid Igrid Active

Command(A) (RMS) (RMS) (A) Power (W)
(V)
10 120 7.19 863

15 120 10.52 1262

20 120 14.36 1723

25 120 17.82 2138

30 120 21.17 2540

Fig. 6.20(a) and Fig. 6.20(b) show the grid voltage and grid current in Mode 5; in this case, the

current command 𝑖𝑑 is -30A and 𝑖𝑞 is zero. Power is being transferred from the single phase

AC grid to the vehicle. The power transferred to the battery and the grid currents for different

current commands 𝑖𝑑 are given in as Table 6.4.

 134

X: 0.02085
200 Y: 169
Vgrid
150

100
X: 0.02909
Igrid
50 Y: 29.95

-50

-100

-150

-200
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time(sec)
(a)
5 iq
0

-5
id and iq command

-10

-15

-20

-25 id
-30

-35

-40
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time(sec)
(b)
Fig. 6.20. Voltages and currents in Mode 5: (a) Grid voltage and grid current, and (b)
Command 𝒊𝒅 and 𝒊𝒒 currents.
 135

Table 6.4 Power flow at different levels for in Mode 5

id Vgrid Igrid Active

Command(A) (RMS) (V) (RMS) (A) Power
(W)

-10 120 7.14 857

-15 120 10.6 1272

-20 120 14.29 1715

-25 120 17.68 2122

-30 120 21.29 2555

6.5 Experimental Results

The integrated machine-converter concept has been investigated with a three-phase inverter

and machine inductors. The converter has been tested in the boost configuration of Fig. 6.3

which represents the vehicle to DC grid power transfer mode.

(a) (b)

Fig. 6.21. Experimental Setup: (a) Three phase IGBT module, and (b) Controller Board.
 136

A standard three-phase, six-switch IGBT inverter module is used as shown in Fig. 6.21(a). The

voltage rating of the inverter is 1200V and the current rating is 100A. The DC bus capacitor is

3300μF. A system controller has been built around a microchip dSPIC33 digital signal

processor. The controller board as Fig. 6.21(b) has been built with the processor, sensors,

analog signal conditioning and several fault protection circuitry.

6.5.1 Experiment with Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine

The power transfer from voltage source to load was successfully done using the machine phase

inductances. The PM machine available with neutral connection and chosen for experimental

verification is a 500W, 9/6 (slots/poles) PMSM as Fig. 6.22. The phase resistance and phase

inductance of the machine is 10.25 mΩ and 35 µH respectively. This is the same PMSM used

in the FE analysis. The machine was disassembled to gain access to the neutral point for

conducting experiments in this project.

The phase windings were used in the interleaved boost converter configuration of Fig. 6.3 for

transferring power from battery to the load using the machine inductance. Experiments were

conducted up to the rated 500W of the PMSM and the results are presented in Table 6.5.

Voltages and currents captured by the oscilloscope for about 100W power transfer with voltage

boosted from 12V to 18V are shown in Fig. 6.23.

 137

Fig. 6.22. Experimental set up with PMSM.

Output
voltage
Input
voltage
Output
Current
Input
Current

Fig. 6.23. Experimental Result with PMSM: Input voltage, Output voltage, Input and Output

currents.

Table 6.5 Results with PMSM

Input Input Output Output Output Efficiency
Voltage(V) current(A) Voltage(V) current(A) Power(W)
11.8 10.9 17.5 6 105 81.64%

11.5 36.5 18.7 19.3 360.91 85.98%

10.8 53.5 21.9 22.2 486.18 84.14%

10.4 61.1 22.8 23 524.40 82.53%

 138

The current ripple seen in Fig. 6.23 is higher than expected since the 9/6 PMSM used for

experimental verification of the developed converter with reconfiguration is a lower power

machine with low inductances. The result showed the high current ripple as shown in Fig. 6.13,

since the same machine is used in the simulation. This machine is used only for verifying the

concept. A typical traction machine power level is much higher and the inductance is also

higher than that used in simulation and experiments. Therefore, the current ripple with a

practical traction machine will be much less than the presented simulation and experimental

results as shown in Fig. 6.13 and Fig. 6.23. The result with the higher power rated induction

machine showed that the current ripples are indeed much smaller. The efficiency results with

the PMSM are also inherently low since this is a low power, low voltage machine designed for

torque ripple sensitive applications where efficiency is not the critical design parameter. As

shown later, the efficiency results with the higher power rated induction machine that was

designed for efficiency sensitive applications has a comparatively higher efficiency; also, the

efficiency trends with load is also more meaningful with this machine.

As long as the voltage and current rating of the machine is maintained during power transfer,

the machine inductance behaves similar to a standalone inductor. Resistive loads are used as

the output for simulating the DC grid, but the DC bus voltage is regulated to keep it close to

the level of battery voltage. The DC bus voltage, which refers to the output voltage, can be

changed with given reference voltages and with different loads. In this experiment with the

12V PMSM, the voltage level was kept close to the battery voltage. The voltage level can be

set to the desired output voltage level. By setting the reference value of the output voltage the
 139

battery can be charged safely. Depending on the battery pack state of charge and the battery

chemistry, the reference value of the battery charging voltage can be set to dictate the charging

rate. As the battery state of charge increases, the current that is drawn from the charger reduces.

The resistive load does not exactly represent the characteristics of a DC grid since there could

be nonlinear effects from the batteries or other loads. The effects of these nonlinearities could

be dealt with better control techniques during DC grid operation, but the proof of concept is

still valid with resistive load testing. With an AC grid, the inverter can supply to a reactive

load [65].

6.5.2 Experiment with Induction Machine

A 10HP three-phase induction machine has been used to integrate the converter to transfer

power from the DC supply to resistive load. The windings of the induction machine are

configured for the low voltage range of 208V-230V. The current rating of the machine is 25

A, rated speed is 1755 rpm and phase inductance is 4.98 mH. The motor windings are

reconfigured by changing the pole position of the switches.

The interleaving technique with the three-phase windings of the induction machine is first

tested. The three winding inductances have been interleaved in the battery side of the

converter. The controller is set to boost the voltage from the battery side to DC grid side for

V2G operation with the configuration of Fig. 6.3. A 400V and 25A rating DC supply is used

as an input. A resistive load is used on the DC output side. The experiments have been done

up to 4kW level.
 140

Table 6.6 Parameter specifications for Experiment

Input battery voltage 200V-400V

Input current 30A

DC bus voltage 200V-650V

Output current 30A

Power 15kW

Output capacitor 3300µF

Load resistance 20Ω

Switching frequency 20 kHz

The converter designed can work up to 70% duty cycle within the input-output voltage range

for the specifications given in Table 6.6 for boost operation. In case of buck operation, it can

work up to 50% duty cycle. The conventional bi-directional converter used in traction

powertrain configurations can handle only one way boost and one way buck, but this converter

can handle buck and boost operation in either way with overlapping input and output voltage

ranges. The control loop regulates the output voltage.

Fig. 6.24(a) shows the experimental result for low power level with input current shown for

one phase of the induction machine winding. The input and output voltages shown in Fig.

6.24(b) for a power transfer level of 4kW; the input and output voltages are 198V and 259V,

respectively. The current ripples in the figure include high frequency measurement noise in

addition to the switching ripple. The switching ripple is only up to 2A since the machine
 141

inductance is high. The current ripple magnitude depends on the inductance value of the

traction motor.

Output
voltage
Output
Input
voltage
voltage
Input
voltage

Output
Input current
Current

(a) (b)

Fig. 6.24. Experimental Result with Induction Machine: (a) Input voltage and current and

output voltage in low power level, and (b) Input voltage and output voltage and current in

high power level.

The experimental result provided in Fig. 6.24(b) matches with the simulation result. In the

simulation, the output voltage goes to 260V and output power is 4kW and in the experiment,

the same output voltage and power have been found for the same topology of Fig. 6.3. The

input current sharing is similar in the experiment as that in the simulation. For a traction

machine, the phases are balanced and the current sharing is achieved through implementing

the current regulation. The compensation for differences in the phase inductances is managed

by the controller since the phase currents are regulated individually. Phase current equalization

system could be considered if the variation in the inductance is significant and the individual

current regulation mechanism is not available in the controller [65] .

 142

The input/output power analysis with efficiency calculations for the V2G operation is given in

Table 6.7. The efficiency is low for low voltage and power levels but improves with higher

input/output voltages and power levels as expected. Table 6.7 shows the experimental results

with different reference output voltages and different power levels. The load values were

changed in the experiment to adjust with the power level and different reference output

voltages.

Table 6.7 Results with Induction Machine

Input Input Input Output Output Output Efficiency

voltage current Power Voltage Current Power (%)
(Vin) (A) (W) (Vo) (A) (W)
148 14.2 2101.6 193 9.53 1839.29 87.52%

196 10.6 2077.6 260 7.12 1851.2 89.10%

195 16.5 3217.5 236 12.2 2879.2 89.49%

198 22.9 4534.2 259 15.8 4092.2 90.25%

In the experiment with the induction machine, the output voltage refers to the DC link or bus

voltage. The DC link voltage can be fixed or variable; it depends on the application. Most of

the time DC link voltage is connected to the DC grid and the DC grid voltage is either

collectively or individually controlled by the units that are connected to the grid. For

Master/Slave configuration, typically the strongest unit connected to the grid works in voltage

controlled mode and other slave units work in power controlled mode. The DC link voltage is
 143

assumed variable for the experimental results given in Table 6.7, but the values are within the

limits of the specified DC grid operation. In the experiment, the system was controlled in

output voltage control mode, where the different reference voltages were set by the controller.

The input/output voltage ratio was varied to collect the experimental data at different input

voltage levels.

The power transfer between the battery and the AC grid for Mode 4 and Mode 5 of the

integrated motor/converter re-configurability concept has also been verified experimentally

using inductors of the same values as that of the induction machine. Fig. 6.25 shows the

experimental result for Mode 4 where the battery voltage is 200V, AC grid voltage is 120V

(RMS), and the dq current commands are id=30A, and iq=0A, respectively.

Fig. 6.25: Experimental result of Vgrid and Igrid for Mode 4 (Power flow from battery to
single Phase AC grid).
 144

6.6 Conclusions

An integrated machine-converter topology and reconfiguration method has been developed in

this research where traction machine windings can be used as the inductors of the converter to

transfer power between a vehicle battery and either a DC or an AC grid. The converter

reconfiguration concept is useful to minimize the size and parts in the powertrain of an electric

vehicle. The machine-converter coupled simulation results showed that the integrated

converter can be used for the power transfer with versatility without significantly extra power

elements. The converter performance has been analyzed with the coupled simulation of FEA

software and a dynamic simulation tool. The experimental results verified that the developed

integrated converter can work in both directions for V2G and G2V; additionally, it has the

advantages of utilizing the interleaving technique in both V2G and G2V modes of operations.
 145

Chapter 7

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

7.1 Conclusions

The primary contribution of this research is to develop a bi-directional cascaded DC-DC

converter with improved performance and significant versatility. The utilization of the

developed converter and its usefulness in PEV applications have been demonstrated. The

cascaded buck-boost DC-DC converter has an intermediate stage to store energy at a higher

voltage level which allows the overlap between battery voltage and DC bus voltage in the

entire operating range. The new DC-DC converter topology has been termed cascaded buck-

boost with capacitor-in-the middle (CBB-CIM) converter. This converter can perform boost

and buck operation in both directions which is useful in certain vehicle systems such as fuel

cell electric vehicles. The developed converter has been compared with the other converter

having similar properties and termed as cascaded buck-boost with inductor-in-the-middle

(CBB-IIM).

Hybridization of different energy sources and utilization of the different auxiliary units are

very useful in PEV applications. The developed cascaded converter CBB-CIM has the inherent

capability to add multiple inputs and outputs with independent input and output side controls.

The switching loss dominates over the conduction loss in the CBB-CIM converter system. To

reduce the switching losses, soft switching technique has been developed by adding auxiliary
 146

circuit in the multi-input side to reduce the switching loss. Simulation and experimental results

have been completed that shows conformity with the theoretical results.

Minimizing the size of the converter in PEV applications is highly desirable since it ultimately

translates to fuel economy improvements. This thesis presents the reconfigurable converter

system which can reduce the size of the converter system by utilizing the electric machine

windings. This converter has utilized the three machine winding to implement the interleaving

technique to reduce the stress of the device. The simulation and experimental results verified

the V2G and G2V operation of the developed reconfigurable converter.

The contributions of the research presented in this thesis are: A bi-directional DC-DC

converter topology that allows overlap of input/output voltage ranges is developed for electric

vehicles with V2G capability. The topology has an intermediate DC-link capacitor that enables

the input-output voltage overlap. The use of half-bridge switches in the two stages minimizes

the switching stresses that lead to higher efficiencies in the converter. The intermediate DC

bus voltage set point control allows improving the transient operation of the power converter.

Component sizing, parameter selection and control with stability analysis of the converter have

been presented. Experimental results conform to the transient behavior obtained in simulation.

The developed topology provides modularity, control flexibility and excellent transient

performance while allowing individual modules to be interleaved for PEV applications.

The performance analysis and comparison of the developed bi-directional DC-DC converter

with the conventional converter for PEV applications are presented. Both the converters have

their own advantages and disadvantages. The appropriate converter can be chosen based on
 147

the specific application. For PEV charging station with multi-input and multi-output scenario,

CBB-CIM can have better performance since input side and output side controls are

independent. System control flexibility and reliability is better with CBB-CIM. CBB-IIM on

the other hand requires fewer components.

The CBB-CIM DC-DC converter system consisting of multi-input, multi-output capability is

very useful in PEV applications. Different energy sources with different characteristics can be

connected and different auxiliary units with different voltage levels can be added in the PEV

powertrain with the multi-input, multi-output DC-DC converter system. The multi-input case

has been analyzed, and simulation and experimental results of multi-input CBB-CIM DC-DC

converter with soft switching technique has been presented. The soft-switching helped reduce

the switching loss providing improvement in system efficiency.

An integrated machine-converter topology and reconfiguration method has been developed in

this research where traction machine windings can be used as the inductors of the converter to

transfer power between a vehicle battery and either a DC or an AC grid. The converter

reconfiguration concept is useful to minimize the size and parts in the powertrain of an electric

vehicle. The machine-converter coupled simulation results showed that the integrated

converter can be used for the power transfer with versatility without significantly extra power

elements. The converter performance has been analyzed with the coupled simulation of FEA

software and a dynamic simulation tool. The experimental results verified that the developed

integrated converter can work in both directions for V2G and G2V; additionally, it has the

advantages of utilizing the interleaving technique in both V2G and G2V modes of operations.
 148

7.2 Future Works

The converter system consisting of multi-input and multi-output can be analyzed in details to

get reliable and robust converter system for PEV applications. In this thesis, turn-on loss of the

switches is considered; therefore, turn-off loss can be investigated and reduced to further

improve the overall system efficiency.

In this thesis, soft switching technique has been implemented in multi-input side of the

converter. The implementation of the soft switching technique in the multi-output side will

further increase the efficiency of the converter system by reducing the switching loss of the

switches.

In this thesis, two sources have been considered. Adding more sources will increase the

complexity of the system and it can be investigated how the system will work. In addition, the

soft switching technique can be used for these multiple inputs case.

Zero current switching is another soft switching technique. It can be considered for the multi-

input and multi-output system. The comparison can be analyzed over these two soft switching

techniques to improve the system efficiency.

 149

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 163

APPENDICES
 164

Appendix A: Parameter Specifications

Input side Inductor L1 450 𝜇H

Output side Inductor L2 450 𝜇H
Intermediate stage Capacitor C1 3300 𝜇F
Output side Capacitor C2 3300 𝜇F
Load RL 10 Ω
Switching Frequency fs 20 kHz
 165

Appendix B: State space modeling for CBB-CIM

State space modeling for CBB-CIM:

S1 S3
rCM
iL1 iL2
+
rL1 L1 CM vCM rL2 L2 +
_ rc2
Vin RL vo
S2 +
S4 vC2 C2
_ -

Fig. A1: CBB-CIM converter with parasitic resistances.

When 𝑆2 and 𝑆3 are on, the state equations are as follows:

𝑑𝑖𝐿1 𝑟𝐿 𝑉𝑖𝑛
= − 1 𝑖 𝐿1 +
𝑑𝑡 𝐿1 𝐿1

𝑑𝑖𝐿2 1 𝑟𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 1 𝑅𝐿
= − 𝐿 (𝑟𝐶𝑀 + 𝑟𝐿2 + 𝑟 ) 𝑖 𝐿2 + 𝑣𝐶𝑀 − 𝐿 𝑣𝑐2
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 𝐿2 2 (𝑟𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 )

𝑑𝑣𝐶𝑀 1
= − 𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑀 𝐿2

𝑑𝑣𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 1
= 𝑖 𝐿2 − 𝑣𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 2

When 𝑆2 is off and 𝑆3 is on, the state equations are:

𝑑𝑖𝐿1 1 𝑟𝐶𝑀 1 𝑉𝑖𝑛

𝑑𝑡
= − 𝐿 (𝑟𝐶𝑀 + 𝑟𝐿1 )𝑖𝐿1 + 𝐿1
𝑖𝐿2 − 𝐿 𝑣𝐶𝑀 + 𝐿1
1 1
 166

𝑑𝑖𝐿2 𝑟𝐶𝑀 1 𝑟𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 1 𝑅𝐿

= 𝑖𝐿1 − 𝐿 (𝑟𝐶𝑀 + 𝑟𝐿2 + 𝑟 ) 𝑖 𝐿2 + 𝑣𝐶𝑀 − 𝐿 𝑣𝑐2
𝑑𝑡 𝐿2 2 𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 𝐿2 2 (𝑟𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 )

𝑑𝑣𝐶𝑀 1 1
= 𝑖 𝐿1 − 𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑀 𝐶𝑀 𝐿2

𝑑𝑣𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 1
= 𝑖 𝐿2 − 𝑣𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 2

Combining the above equations and then rearranging, the equations for the on condition of 𝑆3

with 𝐷2 as the duty cycle of gate 𝑆2 and 𝐷2′ = 1 − 𝐷2 can be obtained as follows:

𝑑𝑖𝐿1 1 𝐷2′ 𝑟𝐶𝑀 𝐷′ 𝑉𝑖𝑛

= − 𝐿 (𝐷2′ 𝑟𝐶𝑀 + 𝑟𝐿1 ) 𝑖𝐿1 + 𝑖𝐿2 − 𝐿 2 𝑣𝐶𝑀 +
𝑑𝑡 1 𝐿1 1 𝐿1

𝑑𝑖𝐿2 𝐷2′ 𝑟𝐶𝑀 1 𝑟𝑐 𝑅𝐿 1 𝑅𝐿

= 𝑖𝐿1 − (𝑟𝐶𝑀 + 𝑟𝐿2 + 2 ) 𝑖 𝐿2 + 𝑣𝐶𝑀 − 𝑣𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 𝐿2 𝐿2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 2

𝑑𝑣𝐶𝑀 𝐷2′ 1
= 𝑖 𝐿1 − 𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑀 𝐶𝑀 𝐿2

𝑑𝑣𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 1
= 𝑖 𝐿2 − 𝑣𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 2

Using the same approach, the equations for the off condition of 𝑆3 can be obtained as follows:

𝑑𝑖𝐿1 1 𝐷′ 𝑉𝑖𝑛
= − 𝐿 (𝐷2′ 𝑟𝐶𝑀 + 𝑟𝐿1 ) 𝑖𝐿1 − 𝐿 2 𝑣𝐶𝑀 +
𝑑𝑡 1 1 𝐿1

𝑑𝑖𝐿2 1 𝑟𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
= − 𝐿 (𝑟𝐿2 + 𝑟 ) 𝑖 𝐿2 − 𝐿 𝑣𝑐2
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 2 (𝑟𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 )

𝑑𝑣𝐶𝑀 𝐷2′
= 𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑀 𝐿1

𝑑𝑣𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 1
= 𝑖 𝐿2 − 𝑣𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 2
 167

Combining the equations for the on and off conditions of 𝑆3 , the state space model equations

for CBB-CIM with 𝐷3 as the duty cycle of 𝑆3 and 𝐷3′ = 1 − 𝐷3 can be obtained as follows:

𝑑𝑖𝐿1 1 𝐷3 𝐷2′ 𝑟𝐶𝑀 𝐷′ 𝑉𝑖𝑛

= − 𝐿 (𝐷2′ 𝑟𝐶𝑀 + 𝑟𝐿1 )𝑖𝐿1 + 𝑖𝐿2 − 𝐿 2 𝑣𝐶𝑀 +
𝑑𝑡 1 𝐿1 1 𝐿1

𝑑𝑖𝐿2 𝐷3 𝐷2′ 𝑟𝐶𝑀 1 𝑟𝑐 𝑅𝐿 𝐷3 𝑅𝐿

= 𝑖𝐿1 − (𝐷3 𝑟𝐶𝑀 + 𝑟𝐿2 + 2 ) 𝑖 𝐿2 + 𝑣𝐶𝑀 − 𝑣𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 𝐿2 𝐿2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 2

𝑑𝑣𝐶𝑀 𝐷2′ 𝐷3
= 𝑖 𝐿1 − 𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑀 𝐶𝑀 𝐿2

𝑑𝑣𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 1
= 𝑖 𝐿2 − 𝑣𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 2

𝑑𝑖𝐿1
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝐿1
𝑑𝑡
The state of the system, 𝑥̇ = 𝑑𝑣𝐶𝑀
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝐶2
( 𝑑𝑡 )

Therefore, the system matrix is

𝐷2′ 𝑟𝑐𝑀 𝑟𝐿1 𝐷3 𝐷2′ 𝑟𝑐𝑀 𝐷2′

−( + ) − 0
𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿1
𝐷3 𝐷2′ 𝑟𝑐𝑀 𝐷3 𝑟𝑐𝑀 𝑟𝐿2 𝑟𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 𝐷3 𝑅𝐿
−( + + ) −
𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝑟𝑐2 𝐿2 + 𝑅𝐿 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝑟𝑐2 𝐿2 + 𝑅𝐿 𝐿2
𝐴= ′
𝐷2 𝐷3
− 0 0
𝐶𝑀 𝐶𝑀 1
𝑅𝐿 0 −
0 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 )
( 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) )
1
𝐿1
𝑟𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
𝐵= 0 𝐶 = (0 0 , 𝐷=0
𝑟𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 𝑟𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 )
0
(0)
 168

Appendix C: State space modeling for CBB-IIM

State space modeling for CBB-IIM:

S1 S3
rc2 +
iL
+ RL vo
Vin rL L vC2 C2
_
-
S2 S4

Fig. A2: CBB-IIM converter with all parasitic resistances.

When 𝑆1 and 𝑆4 are on, the state equations are:

𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑟𝐿 𝑉𝑖𝑛
=− 𝑖𝐿 +
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿

𝑑𝑣𝑐2 1
= − 𝑣𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 2

When 𝑆1 is on and 𝑆4 is off, the state equations are:

𝑑𝑖𝐿 1 𝑟𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝑖𝑛

= − (𝑟𝐿 + ) 𝑖𝐿 + 𝑣𝑐2 +
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 𝐿(𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 𝐿

𝑑𝑣𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 1
= 𝑖𝐿 − 𝑣𝑐2
𝑑𝑡 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 ) 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 )

Combining the above equations and then rearranging, the equations for the on condition of 𝑆1

with 𝐷4 as the duty cycle of 𝑆4 and 𝐷4′ = 1 − 𝐷4 are

 169

𝑑𝑖𝐿 1 𝐷4′ 𝑟𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 𝐷4′ 𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝑖𝑛

= − (𝑟𝐿 + ) 𝑖𝐿 + 𝑣𝑐2 +
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 𝐿(𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 𝐿

𝑑𝑣𝑐2 𝐷4′ 𝑅𝐿 1
= 𝑖 − 𝑣𝑐2
𝑑𝑡 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 ) 𝐿 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 )

Using the same approach, the equations for the off condition of 𝑆1 can be obtained as follows:

𝑑𝑖𝐿 1 𝐷4′ 𝑟𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 𝐷4′ 𝑅𝐿

= − (𝑟𝐿 + ) 𝑖𝐿 + 𝑣𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 𝐿(𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 2

𝑑𝑣𝑐2 𝐷4′ 𝑅𝐿 1
= 𝑖 − 𝑣𝑐2
𝑑𝑡 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 ) 𝐿 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 )

Combining the equations for the on and off conditions of 𝑆1, the state space model equations

for CBB-IIM with 𝐷1 as the duty cycle of 𝑆1 and 𝐷1′ = 1 − 𝐷1 can be obtained as follows:

𝑑𝑖𝐿 1 𝐷4′ 𝑟𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 𝐷4′ 𝑅𝐿 𝐷1 𝑉𝑖𝑛

= − (𝑟𝐿 + ) 𝑖𝐿 + 𝑣𝑐2 +
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 𝐿(𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 𝐿

𝑑𝑣𝑐2 𝐷4′ 𝑅𝐿 1
= 𝑖𝐿 − 𝑣𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 𝐶2 (𝑟𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 2

The state of the system,

𝑑𝑖𝐿
𝑥̇ = ( 𝑑𝑡 )
𝑑𝑣𝐶2
𝑑𝑡

Therefore, the system matrix is

𝑟𝐿 𝐷4′ 𝑅𝐿 𝑟𝑐2 𝐷4′ 𝑅𝐿
−( − ) 𝐷1
𝐿 𝐿𝑅𝐿 +𝐿𝑟𝑐2 𝐿𝑅𝐿 +𝐿𝑟𝑐2
𝐴= ( ′ ) 𝐵 = ( 𝐿 ),
𝐷4 𝑅𝐿 1
− 0
𝐶2 𝑅𝐿 +𝐶2 𝑟𝑐2 𝐶2 𝑅𝐿 +𝐶2 𝑟𝑐2
𝐷4′ 𝑟𝑐2 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
𝐶 = (𝑟 𝑟𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿 ) , 𝐷 = 0.
𝑐2 +𝑅𝐿