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Dirac Equation for General Spin Particles Including Bosons

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 Foundations of Physics manuscript No.
(will be inserted by the editor)
Dirac Equation for General Spin Particles Including Bosons
G. G. Nyambuya
Received: date / Accepted: date
Abstract We demonstrate (show) that the Dirac equation – which is
universally assumed to represent only spin 1/2 particles; can be ma-
nipulated using legal mathematical operations – starting from the Dirac
equation – so that it describes any general spin particle. If our approach
is acceptable and is what Nature employs, then, as currently obtaining,
one will not need a unique and separate equation to describe particles
of different spins, but only one equation is what is needed – the Gen-
eral Spin Dirac Equation. This approach is more economic and very
much in the spirit of unification – i.e., the tie-ing together into a single
unified garment – a number of phenomenon (or facets of physical and
natural reality) using a single principle, which, in the present case is
the bunching together into one theory (equation), all spin particles into
the General Spin Dirac Equation.
Keywords: Boson – Dirac equation – Fermion – general spin.
1 Introduction
In the wider (research) literature and in most – if not all –
textbooks on the planet that deal with the Dirac (1928a,b)
equation, this equation (Dirac equation) is said to describe
only spin 1/2 particles and nothing else. Dirac (1936) was
the first to make an attempt at extending his equation so that
it can explain particles with spin other than spin 1/2. Dirac
(1936)’s efforts where followed up by Fierz (1939) and lat-
ter by Fierz and Pauli (1939). Also – theoretical physicists,
William Rarità (1907−1999) and Julian Seymour Schwinger
(1918 − 1994) constructed the Rarità-Schwinger equation
which is a relativistic field equation which is assumed to ex-
plain spin 3/2 Fermions (Rarità and Schwinger 1941). There
G. G. Nyambuya
National University of Science & Technology,
Faculty of Applied Sciences – Department of Applied Physics,
Fundamental Theoretical Astrophysics Group,
P. O. Box AC 939, Ascot, Bulawayo,
Republic of Zimbabwe.
Tel.: +263-77-7960-452
E-mail: physicist.ggn@gmail.com
exists other attempts at a general spin equation (e.g. Dowker
1967; Baisya 1995). What all these aforecited attempts in-
cluding those that we have not mentioned is that – the re-
sulting equation is fundamentally different from the origi-
nal Dirac (1928a,b). With better clarity and insight in the
present than before (Nyambuya 2009, 2013), we write down
a general spin Dirac equation. The equation that we write
down is not fundamentally different from Dirac (1928a,b)’s
original equation.
Written down in its usual covariant form, the original
Dirac (1928a,b) equation is given by:
ıh̄γ µ ∂µ ψ = m0 cψ , (1)
where m0 is the rest-mass of the particle, c is the speed of
light in vacuum, ∂µ are the four partial derivatives of space
and time, ψ is the Dirac four component wavefunction (i.e.
4 × 1 “vector” field) and:
   
I 0 0 σi
γ0 = i
, γ = , (2)
0 −I −σ i 0
are the 4 × 4 Dirac gamma matrices with I and 0 being the
2 × 2 identity and null matrices respectively. Throughout
this reading, the Greek indices will be understood to mean
(µ , ν , ... = 0, 1, 2, 3) and lower case English alphabet indices
(i, j, k... = 1, 2, 3).
In the next section, we shall “see” that one can easily
write down a general spin equation from the original Dirac
equation and this equation represents a particle of spin s/2
where (s = ±1, ±2, ±3 . . . etc). This single equation ap-
plies to both Bosons and Fermions. In-order to make this
future task (of writing down the general spin Dirac equation)
much easier – especially, the understanding of how to deter-
mined what spin a particular equation explains, it is perhaps
wise and instructive for us to ask-and-answer the question:
2 G. G. Nyambuya
Why is the Dirac equation said to represent (describe) a par-
ticle of spin 1/2?
To do this, we shall – in the subsequent section; follow
Dr. William O. Straub’s presentation1. This approach is the
standard approach that is used to demonstrate the fact that
the Dirac equation – indeed – is, an equation that represents
(describes) spin 1/2 particles. In §(3), we will motivate the
need for Dirac particle that – separately – has a conserved
spin and conserved orbital angular momentum. Lastly, in
§(5), we will give a general discussion.
2 Spin of the Dirac Particle
The Dirac equation (1) can be re-written in the Schrödinger
formulation as (H ψ = E ψ ) where H and E are the energy
and Hamiltonian operators respectively. In this Schrödinger
formulation, H , will be such that it is given by:
H = γ 0 m0 c2 − ıh̄cγ 0 γ j ∂ j ,
and (E = ih̄∂ /∂ t).
Now, according to the quantum mechanical equation gov-
erning the evolution of any quantum operator Q, we have:
∂Q
ıh̄ = QH − H Q = [Q, H ] .
∂t
If:
[Q, H ] ≡ 0,
then, the quantum mechanical observable corresponding to
the operator Q is a conserved physical quantity.
With this [equation (4)] in mind, Dirac asked himself
the natural question – what the “strange” new γ -matrices
appearing in his equation really represent. What are they?
In-order to answer this question, he decided to have a “look”
at the quantum mechanical orbital angular momentum oper-
ator:
Li = (r × p)i = −ıh̄εi jk x j ∂k ,
where, εi jk is the completely-antisymmetric three dimen-
sional Levi-Civita tensor. In the above definition of Li the
momentum operator p is the usual quantum mechanical op-
erator, i.e.:
p = −ıh̄∇ ⇒ pi = ıh̄∂i .
1 Straub, W. O.; Paper Title : “Weyl’s Spinor and Dirac’s Equa-
tion”, http://www.weylmann.com/ . Visited on this day: Nov. 2,
2015@12h38GMT + 2
From this definition of Li given in (6), it follows from (4)
that ıh̄∂ Li /∂ t = [Li , H ], will be such that:
h i
∂ Li  
ıh̄ = −ıh̄m0 c2 εi jk x j ∂k , γ 0 + h̄2 cεi jk x j ∂k , γ 0 γ l ∂l .
∂t
(8)
Because – the term γ 0 m0 c2 is a constant  containing no term
0

in pi , it follows from this fact that (εi jk x j ∂k , γ ≡ 0), hence
(8) will reduce to:
∂ Li
ıh̄ = h̄2 cεi jk γ 0 γ l [x j ∂k , ∂l ] = h̄2 cεi jk γ 0 γ l (x j ∂k ∂l − ∂l x j ∂k ) .
∂t
(9)
From the commutation relation of position (xi ) and momen-
tum (−ıh̄∂ j ) due to the Heisenberg (1927) uncertainty prin-
ciple, namely (−ıh̄ [xi , ∂ j ] = −ıh̄δi j ) where δi j is the usual
Kronecker-delta function, it follows that (9) if we substitute
(3)
(∂l x j = x j ∂l + δl j ) into (9), this equation is going to reduce
to:
∂ Li
ıh̄ = h̄2 cεi jk γ 0 γ l (x j ∂k ∂l − x j ∂l ∂k ) +h̄2 cεi jk γ 0 γ l δl j ∂k .
∂t | {z }
(10)
(4)
The term with the under-brace2 vanishes identically, that is
to say: (x j ∂k ∂l − x j ∂l ∂k ≡ 0); and (εi jk γ 0 γ l δl j = εilk γ 0 γ l ), it
follows that (10) will reduce to:
(5)
∂ Li
ıh̄ = h̄2 cεilk γ 0 γ l ∂k . (11)
∂t
Since this result (11) is non-zero, it follows from the dynam-
ical evolution theorem (5) of Quantum Mechanics (QM) that
none of the angular momentum components Li are – for the
Dirac particle – going to be constants of motion. This re-
sult greatly bothered the great and agile mind of Paul Dirac.
For example, a non-conserved angular momentum would
mean spiral orbits – at the very least, this is very disturbing
because it does not tally with observations. The miniature
(6)
beauty that Dirac had had the rare privilege to discover and,
the first human being to “see” with his beautiful and great
mind – this – had to be salvaged3 somehow.
2 When we get to §(4), the momentum p and position xi will
i
be required to submit to a new type of Lie-Algebra. This new Lie-
Algebra will be such that the term in the under-brace will be such that
(x j ∂k ∂l − x j ∂l ∂k = −∂k ), so that ıh̄∂ Li /∂ t = 0.
3 Such is the indispensable attitude of the greatest theoretical physi-
(7)
cists that ever graced the face of planet Earth – beauty must and is to be
preserved; this is an ideal for which they will live for, and if needs be,
it is an ideal for which they will give-up their life by taking a gamble
to find that unknown quantity that restores the beauty glimpsed!
Dirac Equation for General Spin Particles Including Bosons
Now - enter spin! Dirac figured that Subtle Nature must
conserve something redolent with orbital angular momen-
tum, and he considered adding something to Li that would
satisfy the desired conservation criterion, i.e.: call this un-
known, mysterious and arcane quantity Si and demand that:
∂ (Li + Si )
ıh̄ ≡ 0. (12)
∂t
Solving (12) for Si , Dirac arrived at:
1 σi 0
 
1 define Li (s) and H (s), such that:
Si = h̄ = h̄γ 5 γ i . (13)
2 0 σi 2
Realising that: (1) the matrices σi are Pauli matrices and
they had been ad hocly introduced into physics to account
for the spin of the Electron (Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit 1925);
(2) and that, his equation when taken in the non-relativistic
limit, it would account for the then unexplained gyromag-
netic ratio (g = 2) of the Electron and this same equation
emerged with σi explaining the Electron’s spin, Dirac seized
the golden moment and forthwith identified Si with the ψ -
particle’s spin. The factor 21 h̄ in Si implies that the Dirac
particle carries spin 1/2, hence, the Dirac equation (1) is an
equation for a particle with spin 1/2!
While Dirac was able to explain and “demystify” spin in
this way (i.e., as demonstrated above), we are of the strong
view that the non-independent conservation of spin and or-
bital angular momentum is problematic insofar as the stabil-
ity of the Dirac particle is concerned. We shall elucidate on
this matter and proffer a solution in §(4). In the subsequent
section, we shall demonstrate how one can modify the Dirac
equation so that it represents a general spin particle other
than spin-zero particles.
3 Modification to General Spin Equation
What we would like to do now is to demonstrate that – start-
ing from an acceptable premise and from there-on applying
logic, the Dirac equation can be modified so that it repre-
sents a general spin particle. To do this, we need first to
ask ourself how the spin of any general particle can be rep-
resented. We are certain that the reader will – without any
qualms – agree that if as given in (13), Si duly represents a
spin 1/2 particle, then, the spin Si (s) of any general particle
may as-well be represented by Si (s), such that:
1

σi 0
 these operators will be real-valued physical quantities. This
Si (s) = si h̄ for (i = 1, 2, 3), (14)
2 0 σi
where (si = ±1, ±2, ±3, . . . etc). If (si = s; ∀i = 1, 2, 3), then,
when s is even, we have a Boson and when is s odd, we have
a Fermion.
3
If one agrees to the above said that Si (s) is the spin of
any general particle, then, they will invariably agree that if
Li (s) is the corresponding orbital angular momentum op-
erator such that the total orbital angular momentum opera-
tor [J (s) = Li (s)+ Si (s)] commutes with the Hamiltonian
H (s), then, the equation:
∂ψ
ıh̄ = H (s)ψ , (15)
∂t
should be the Dirac equation of a general spin particle. If we
Li (s) = −ıh̄εi jk x j γk sk ∂k , (16)
and:
H (s) = γ 0 m0 c2 − ıh̄cγ 0 γ j s j ∂ j , (17)
then, one can – as has been done in the previous section –
demonstrate that:
[Ji (s), H (s)] = 0. (18)
This fact (18) has “manually” (but in a less unclear manner)
been demonstrated in the reading Nyambuya (2009).
Written explicitly, it follows from the foregoing that the
Dirac equation for a general spin particle is such that:
∂ψ ∂ψ
ıh̄γ 0 + ıh̄s j γ j j = m0 cψ . (19)
∂ ct ∂x
Accordingly, this equation must apply to both Bosons and
Fermions whose spin is non-zero. Using the usual quantum
mechanical spin ladder operators, one can show that if, si ,
where to change from one value to the next, it will do so
by increasing or decreasing by one integral unit. Since the
Dirac state is one such that (si = +1), it follows from this
that (si = ±1, ±2, ±3, . . . etc).
4 Conserved Spin and Orbital Angular Momentum
Quantum Mechanics (QM), as taught to university sopho-
mores – demands that all operators associated with physical
observables must be Hermitian. The reason for this – is so
that the resulting eigenvalues (observables) associated with
is taught as one of the six sacrosanct and fundamental pos-
tulates of QM. Despite this, the usual energy (E = ıh̄∂ /∂ t)
and momentum (pi = −ıh̄∂ /∂ xi ) operators used in QM are
not Hermitian i.e. (E † = −E) and (p†i = −pi ): the opera-
tion † is the usual combination of the complex conjugate
4 G. G. Nyambuya
followed by the transpose operation. One can easily write
these energy and momentum operators as 4 × 4 matrices as
(E = ıh̄I4 ∂ /∂ t) and (pi = −ıh̄I4 ∂ /∂ xi ) where I4 is the 4 × 4
identity matrix.
Given the reason for the Hermiticity of QM operators
and the aforesaid non-Hermitian nature of the energy and
momentum operators of QM, one will be right and spot-on
to wonder if the energy and momentum eigenvalues of quan-
tum mechanical operators are real. The answer is yes, they
are real physical quantities. How can this be so if QM re-
quires that only the eigenvalues associated with those oper-
ators that are Hermitian are those that will be real. How does
this come about that non-Hermitian operators [(E = ıh̄∂ /∂ t)
and (pi = −ıh̄∂ /∂ xi )] have real eigenvalues?
The reason why these operators [(pi = −ıh̄∂ /∂ xi ) and
(E = ıh̄∂ /∂ t)] result in real eigenvalues is that – quantum
mechanical wavefunctions are typically of the generic form,
Ψ (r,t) = NeiS(r,t) , where N is a (normalization) constant and
S(r,t) is a real-valued function. If N where not a constant
[i.e., N = N(r,t) : real or complex], then, the correspond-
ing eigenvalues of these operators would be complex. In
the present case – with regard to the non-Hermiticity of the
energy and momentum operators; we shall concern ourself
with the momentum operator.
In-line with the inviolable demand that quantum me-
chanical operators must be Hermitian, we can define the mo-
mentum operator so that it is no-longer given as it is given
in (7), but is now given by:
∂ Dirac particle system as currently understood, requires the
pi (s) = −ısi h̄γi . (20)
∂ xi
This operator (20), is Hermitian and as said above, this is
what quantum mechanics requires of every operator asso-
ciated with a physical observable. As already said – phys-
ically, the Hermitian property is necessary in order for the
measured values (eigenvalues/ physical observables) to be
constrained such that they are real and not complex quan-
tities. As far as physical and natural reality dictates to us
insofar as what Nature is, this seems to be the state of af-
fairs – that all physical observables are real and not complex
quantities. Therefore, it is most logical to demand that all
quantum mechanical operators be Hermitian and this must
include the energy and momentum operator.
Defined the way it is defined in (20), the momentum op-
erator pi (s) is a 4 × 4 matrix. Defined [pi (s)] in this way, it
follows that the orbital angular momentum (6) is now such
that:
Li (s) = −ıh̄εi jk x j sk γk ∂k . (21)
Under the new definition (20) of momentum [and hence of
orbital angular momentum: in (21)], one can show that apart
from satisfying the Dirac equation, if the Dirac wavefunc-
tion satisfied the following equation:
∂ 2ψ 1 ∂ψ
ıs j γk xk =− (22)
∂ x j ∂ xi 2 ∂ xi
then:
∂ Li (s)
ıh̄ = 0. (23)
∂t
That is, the orbital angular momentum is a conserved quan-
tity as per desideratum. If this is the case that the orbital
angular momentum is a conserved quantity, then, the con-
servation of total angular momentum requires that the spin
be conserved too, i.e.:
∂ Si (s)
ıh̄ = 0. (24)
∂t
It is not difficult to demonstrate that if Si (s) is defined such
that:
 
1 0 σi 1
Si (s) = si h̄ = si h̄γi , (25)
2 −σ i σ i 2
then, equation (24) will hold true.
We have shown that it is possible to obtain a Dirac par-
ticle system which is such that the orbital angular momen-
tum and spin are constants. The motivation for this search
has been necessitated by the fact that we realised that the
preservation of the combination of spin and orbital angular
angular momentum. Under such a setting, the orbital angular
momentum and spin are not constants of motion but differ
from one moment to the next.
If the spin and orbital angular angular momentum where
to vary from one moment to the next, this invariably im-
plies that the spin of particles must not be sharply defined
as is obtained from experiments where – for example – it is
known that the Electron is a spin 1/2 particle and that its
spin never ever changes; from the moment of its “creation”,
it [Electron spin] has and will always be a spin 1/2 particle
and nothing else. Actually, ever since it became manifest to
humanity that particles possess this “mysterious” property
of spin, there has never ever been observed in the laboratory
a particle changing its spin. Except in the realm of spec-
ulative theories such as Supersymmetry (and related theo-
ries), there is not even the slightest hint whatsoever that the
spin of a particle is susceptible to change. In a nutshell, the
spin of any known particle always stays fixed at the known
value of the given particle. The only-and-only way for this
to be so, is if we have ([S , H ] = 0), and this constraint
([S , H ] = 0) – via the conservation of total angular mo-
mentum ([J , H ] = 0); implies ([L , H ] = 0).
Dirac Equation for General Spin Particles Including Bosons
5 General Discussion
We have herein demonstrated that the Dirac equation – which
is universally assumed to describe only spin 1/2 particles;
can be manipulated using legal mathematical operations –
starting from the Dirac equation – so that it describes any
general spin particle. Most if not all approaches (e.g. Dirac
1936; Fierz and Pauli 1939; Rarità and Schwinger 1941, etc)
aimed at achieving a general spin particle involve a funda-
mental change in the Dirac equation. The present approach
is unique in that regard in that there is no fundamental change
and meaning in the original Dirac equation.
The very same Dirac equation in the same form – ex-
cept the introduction of the numbers, si ; here describes both
Bosons and Fermions. From a vantage point of unity, this is
an appealing aspect of the present approach. Unification re-
quires the explanation of a wide range of phenomenon using
a minimal number principles. An explanation of a diverse
of phenomenon using a single principle (equation), as has
been proposed herein – this is the desideratum of the purest
soul of the searching theoretical physicist. If our approach
is acceptable and is what Nature employs, then, as currently
obtaining, one will not need a unique and separate equation
to describe particles of different spins, but only one equation
is what is needed – the General Spin Dirac Equation (19).
In the present scheme – in general, the spin of a parti-
cle is here given by: S = 12 s1 h̄σ 1 + 12 s2 h̄σ 2 + 12 s3 h̄σ 3 . The
associated spin quantum numbers (s1 , s2 , s3 : si ) are in gen-
eral not equal but are different i.e.: (s1 6= s2 ), (s1 6= s3 ) and
(s2 6= s3 ). If this is so, then, for the Electron and all other
particles whose spin we known, we have found that the spin
is a fixed physical quantity. Each time we measure the spin
of particle, we always arbitrarily measure the spin along any
one of the three axises (x, y, z). If the spin where different
along these these axises, then, we would find that spin is
not a fixed quantity. The fact that experiments reveal that
the spin is a fixed physical quantity, this – for the present
paradigm – suggests that the spin quantum number si is to
be set equal for the three axises, i.e. (si = s). So doing, it
follows that equation (19) may – be written as:
∂ψ ∂ψ
ıh̄γ 0 + ıh̄sγ j j = m0 cψ . (26)
∂ ct ∂x
this equation (26) represents – in the present paradigm –
a particle of spin s/2. The corresponding Einstein energy-
momentum equation for the particle described by the rela-
tivistic equation (26), is such that:
E 2 = s2 p2 c2 + m20 c4 . (27)
View publication stats
5
This energy equation (27) was first written down in the read-
ing Nyambuya (2009).
In-closing, we should say that, while we have written
down [in a much more lucid manner than before (Nyambuya
2009, 2013)] an equation for a general spin particle, there is
nothing in the theory that tells us how to achieve such higher
spin particles in the laboratory or how they occur in Nature.
Therefore, the present work may be relevant in the future
if discoveries of higher spin particles are ever made. It is
off-cause always good to have forehand a theory ready to
explain these eventualities if they ever “visit our world”.
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