UNIT 4

4.1 – COMPOUNDS, MIXTURES AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Compounds
- Made of atoms of different elements bonded together
- Described by a formula made from atoms in it
- Diff w/ mixture
o Mixtures contain different substances that are not bonded together
 Can usually separate them
- Methylbenzene dissolves sulfur
Chemical change (chemical reaction) - signs
- One or more new chemical substances are formed – word equation
o + means react with
o  means to form
- Energy is taken in or given out
- Change is usually difficult to reverse
Physical change: If no new chemical substance is formed

4.2 – WHY DO ATOMS FORM BONDS

- Sodium heated and put in jar of chlorine, bright flame  white solid
Reason for forming bonds
- Atoms bond with each other in order to gain a stable arrangement of outer-shell electrons
(like group VIII)
o Gain 2 or 8 electrons in outer shell
Ions: atoms become ions when it loses or gains electrons
- Charged particle  unequal N of protons and electrons
- Gains  negative charge
- Loses  positive charge
 4.3 – IONIC BOND
₋ Ionic bond: Bond that forms between ions of opposite charges
₋ Electron transfers from atom which needs to lose an electron to atom which needs to gain
one, and two ions are formed
₋ When Sodium reacts w/ chloride, ions form  form a regular pattern (lattice) of
alternating + and – ions, held together by strong ionic bonds
o Grows to form a giant 3-D structure (Contains very large N of ions)  ionic
compound  ions held in fixed positions by strong electrostatic forces
₋ Metals react w/ non-metals to form ionic compounds
₋ Metals lose, non-metals gain e
₋ Compound has no overall charge
₋ An atom can react with more than one atom
o Magnesium atoms react with two chloride atoms  needs to have no overall charge

₋ Dot-and-cross diagrams
o Show e structure of ions in ionic bonding
o Usually show only outer shells
o Must write
 Outer shell e around anion
 Charges on ions on top right-hand side outside square brackets

4.4 – IONS
Ions of first 20 elements
- +1 – Li, Na, K - Metals and H form +, same names as atoms
- +2 Be, Mg, Ca - Non-metals form -, names ending in ide
- +3 – Al - Elements in Group IV and V do not gen form ions because they would
- -2 – O, S need to lose or gain too many electrons, too much energy
- -1 – F, Cl
Names and formulae of ionic compounds
- Name - Put names of ions together, + one first
- Formulae
o Write down name
o Write down symbol for ions
o Compound must have no overall charge, balance ions until + and – charges add up to 0
o Write down formula w/out charges
Transition elements
- Some form more than one type of ion – Cu, Fe
- (roman number) tells you ion has a charge of +number
Compound ions
- Ions formed by a group of bonded atoms
- Each is just one ion even though it contains more than one atom
- Ex
o Sodium carbonate
o Na+ CO3-2
o Na2CO3
- Ammonium ion – NH4+
- Nitrate ion – NO-3
- Sulfate ion – SO4-2

4.5 – COVALENT BOND

₋ Covalent bond: Two non-metals react together by sharing electrons – e/ atom has 8
electrons in outer shell
₋ Atoms of non-metals do not give away electrons to gain a full shell as it would take too
much energy
₋ Both need to gain electrons
₋ When two atoms get close enough, shells overlap and they can share electrons
o Both atoms have positive nucleus – nuclei attract shared electrons  strong force
of attraction holds atoms together
o This force of attraction is called a covalent bond
Molecule: Group of atoms held together by covalent bonds
- Elements made up of molecules are called molecular elements
- Diatomic- Elements made up of molecules containing two atoms
Single bond – covalent bond in which only 1 pair of electrons is shared – Hydrogen – H-H
Double bond – two pairs of electrons shared – Oxygen – O=O
Triple bond – Nitrogen – NΞN
- Dot-and-cross diagrams
o Must remember to
 Pair up bonding e in overlap area btw atoms
 Draw lone pairs ( not used in bonding)

4.6 – COVALENT COMPOUND

₋ Covalent compound: Atoms of different elements share electrons –ex
o H20, methane – CH4, ammonia NH3, methanol – CH3OH, ethene – C2H4
Shapes of molecules
- Pairs of electrons around an atom repel each other, move as far away as they can –
dictates shape -- molecule with 4 electron pairs will have tetrahedral shape

4.7 – COMPARISON BETWEEN IONIC AND COVALENT BONDS

₋ Solids are a regular lattice of particles
o In ionic compounds – ions
o Covalent compounds – molecules
Differences
₋ STRUCTURE – both have regular lattice structure in solid state
o Ionic solids, particles are charged, forces between are strong
o Molecular covalent solids, particles not charged, weak forces
₋ PROPERTIES
o Ionic compounds
 High MP and BP – ionic bonds very strong – takes a lot of heat to break up the bonds
 Solid at room T
 Higher the charge, higher MP and BP
 Soluble in water
 Conduct electricity when melted or dissolved in water (since they are charged)
 o Covalent compounds
 Low MP and BP – Liquid or gases at room T
 Many liquids are volatile
 Tend to be insoluble in water
 Do not conduct electricity

4.8 – GIANT COVALENT STRUCTURES

Covalent structures
- Simple molecular
o Molecules
o Strong intramolecular bonds, weak intermolecular bonds
o Molecular solids have weak forces and melt easily
o Low MP and BP (weak intermolecular forces)
o Soluble in organic compounds and water
o Do not conduct elec (no ions)

- Giant covalent structures: lattice of millions of non-metals joined by covalent bonds (no
intermolecular bonds)
o Giant covalent structures or macromolecules have strong lattices with high MP and BP –
strong covalent bonds to overcome
o Insoluble in water

₋ DIAMOND – made of carbon atoms

o Carbon atom forms covalent bond to four others until billions of carbon atoms are
bonded together in a giant covalent structure with strong covalent bonds
o Properties
 Hardest known substance – each atom is held in place by four strong covalent bonds
 form thtraedral arrangements
 High MP – 3550
 Can’t conduct electricity – no ions or free electrons to carry charge
o Uses
 Tools for drilling and cutting
 Jewelry

₋ SILICON (VI) OXIDE (SILICION DIOXIDE)

o Occurs naturally as quartz (main mineral in sand)
o Each silicon atom bonds covalently to four oxygen atoms. Each oxygen atom bonds
covalently to two silicon atoms  forms tetrahedral arrangement
 o Properties
 Hard, can scratch things
 Lets light through
 High MP
o Uses
 Sandpaper
 Glasses and lenses

₋ GRAPHITE – with diamond is allotrope (forms of element) of carbon

o Each carbon atom form covalent bonds to three others  rings of six atoms rings
form flat sheets with strong covalent bonds that lie in top of each other held by weak
forces
o Properties
 Soft and slippery, sheets slide
 Good conductor of electricity – each carbon atom forms three bonds but has four
free electrons, one unbound electron is free to move through graphite carrying
charge

4.9 – BONDING IN METALS

₋ Atoms are packed tightly together in a regular lattice – giant structure
o Lattice of cations in sea of delocalized electrons joined by metallic bonds
₋ Tight packing allows electrons to separate from atoms  sea of electrons free to move
₋ Metallic bond – strong forces of electrostatic attraction between ions and free delocalized
electrons
o e/ e is attracted by all +ions in structure  whole lattice held together
 non-directional bonding
₋ Metals tend to be in giant structures – explains high MP
₋ Metals are crystalline – cations in regular pattern
Explanation of properties of metals
- High MP and BP
o Takes a lot of heat energy to break up lattice, very strong electrostatic metallic bonds
- High density  atoms closely packed
- Malleable and ductile
o Layers of cations can slide over each other because electrons are free to move
 Metallic bonds strong but not rigid
- Good conductors of heat
o Free electrons take in heat energy, makes them move fasterquickly transfer heat
through metal surface
- Good conductors of electricity
o Free electrons can move through lattice carrying a charge
o To carry charge there must be charged particles in movement – electrons
o As they are very close together, heat passes from particle to particle

ALLOYS
- Alloys: Homogeneous mixtures of metal atoms with metals/non-metals
- Reasons  make them Stronger, harder, more resistant to corrosion - malleable, -ductile
- Layers cannot slide easily
o As they are dif particles forming layers, by applying a force it is harder that layers slide
through each other
o Particles of dif size  imperfect layers
- Stainless Steel  Fe + Cr + Ni  does not rust  car parts, parts chemical factories
- Bronze  Cu + Sn  very hard 
- Brass  Cu + Zn  stronger