i. WELCOME!

II. PART ONE OPENING PAGES

1. General Information on Profieieney

2. Listenİng & Note Taking: Craeking the Code
a. Seleetive Listening: Behind the Curtain
b. Careful Listening: Creating Methods
3. Reading: Killing the Nightmare
4. Writing: an Overview
5. Free Writing Exereise
HI. PART TWO MrSCELLANEOUS GRAMMAR Tıps

ı. Most Comman Mistakes in Essays

2. Comman Language Mistakes
3. Expressian Often Confused, Misused and Overused
4. Top Twenty Speeifie Problems
5. Miseellaneous Words (synonynıs, sample cases)
6. Core afEnglish Voeabulary
IV. PA.RT THREE CI-IALLENGING EXERCISES
.1. Proficieney Maximiser 1

2. Profieieney Maximiser 2
3. Proficieney Ma-x:imiser 3
4. Proficieney Maximiser 4
5. Proficieney Maximiser 5
6. Proficieney ~aximiser 6

7. Proficieney Ma-x:imiser 7
8. Proficieney Maximiser 8
9. Proficieney Maximiser 9
10. Proficieney Ma-x:imiser 10
V. ANSWER KEY
Vi. REFERENCES
 .. DECODJNG PROFICJENCY" is intended to guide and develop the study of
the studenls preparing for Profidency Exam at Boğaziçi University. That is, we are
concerned wİth those students taking Profidency Exam, and those vvishing to improve
their English leve!. Even though this challenging process might be tiring and hectic,
we hope this book will help you eqııip with necessary skills, which probably most of
}'OU have never experienced before.

Gıır book is divided info three parts:

The .first part (instruction) provides "blueprint" of the exum and gives usefıd
hİnts for tested skills in the exam. Answers to questions !ike "How to take notes
during a lecture? ", "Hovv to write an academic piece of work? ", "How does a
pndicient reader comprehend and interpret a passage?" make up this instruction
part. Shortly, it explains reading, writing and listening parts of the exam; provides
importanf points for you to understand the strategies for Pro..ficiency Exam with a
variety ofsamples.
In the second part we supply you with widely used vocabulary items that will
he/p you boost your score in the Proficiency Exam. Besides their explanation and use
in the sentences, we provide you with some basic grammar knowledge. Moreover, in
this part you will jind some interesting expressions and grammar poinfs that are often
111 iSlised by students.
The· third part of the book includes ten sample projiciency tests that cover
three main components of a standard Projiciency Exam to base the information given
in instruction part on a more concrete ground. First section is listening
('omprehension that is made up by two sub-sections called 'Selective Listening' and
'Carefıtl Listening '. Listening tasks of the tests will be carried out throughout the CD
that is available with our book. The second seetion is Reading Comprehension.
'( 'are.fitl Reading' and 'Search Reading' are the sub-categories of this section. And,
the last section is devoted to Academic Writing. The writing section of the tests
requires you to write one page essay on given two topics.
With the detailed keys of the tests in the end of the book ranked by their
d{fficulty level, you will be able to check your performance.

We hope that this book, being a jirst, will assist you throughout the path to
Boğaziçi Univ~rsity.
 A GLANCE AT l~HE STRUCTURE OF TIHE
PROFICIENCY EXAM

(General Information)

English eourses at YADYOK are provided for Boğaziçi University students in

order to prepare them for the Profieieney Exam that consists of Listening (While &
Note-taking), Reading (Search & Careful) and Writing sections.

Listening skill is tested in such a way that two lectures are eonducted by instructors
and you are expected to eomprehend the talk and answer the questions. There are two
different sections in listening part. In selective listening the students try to catch
specifie information, while carefullistening requires taking notes in a well-organized
and eomprehensible way.

Reading requires finding specifie information in a short period of time. To. be

suecessful in search reading you have to look for necessary information quickly.
Mareaver, careful reading, eovering not less than three pages of inforn1ation, requires
good understanding of the text and being attentive in looking for the detailed
information on a particular topic.

Writing is anather skill assessed in the proficieney test. What is needed is to put
ideas in writing on the basis of given or own points in an academic way. The allawed
time for each essay is 40 minutes.

2
 o o o
-tt 1].-,1--' .
,.r
LISTENING COMPREHENSION w~

eRAeKING THE CODE!

TOP S QUESTIONS:

1. Have you seen "Lord of the Rings" without subtitles in

your mother tongue?
2. Do you listen to Eminem?
3. Do you speak with native speakers of English?
4. Have you ever heard of Nlartin Luther King's famous
speech "I have a dream"?
i

s. Do you have aıı your lessons in English?

FINAL QUESTION:

CAN YOU UNDERSTAND THESE QUESTIONS EASILY?

Ifyou're not sure about the answers, take it easy! Many people have the same
problem like you. Here, we'ıı help you to handIe those hurdles, to crack the code
of listening strategy. Let's check it out! c.'-'7';=--\
..,-.r- ,.,.
. ~a .;:. . i'·"~·· .... ' ".' '. ,.-.')',..

Listening comprehension and note-taking are two important abilities to prove

your competency in English.
In selective listening, before the Iecturer reads out the text, question sheets are
- distributed. Students are given three minutes to read and understand the questions.
then, instructor reads about three - page- long text in double space format. You are
expected to understand the speech and to write answers down at the same time. After
you and the lecturer have completed your tasks, again, you are given three minutes to
check your answers.
In Boğaziçi Proficien?J Exam "Note Taking" section is also called "CarefuI
Listening", don't be confu~dı'~Y_bJiI.'_wilLno.t see the questions beforehand. Instead,
you are given a blank page to take notes on as you listen to the speaker. S.o, you are
supposed to listen carefully and take well-organized notes. After the lecture is over,
you are to answer the questions based on your notes in 15 minutes.

S:Q.M:ECiO.LDEN..A.DVlC.EüN.LTS'IENWG

.:. Always try to understand the subject of the speech.

•:. Look at the title of the subject to get anins.ight.beforehand and easiIy capture
the main subj ect. \' \.:_:r
.:. The speaker reads at a reasonable rate, do not worry!
.:. Focus on the lecture. Do not g~t inv.olved in anything apart from that.
·..!-r ~_:.J ..'\'.\\ .:.',
. ı.."J"
-r<'e

~---
 ~/\...('J r('~'C
çi.,,"-'.
.•

•:. When you receiye the queslinn sheet befOl'elıand (seleetive listening), first,
scan the qucstions then underline the "keyvyords" and question words such
as "how, why, who, where. whicl?:- \., ..dÖ~\.\ ~.O.V'4\ \~ •
•:. '''Synonyms'' are very inıportant, sinee most of the questions include
'''synonym tricks". So. while the leetm'cr is reading the text, be prepared to
catch the synonyms ofwords you have underlined in questions.
•:. Names, types and sorts. of things, definitions, and examples are often the
<:..,~, J • f' '
answers to some questions? . ,!··· '.1 . 1'

.:. IMPORTANT POINT:

o Speakers read the passage very carefully, but much more carefully the
parts reIated to the ans\ver
o Speakers read the passage slowly, but more slowly the parts related to
the answer
o Speakers emphasize the important paıis. "Ans\vers" are important
parts!
.:. If you get a feeling that you have missed one or ınore ans\vers, do not get
excited and ke~p on listeningo
...
-tır &-eı-)--.,..,.,o·\
\..:..... \ (:
cJ.. ~ı ~.(. r-'" ..:::~ \- N.;' L:...

tOMMONERRORSJN T.J~TFNTNG TEST

Word Error
Q Distribution - distrubution, distrubation, distrubition, disturbation
Q Urbanization - urbanaztion, organization, urbanitization, urbaniziton
Q Demand - amount, demant, demount, delTIOund, demend, the mount
Q Servants - survances~ services, servirs, surbances, servences, survens
n Traders - riders, raider, triders, drivers, the raiders, thraighters
n tv1igration - my gration, miggration
n Supply - supley, suply
Q Land - lamp, lent, length, lend, find
n Rural - rorer, rurel, rual, vurial
\.!-\',:~I\l.W(jl!, ~~, r.::ı.6\.lCa.·
HOW TO .ABBRE\llATE N'()TFS?

1. Elinlinate small connecting \\lords such as: "is, are, \-vas, and were, a, an, the,
would, this, of." Elinıinate pronouns such as: they, these. his, that, thenı.
However, be careful NOT to elinıİnate these three words: '''and. in, on".
2. Use symbols to abbreviate, such as:
. +, & and, plus
equals
minus
# number
X times
> greater than, ıTIore, larger
< less than, smaller, fewer than
----> leads to, produces, results in
<---- comes from
EXAMPLE:
The lecturer reads: "The size ojthe yellow table is jQUf.. Jimes b..tgger Ihgn the red one"
You write: "Yellaw table = 4 x > red table"

4
SELECTIVE LISTENING
\ .'.'

o '. ~ .•- "'ı

'r ·ı~._.\&.-ı

BEHIND THE CURT AIN ".:- ~~..-.

\ r" .J
. . ..e.'
rO'\!.-- .

Seleetive listening is the skill you need to be successful in @th~;'g

the most
important points about a lectııı"e you will attend. The underlining meaning of this skil1
"0'1 ~"r r·"C'\
L
lies İn its nanıe. It ~01its. that you should be selectiye. You do not have to understand
everything' you hear, the only thing you need is to get the information, which is of
vİta! significance to you.
Keep in mind that the questions related to the lectuı"e "vill be distributed to you
beforehand. You will be given three nıinutes to analyze the questions. Use these
minutes as efficiently as possible. Underline, ~igJ1lj~Q!-lprr'enc'[k the words in the
questions that you think will be your keys to the correct answers. Think of their
possible synonyms, or antonyms, as sometilTIeS that is the way keywords are provided
in the passage the lecturer will be reading. Pay attentian to the W/ı- ~ıuestion words
(i.e. --"vhat", "'which", "when", "where" and "why"), and try to understand what is
being asked from you. While listening to the lecture, se~k the words that are sonıehow,=-'r "~'p'\v,,,_.\
associated with these question words. Be short and to the point when answering the G

questions. You do not have nıuch time to write the whole sentence as an answer. Just
write into the space the direct answer to the question. To illustrate the point;

During the lecture you will hear:

In some eases the aetııal purpose of a dam is being defeated in ways, ı,.vhich
their designers were unable to prediet. Egypl 's Aswan Dam illuslrates this.
Lake Nasser, named ajier the Iate Egyptian leader, was invented to store
160,000 million eubie meters ofwater. But, through evaparafian alone, it loses
more than this in a year.

The question will be:

•. How does the lake Nasser Iose its ıtytfer?

1)0 not answer in this "vay:

The Lake Nasserlosesjts_water through evaporation

Instead "vrite it shortly:

../ Through evaporation

vV hen the lecture is over, you \vill be given another three minutes to check
your i:lns\vers. Be careful especialIy abaut spelling, as one \vrong letter may change
the whole 111eaning of the word. Each puint nıay be of vital ilTIportance for your grade,
so do not leave ~_çhaııcJ.~ for such amistake to change your destiny and postpone the
pleasure of studying at your department!

5
 Do NO! try to write
down EVERY WORD!!

CAREFUL LISTENINO
CREATING METHOD
That is the MOST important thing (in callouts) you have to keep in mind before we gel into detai! about
note taking.
As we have discussed before, success ln careful listening depends on the
quality of your notes. You are to develop your personal way of taking notes. Just keep
it simple, easy to fol1ow, comfortable, efficient, and systematic. Here, we'll give you
same working key samples to crack the code of good note taking.

SPECIAL HINTS
.:. The most important piece of infornıation in a lecture lies in the tiile itseIf.
essential for student to get S0111e ideas about the n1ain topic of the lecture.
•:. Tips for Note Taking:
Q Understand ılvhat the lecturer says,'
Q Decide what 's important;
Q Write the main points down quickly and c!early,'
Q Learn to show relatian among various points lecturer has noted.
.:. Pay attention to the indirect s.ignals that lecturers give. When talking about
s~mething important, they might pause, or speak slowly or lo113:"[):, ~ö~e.tise a greater
range of intonatİon. Hence, the intanatian and tane of the lecturer are worth ,
paying attention to. n..ı n'-)o-.i:: j.·,1- r a.......-ı l e..vı.-C. . ~, 1 -:::'('<"'(2,)., \,

.:. The connectİves suchas "however", "q,~1.-~he other hand" generapy irrU:ll-Y--İhat new
(!:!JJ1J2çr1ıaps
unexpected iJ)formation is going to foUow. So, pay attention to
eonnectives used by leeturers.
Let' s focus on the organization of your notes. There are two styles that we are going
to discuss. ~r::>-:y.()'-J..,. . . .\ ,tt:.... (cıL 'c:.J.'~\
i r-cJ- P...
-:-
\ ,..
...\.('l.~ı\·
J ..... \

.1....".
• ç:>O-'
i\,
,~~~ı...-"

:i': 6/~ (~.

\0." -, "''0 ,

QViuNE MlETHOD ~--

Listen and then write in points in an organized patte~sed on space iTIçienting. Place
rnajor points fCf;rtM.s:['l~· the left. lndent each more specific point to the right. L~vels of
importance indicated by the distance away fronl1narkings are not necessary as space
relationships will indicate the major and minor points.
Example -
~~trasensoLY perception
* definition: means of perceiving without use of sense organs.
+ three kinds -
_telepathy: sending messages
_c1airvoyance: forecasting the future
-lJsychokinesis: perceiving events external to situation
+ current status -
_no current research to support or refute
_few psychologists say impossible

6
 _~ <:;_ ,.~. Jr.. ,

'"!';',,..."J?.lc:.f- -:',

.,"'1 ~~'\ \-.<.. -'rı' ~. ~""

~..ı."~ r>t.~ CIlJ~t~Jing İs a method that uses eOJ11.pr~hension and coneentration .skills and
~y~sjnto a note taking form whieh relates eaeh fact or idea to .~nother. This is a
graphic r~~şentation of the eontent of a leeture.

. Example:

(
3 dlmensions ofcoror

brightness hue saturation

Finally, we hope those samples will eneourage you to develop different suitable
methods.

7
 READING

KILLING THE NIGHTMARE!

Nightmare! That is the image that norınally comes to students' mind when
facing reading text in Proficien'cy exanı. In the limited time, theyare asked to answer
same questions of at least ·three ,page long texts. The problem for those non-native
students is that they want to solve those sophisticated texts while lacking the
necessary skill. But there is littl.e to worry about, since there are same techniques to
ki II that nightmare.
Reading part has two sections: Search Reading and Carefu! Reading. In
Careful Reading you are given 30 minutes for approxiınately 8-9 questions and in
Search only 20 m inutes for nearly 9- ı O questions (Actually, the num ber of questions
is not fix, can be more or less). Based on these facts there are general points that you
should take into consideration.
•:. Be relaxed, no stress, no panic, just take deep breatlı and get ready to fight with
your texts;
.:. Take a glance at the title and get same general idea to keep in your mind;
.:. Make predictions about what could be asked;
.:. Read the qucstion carefully first and make sure you really understand what is
asked;
.:. Find same lead wards, clues in questions as to what to look for, and mark them
out~
.:. Start checking out the passage according to those elues;
.:. Skim the text thoroughly to find specific information;
.:. Remember~ in both sections of the Reading Part, the questions are in the order the
information appears in the text;
In detai\, there are some differen't strategies to handie both sections.
SEARCH READING
Q The questions in search are simple and explicit~
f2 The indicators that you underiine can be significant events, names of
something, or siınply the main vvords in questions~
D After you nıark-~ôn1ı:-esıgnpostsfrom the question, skim the passage and locate
them:
Çı Read that selected paragraph carefully (in which clues included) and try to
11I1d the answer~ .
fl Keep in mind those synonynıs most of the time is used in texts instead of those
cl ue words.
CAREFUL READING
.:. The questions in carerul reading require analytical thinking since theyare
implicitly cited in the text;
.:. Read the questions carefully and get the point of thenı. Make sure you understand
them fully:
.:. Read the whole selected paragraph carefully and get some integrated
unclerstanding related to the question:
.:. The focus is on understanding the detailed information or a paliicular topic.

8
That' s all, easy right? The last thing to mentian: remember to use your time
systematicaIlyo For example, in Search Reading, 2 minutes for each question can be
used as:
n 30 seconds to read, understand, mark clues to anything specific you might be
looking for in the question;
n 30 seconds to locate in which section the answer might be;
n ı minute to skim the paragraph and write the answer;
That' s just an example. You can develop your own strategies.
Good Luck and Just Do It! Remember: Gad doesn't require you to "Be the
Best" - He just wants you to "Do Your Best" and He will tak~ gı.re o_f "The Rest"!
_ \~r,c,.\",C\ O"L ..~.r--. ~~"':' ~ t- .........:;t.J L
Çı ~ OA \...;:. o.... \ ~ ..--.",C.J.. \ ' -

9
 ~}l(])I:Nq rıJI!E
QVPS'IIO:N
. . . . . . . . . . . . .c VruferstantfitllJ ~

'if

5ı1}l1(1(I:Nq

,If

LOC}l'II:Nq

~jf(])I:Nq
C/lVrnOVSLrr \
.... ,/
_"'... \. 'ı~:.~ı~ \::::~ i ..
·.. . .·. . .·.·. · ·. .
°l
·~c ÇJet tfıe Point ~

'. _:. (" ~ ;;, \ :.

,

PI:JVCDI:NÇJ Jf!NSWErJ?S

rv0R]'I1:NC} Jf!NSWErJ?S

10
 EXAMPLE
Search Reading
Coney's three racetracks were essential to the development of Coney Island because
they drew to the seaside horse racing fans of all walks of life. The politicians, easy
money men, Well Street barons and Westem railroad men, society leaders, actors and
actres~es, the parasİtes of the rich and large group, of middle class-all visited Coney and
needed places to sIeep, eat, and party. Crowds grew yearIy and byt/ze..190S-.and.-1906
racifıg s!!aSOns. 40,000 people woııld be on hand to cheer the winners' in the Suburban
or Fııturİty races. Whİle the well-to-do stayed at Manhattan and Brighton Beach 's three
luxury hotels, professional gamblers thought nothing of spending $20 a day for a room
at Richard Ravenhall's hotel and bookmakers made their headquarters on the porch of
the Ricadonna Hotel, opposite the Brighton Beach Music HalL. Others that profıted

from the racing crowd were Risenweber's, the Shelbome Hotel, Pabst's Hotel and Dick
Garm's hotel in the old Sea Beach TerminaL.

Question
ı. How many people would be on Coney Island by the 1905 and 1906 to support
the racers?

/ 4,000 people would be there

II
 i!

Caretul Reading

Those with same experience of the real virtues of drama and role play would approach
the issue from anather directian. Over the years there has been a smail but growing
band of science teachers who have come to appreciate its attractjons. Many will

Locati1l{j remember that Tlze Molecu/e Club at the Mermaid Theater in London's West End has a
long and .honorable history of enacting scientific ideas, and i!1y_qJ'{ing young~t~r:s in
~ra.~_at.ize.çLscience. Recently, through the University of Wales at Cardiff, there has
been a n~~i?.!1Jllıciel}~_da:mı~. cOIllpetitiQn drawing contrip!Jtions fromschools from all
stages and places. The Annual Meeting of the Association of Science Education at
Cardiff in January 1987 staged an excellent symposium on drama in school science;
Charles Taylor (I 987) develops the trend in Physics Educatian.

Question
1. What is the sintitarif)) between }rıo/eel/le Club and University of ';Vales?

They both dramatized science

12
AnOverview

ACADEMIC E:S.SAY WRlTING

Writing is an important skill, which can be learnt and developed only through
practice. During your university years you wil1 be writing essays for which you will be
graded from the early days to the very end of your degree program. it does not matter
whether you are going to be a teacher, a doctor, an engineer, a scientist, or a police
officer after you graduate; in any case, you will have to use this skill while applying for
a job, preparing reports, writing articles for publications, preparing for some
presentations or conferences, sustaining your carrier in journalism, etc. So, start
developing your writing skill right now!
When you are asked to write an essay, firstly, read the given topic very carefully
and start writing only when you are sure you have understood it welL. Examine carefully
the essay question, making sure you understand each word and what is being asked, as a
little misreading or misunderstanding can bring "fatal" results. After having understood
what is being asked, think of different ways of approaching the topic. Brainstorming is
one of the widely used techniques that may help you to get some ideas about the topic.
lt' s very simple; the only thing you have to do is· to note down whatever comes to your
mind and is somehow related to the issue you are going to discuss. See the fol1owing
mode1where brainstorming technique is used:

Air pollufion

High '-------"7' Traffie

unemploymenf Pro6rems jam
rafe
of6ig
citie.s

Too erowded, High

foo noisy erime rafe
Figure: Problems of big cities are described through brainstorming technique.

Having applied the brainstoqning technique, choose two or three points that seem to be
more attractive to 'You or are easy to discuss. Once you have decided on the points to
discuss, think of presenting them in a logical and coherent way in order to not leap
about from point to point. Only after that you are prepared to start writing!
Your writing should include an introduction paragraph, development
paragraph(s) (according to the number of points you are going to write about), and a
conclusian. Keep in mind that your essay should be neither too short nor too long. To
be specific, you will be asked to use minimum of 250 words and maximum of 350

13
 T

words. The writing part is graded out of 30, i.e. 15 points each. To pass it, you have to
score 18 out of 30 at nıinimum. The task İs not so difficult to achieve. Paying attention
to the follovving points will be your guide to success:

1. Organization of Paragraphs: The paragraph is a coherent and logical composition

of sentences that usually include no more than one or two ideas related to the
argument to be discussed.. ~herefore, first of all you should work at the sentence
level and then pass to the paragraph level. The first sentence of the paragraph
(usually called 'topic sentence') should be a strong one as it includes the idea to be
discussed. Other sentences in the paragraph support, interpret, or exemplify the ide'a
presented in it.

2. Topic sentenee: Each paragraph in your essay should contain a good topic
sentence, which is a sentence that states a controlling idea, or an attitude about the
topic and includes the subject of the paragraph. While writing, ınake sure that each
paragraph has clear topic sentence with a controlling idea in it.

3. Unity: In each paragraph of your essay you have to discuss onlyone main idea.
Together, the main idea and every sentence supporting it compose unity. In other
words, unity means that everything you discuss in a paragraph is related to the idea
you stated in the topic sentence. Do not discuss anything else that does not have any
relation with the general idea.

4. Coherence: 'Coınprehensibility' and 'fiuent flow' of ideas are the things meant by
coherence. Pay attention to the logical order of your supporting sentences and
transition signals that should appropriately connect your ideas.

5. Supporting ideas: After having formulated a controlling idea you have to decide on
the argun1ents to develop the paragraph. These arguments should be used as a
support for the opinion or attitude you have expressed in your topic sentence. The
function of the suppoliing ideas can be to clarify, back uP~ explain, prove~ or
exemplify the point you are going to discuss. Details about the topic or facts taken
fron1 newspapers, n1agazjnes, journals, books or one's life experience may serve as
supporting ideas for the topic sentence.

6. Vocabulal1' and Spelling: Try to demonstrate the teaeher you have good
knowledge of English through rich use of vocabulary. Using a few advanced
vocabulary words or idioms will add some color to your essay. But, be sure you use
only words and phrases you know very welL. If you are not sure of the spelling of a
word, do not use it; you may replace it with a synonym.

7. Grammar: While checking your ability to express yourself in writing, a teacher

checks your knowledge of grammar at the same time, too. So, try to use
grammatical structures you are comfortable with. Do not use the structures you are
not sure of, and avoid making simple grammatical mistakes such as wrong use of
present tense (especially 3rd person singular i_S '), or confusing countable with
uncountable nouns. For example,

14
 INCORRECT CORRECT
She gQ to schooL. She goes to schooL.
i received same informationş". i received same information.
A child is play with his toys. A child is playing with his toys.

8. Punctuation: Although many people do not pay much attention to punctuation, it

plays a significant role in academic writing. Punctuation helps to distinguish and
follow the ideas easily. 80, use commas to separate independent elauses and
phrases. Avoid using colons, semicolons, or any other advanced form of
punctuation unless you are sure you use them correctly.
9. Handwriting: Keep in mind that first impression is very importanL What the
teacher sees, first, when s/he looks at your paper is 'outward appearance' of your
writing. Do not make the teacher deal with deciphering your handwriting.
Conversely, make the teacher's work easier - write neatly.

All in all, remember that a short, well-organized and structured essay focusing
on same of the main points is far better than a long one where you try to say a little
about everything. it will be usefuI to state in the introduction paragraph, which points
you are focusing on and why. Avoid beginning all sentences in the same way, as this
will make your compasition boring. Use a variety of structures. Try to link the
sentences to each other. Pay attentian to the canelusian paragraph, which has to be
relatively short and be a kind of paraphrased version of introduction paragraph. You
may state your opinion or attitude about the topic in the canelusian paragraph.

15
 The General Format of an Essay

i. INTRODUCTI N
Start from a general
argument and then • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Ge

narrow down and

·•
•
• .•••
···• ..•
specify it Thesis

· Statement
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • e ••••
..

ii. MAIN BO
Argument # 1
Deve/op your opinion
by providing several Argument # 2
supporting arguments

···
Paraphrased :
Finish your essay by · ·•
Thesis :
restating your, argument
and then make a general
conc/usion about the topic
. Statement ·.·
.......................
iii. CONCLUSION

16
 Types ofEssays
D The Comparison and Contrast Essay
D The Cause-and-Effect Analysis Essay
D The Opinion Essay
D The Argumentative Essay
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• For and Against

1. Comparison and Contrast

As there are many reasons for comparing and contrasting, there is one thing you
should keep in mind; the purpose is not just to state similarities and differences;
your purpose should be to persuade, explain, or inform. While comparing or
contrasting two things, people, countries, and so forth, be selective in making
choice of the most significant points of comparison that will support the central
idea in your essay. Make an emphasis on onlyone, either'comparing or contrasting,
according to your purpose. There are two basic patterns of organization for this
type of essay:
A. B/oek Organization: You discuss all of the similarities in one
black, and all of the differences in anather black.
B. Point by point Organization: You choose points for comparison or
contrast, and discuss every significant point in each single
paragraph. You might use the order of importance, i.e. the most
important feature you discuss in the first paragraph and then should
come the other ones, or vice versa.
In both types of organization use various comparison and contrast structures and
vocabulary, and make same back and forth references to make the similarities and
differences clear.

SAMPLE ESSAY
• Analyze the following effect analysis essay samples and pay attention to the
format, structure and vocabulary use.

PRIVATE SCHOOLS:
BRILLlANT PART OF EDUCATION
As we know, there are two types of schools in Turkey by whic~ education is
held. One of them is private schools, which are established by a person or a firm
where mostly children ofthe rich are educated. The other is the public schools, which
government sets up itself, and are seen more commonly in Turkey. When we compare
the former with the latter, the private schools have some aspects that are hardly seen
in public schools, such as, the quality of education, the facilities provided and the
high rate ofgetting acceptance to a university.
Firstly, the teachers, who are provided with high salaries and some other
opportunities, are the source of the quality education at private schools. Not

17
 encountering any hardship, they concentrate on their work more, and thus. inevitably
come the success. One reason which increases the quality of education in private
schools is the pe/fect relationships between the teachers and the students. Via this
settlement students in private schools tell any of the problenıs they face, so education
rises to degrees which are beyond peıfection.
Secondly, as success depends not only on education but also on facilities that
help the student socialize and relax, private schools are far ahead ji"om the public
schools. Sport halls, swimming pools, conference halls, places for reclamation- most
of which are found more in private schools- enable students to have both physically
and psychologically perfect condition.
The third and most obvious aspect of the private schools is high rate of
entering a university. With the help of their qualified teachers and the facilities their
schools provide, students in private schools can be more successful in the university
entrance exam than those in public schools. So, they might be more ready for the
future, andfor the responsibilities which they will undergo one day.
To conclude, our country needs more and more private schools because ofthe
quality of education which our children have to have. For this process, the
government 's support is needed intensively. Thus, if the government helps the people
or firms that want to establish private schools, our problem ofeducation seems as if it
wiU decrease in the close future.
Wrİtten by
an advanced student

PUBLIC SPEAKING VERSUS ÜRDINARY

COMMUNICATION
When some ordinary speakers think of public speaking, they conjure up the
following meaning: "A speech with a beforehand preparation. " Even though both
public speaking and ordinary communication have the common concept of
"speaking", their considerable dijjerences in structure, type ofpreparation, and use
oflanguage reflect the differenees betvveen nvo ways ofspeaking by which we express
aur fe elings and convey our messages.
Public speaking differs from ordinary eommunication in that the strueture of
the former is more complex whereas that of the lalter is easier to understand and
apply. Before one makes a publie speech, unlike ordinary communication, he should
have a great deal of knowledge of his audience. Earlier information acquired either
by a questionnaire or an audience analysis is essential for him. That is, he has to take
into consideration what the listeners like and what they do not. Therefore, when
delivering the speech he should keep the listeners constantly in mind. In short, a
public ~1Jeaker should interact with the audience.
Ordinary communication, on the other hand, is more simply structured As a
result, while a public speaker tries to establish a well-prepared speech, an ordinary
speaker may convey his message in the way he wants to. Moreover, an ordinary
speaker does not need a certain public setting whereas a public speaker strictly does.
FVe cannot imagine a public speaker saying "Good evening, ladies and gentlemen!

18
 l'm here on behalf of .,. " to a group ofpeople sitting in a park. What he needs is a
certain place and time to deliver his message.
The differences between public speaking and ordinary communication do not
end with structures. Concerning the language used in each type they differentiate to
an extent. In contrast to ordinary communication, public speaking requires a more
formal language. A public speech is a prepared speech,' therefore the speaker should
do the exact wording for the speech. When delivering the speech, slang should be
avoided. Thus, a public speaker should take care ofhis language.
In terms oflanguage type, one ofthe main differences between public speaking
and ordinary communication is that the latter may have the right to use the informal
language. As a consequence, an ordinary speech may have the 'chance' ofbeing more
frank. Since the application of informallanguage is easier than that offormalone, an
ordinary speaker may have the advantage of being more confident than a public
speaker.
All in all, public speaking is dissimilar to ordinary communication in that it
requires different methods ofdelivery. Choosing the appropriate method ofdelivery is
of vital importance in public speaking. The result to be deduced from this fact is that
the words of a speech are only part of the message,' the rest will be carried by the
speaker's vocal and bodily actions.
Written by
an advanced student

2. Cause and Effect

This type of essay is frequently used in academic writing. There are three types of
cause and effect essays:
A. The cause aniı/ysis essay: Here you explain only the causes that
lead to a certain effect. For example, why do some people tend to
commit crimes? For some, it may be eaused by poverty or financial
difficulties; for others, it may be by psychological problems.
Besides, low literaey level of the soCiety one lives in may be the
cause for an individual' s becoming a eriminal. Still, eorruption of
the youth may lead teenagers to commit erimes. If you examine the
topic further you may find many other eauses.

Causes Result

Poverty or financial difficulties

Low literacy level
People eomrnit crime(s)
Corruption of the youth
Psyc:hologieal problems

B. The effect analysis essay: Just as there can be many causes for
something, a cause ean have several effeets. For example, there are
several negative .effeets of population growth such as
unemployment, poverty, inerease i~ erime rate, etc.

19
 Cause Effeets

Poverty
Population growth Unemployment
Increase in crime
rate
C. Causal clıain essay: Here, you discuss one cause that leads to an
effect, which in tum leads to another cause and so on. Thus, you
will create a chain consisting of causes and their effects.

Cause c::::> EffeetC::::> Cause c::::> Effeet c::::> Cause c::::>

Effeet ...

Example:
Too many cars ... Traffic jams ~ Late for work ~ Loosing
job ...

SAMPLE ESSAY
.. Analyze the following effect essay sanıples and pay attention to the format,
structure and vocabulary use.
Elfects Analysis Essay

EARTHQUAKES
There has been a great struggle between people and nature since human
beings ' first appearance on the Earth. During this continuous struggle mankind has
beaten natU/'e many times, but the revenge of natU/'e has usually been more painful.
The natural disasters like earthquakes have serious effects on the lives of individuals.
After the disasters people find themselves homeless,' besides, many disasters result in
deaths and casualties.
To start with, one ofthe most serious effects ofdisasters is that people become
homeless. Their houses collapse, or turn into the ruins where it is impossible to live
in. So, many people have to live outside in tents. There theyare vulnerable and
subject to co/d, rain, dust, mud, and illnesses. They cannot find the comfort of their
homes. Moı"eover, there is not enough food supply. Adults can endure hunger, but
children cannot. Besides, there is no clean water to drink. In addition to all these,
people have to wear the same clothes, which are aıready worn out and dirty.
Anather important effect of disasters is that many people die and many get
injured. In the Marmara earthquake, for example, a wide region was affected, and a
lot of buildings collapsed They became graves for people who lived there. There are
individuals who may be considered lucky due to their survival, but they will live with
the effects of that earthquake. Perhaps they will remain disabled. Furthermore, they
will not be able to sleep deeply and comfortably without any thinking of the

20
 earthquake 's possible occurrence. There are also young victims, children who were
affected seriously although they seem .to be aware of what had happened. They saw
blood and dead people around them. Even adults lost their balance in those
conditions. Therefore, all the people who experienced a disaster /ike that one should
treated in order to avoid the problems they may face in the future.
To conclude, earthquake is natural and inevitable. lt has serious and painful
effects on people 's lives. These individuals have to live outside in misery, having no
fooe!, no clothing. Many of them die, and the survivors encounter a lot ofproblems
which are really difficult to solve.
Written by
an İntermediate student

Causes Analysis Essay

CHILDLABüR
After decades of debate, child labor is now recognized as inevitable with its
impacts likely to be fe lt for centuries to come. As a growing problem, child labor' has
occupied many countries' political and social agenda. In order to gain a soliıtion,
specialists have suggested that the problems, which cause this phenomenon, such as
lack of educational opportunities and economical conditions, should be taken into
consideration.
Education, the most important process of human life, has cı determining effect
in emergence of child labor.. The word "education" means freedom from oppression
and poverty. When people, particularly children, are faced with the problem oflack of
education, they accordingly become a target for labor force. if we examine the period
after the realization of industrialization, we can easily observe that the abuse of
children in heavy works was more prevalent in educational!y underdeveloped areas.
Furthermore, most of incidences in the child labor reveal that a great deal of
children, who work as workers, have quitted their education. As an example, about
forty flve percent of children who work in the agricultural sector in the United States
drop out ofhigh schools.
: Economy could be referred as another significant reason for one of the most
common problems in the world - child labor. Many families perceive their children as
a source of economic income, especially when theyare not economical!y advanced.
What is more, especiaı!y after the flrst Industrial Revolution there has been a great .
demand for labor force among companies. The abundant resources~ new inventions,
and high consumer demands helped the increase for demand for labor force. In this
connection, because ofpoor economic conditions offamilies and the lower wages that
children are agree for, child labor appealed many business areas.
Taking everything into consideration, child labor seems to be an important
problem for many countries. Although it is not legal in many parts of the world to
employ children, young' creatures are stil! er;ıployed by those who look for cheap

21

~-------------------"""-- d
IIIIIIIIlI:II_B!!ll!IIIiI"iI!mli
 working power. This problem can be solved only when the roots of the problem..
vFhich are lack ofeducation and poor economical condilions, are to be cut completely.
Written by
an advanced student

3- Opinion: In this type of essay you should state your opinion on a topic, which
must be clearly stated and supported by reasons. it is necessary to include the
opposing point of view in one of the paragraphs. As a result, your essay should
include an introduction paragraph in which you state the topic and your opinion; a
main body which consists of two or more paragraphs, each presenting a separate
vievv-point supported by reasons and various examples; and final1y, a conclusion,
where your have to restate your opinion in paraphrased 'vay.

SAMPLE ESSAY
ii Analyze the following essay samples and pay attentian to the format, structure and
vocabulary use.

EXERCISE AS A SOLUTION
Taday the importance of taking exercise regularly has been realized all over
the world. Thus, there are exercise centers even in small towns. No matter how much i

it costs, people have a great tendency to go to these places. This situation can be
attributed to boıh longingfor good appearance and health.
I It is easy to predict that good appearance is vitally important for same
reasons, one of which İs beauty. People think that regular exercise results İn good
appearance. However, a good appearance cannot be achieved solely by exercise
because there are' many factors contributing to appearance, for example, healthy
nutrition. Nonetheless, there is no doubt that regular exercise has a positive effect on
appearance. First ofall, a person who exercises regularly is likely to lose weight. We
do not even have to travel great distances to realize the fact that many people,
especially women, try to lose weight for a better appearance. Perhaps, it is due to the
fact that appearance is important to same extent in the society. To illustrate the point,
when we meet apersonfor thefirst time, his/her physical appearance is the thing that
attracts our altention, and 1've, in turn, try to make same predictİons about that person
according to the way s/he looks.
Anather considerable reason for the necessity of exercise is health. Scientists
have concluded that regular exercise is useful for health, because lack of exercise is
one of the major factors affecting obesity. They have alsa concluded that obesity is a
harmful factor which gives rise to heart atıack. Since heart attacks are the main
reason for deaths, many scientists try fo prevent the risks of that situation. Regular
exercise helps us to lose weight, so the risk of heart attacks decreases. Taday, many
people have sedentary jobs. This sart ofjobs gauses lack offlexibility, Being flexible
is necessary, because only in this way people may remain healthy even at the old age.
Anather outstanding contribution of exercise to one 's health is that it strengthens
parts of the body, thereby making us fit. An early scientist Lamarc says that the part
of the body which is not used is bound to be weak and even decay. Exercise helps
people to use every part of their bodies, thereby contributing to a healthy life.
Although the world has been developing rapidly in many fields, same of these

22
developments have brought about inevitable negative consequences, one of which is
stress. That is to say, our world seems to be more stressful than ever before. There are
many reasons for stress, such as heavy trafik, difficult living conditionsı etc. But that
is not the point. The point is that stress causes people to sıifJer psychologically. To
overcome harmfitl consequences of stress, exercise is recommended. An individual
can go to an exercise center or to a forest, and relax. In this way he may get rid of
stress and ends suffering mentaı!yfrom stress. No one can get his life back once it has
gone, so people have to pay attention to their lives until it is too Iate.
To deal more thoroughly with the harmfid results of the development of the
world and to have a good appearance, people should exercise. Namely, no matter
wherea person goes to exercise, he should just do same exercises to be healthy, good
looking and keep fit. In the light ofthe facts mentioned above, it can be concluded that
exercise is necessary not only for fitness but alsa for healt~y life.

To KJLL OR NOT Tü KıLL

No society is perfect! So every society has crime, and if it has crime, it alsa
needs punishment. Usual!y murder is corisidered the most serious crime, and same
societies insist that the criminal receive the same punishment as s/he has given to the
victim. People use to cal! it capital punishment, which in my opinion is no different
from murder, and is not a good solution to the problem, because it lowers society to
the level ofthe criminal and it alsa ignores the fact that people are not infallible.
First!y, when a society treats a criminal !ike s/he has treated sameone else,
that whole society lowers itself to the level of the criminal. It lets the criminal
determine what society should do. It seems to be il!ogical to punish criminal, who
murdered sameone, by killing him/her. In such a situation, both the criminal and the
society commit the same action but cal! it differently. Does it seem reasonable to you?
if we kil! the murderer, it means we are becoming just as violent as that person.
Furthermore, capital punishment is not appropriate because it assumes that
people can make a judgment that is perfectly right. Once a person has been executed,
s/he cannot be brought back to life if it is later discovered that a mistake had been
made. We came face to face with such situation for several times. One of the last
people to receive capital punishment in England was convicted on the testimony ofan
older man who was later discovered to have been the real murderer. The guilty man
escaped from punishment and a judge andjury were convinced that an innocent man
was guilty. Remember, we are not Gad, we are not aware ofeverything, so we cannot
be right al! the time.
There are many ways of dealing with criminals but capital punishment is an
unsuitable one since it fails to take into account that every person can make a
mistake. In addition, killing people is a strange and illogica! was for a society. Yes,
murder is a terrib!e crime but it is even worse when a society does it. Instead of one
person being a kil!er, we all become killers.

23
4. Argumentation: Making an argument means expressing apoint of view on a
subject and supporting it with evidence. Iri academic writing you will be asked to
write advantages and disadvantages or for and against essays that are the
categories of an argumentative essay. The purpose of such a kind of essay is
mainly not just to inform, but to present the counter argument to the reader and
persuade him/her by defending or refuting this argument, or offer some new view
of your own. As argumentation is something that is used on a daily basis, it will
not be hard for you to think critically and make sonıe reasoning, and weighing
evidence. The more ·you improve your skills in this area, the more .proficient you
will be. Remember three things that teachers usually expect of you:
a) Prove that you undel'stand the subject; and
b) Demonstrate your ability not only in English knowledge, but also in
using and applying the material beyond your background knowledge
about it;
c) Be charitable, fair and objective \vhile presenting and sunımarizing the
opposing arguınents.

SAMPLE ESSAY
ii Analyze the following essay samples and pay a!teniion to the format, structure and
vocabulary use.

For and Against E.ssay

ABORTlON:
MURDER üR DEMÜCRATIC RIGHT OF THE
MOTHER
AbOl-tion, 'which is a 1-vay to prevent the fetusfrom being born, has stil-red a lot
of controversy amongst people. The people, l'vho are for abortion, propose that it is
the best vvay to prevent overpopulation and illegitimate pregnaney, and eonsider it as
the democratic right of the women. In contrast to them, others say that abartian is a
kind of murder. For people who are against it, abortion means taking the righ/ of
living ofa child.
People who are for abortion olfer it as a solution to the overpopulation
problem. In faet, a solu/ian for that problem is essen/ial, but abartian will be the
worst one. Sinee there are other ways !ike birth control and family planning, why is it
necessary to make abartian to control the population? In Ol-der to stop the population
growth, would it be justice to kill same individuals? Neither the latter nar the forme.r
way is true.
Same people stress that abartian is the democratie right of the mother, so that
nobody has the right to prevent it. From their point of view, a person has the right to
do everything to his. body. This idea may be eonsidered as true when we look at it
superficially. Laws are opposed to this idea. For instance, in so/ne eountries a person
who tries to commit suicide is punished. Nowhere, people are let to commilting
suieide. Since the fetus is a separate living organism, nobody has the right to kill it.

24
 Since the moral values of the society are corrupted, we frequently see
illegitimate pregnancies. Some people offer abortion as a solution to those, who are
unconsciously become pregnant. But it is not true to kil! a child in order to get rid of
it. Young ladies should be carefid and have some precautions in order not to be
pregnant. Birth control pil!s can be an example for such precautions.
To conclude, abortion is a kind of murder. The corruption ofpeople has lead
to abortion. Neither offering it as a way to stop the increasing population, nor
stressing that it is the democratic right ofthe mother, prevents abortion from being a
cruel and cool blooded murder. It would be much better if the mother took some
precautions against unwanted pregnancy.
Written by
an advanced student

Advantages and Disadvantages Essay

EDUCATION IN A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Nowadays, there is a vital demand in people who are wel!-educated and know
a foreign language. This demand stems from the fact that the relations between the
countries are improving day by day. To meet this need today, the schools which give
educatian in a foreign language, especial!y in English, are established. There are
some disadvantages of education's being in a foreign language, such as lass' of
cultural identity and sıiffering of mother tongue. However, these drawbacks are of
liltle significance, and they can be easily prevented if necessary measures are taken.
By the way, considering the vital benefits individuals bear these minor problems
because il is difficult to find a rose wilhout a thorn. Coming to the advantages, people
who got their education in a foreign language have an opportunity of reading and
enjoying international documents, and contacting with different nations easily.
Education 's being in a foreign language may lea.d to the loss of cultural
identity and suffering ofmother tongue. Many claim that foreign language is a barrier
for children's learning his/her own culture and language. They believe that
individuals should learn their own cultures and languages properly, first. AIso, they
state that foreign language spoils a mother tongue. To il!ustrate the point, many
words in Turkish are borrowed from other languages, mainly from English and
French, and with time take place of their Turkish counterparts, which with time are
forgotten at all by people. That is why it is widely believed that children should be
taught in their mother tongue.
'One ofthe significant issues infavor ofgiving education in aforeign language
is that people who got such an education can benefit from foreign materials and
documentation. With the globalization of the world own materials are becoming
insuffici"ent. To fal! in step with this contemporary world, people may gain a lot with
the chance to benefit from foreign documents and literature. This can be done only by
the people who got education in aforeign language.
Another useful poi!1t of education in a foreign language is that people do not
encounter the difficulties when contacting with foreigners. Today many businessmen
cooperate with foreign companies in order to earn more money. People who got

25

-
education in a foreign language will benefit more from such cooperation, as the
language will not be a barrier for them.
In conclusion, there are many benefits of education 's being in a foreign
language. People speaking a foreign language jluently can use international
documents and literature. Also, they contact with foreigners easily. There may be
some minor disadvantages of such an education, of course. For example, to some
extent, it may lead to the loss of cultural identity and suffering of mother tongue.
However, in my opinion, these problems can be ignored or solved with minimum
efforts. if parents teach their children own cultural values properly, the children wiU
never lose their cultural identity.

Written by
an intermediate student

26
 FREE EXERCISE
r-ıiiıiıil---------------------------ııııı-*·ım.-

A. CCJRICO)([D§lE 1fIHI1E IB3lE§1f AN§W1E~

1. .He failed again in spite o(his great effort.

A) on account of B) unlike
C) despite D) as well as

2. Farmers grow flowers as well as vegetables.

A) concerning B) instead of
C) apart from D) except

3. Owing to his negligence, an accident accurred.

A) by means of B) regarding
C) in opposition to D) due to

4. There'll be five of us for dinner, besides BilL.

A) in addition to B) mareaver
C) contrary to D) but

5. It requires a lot of time to acquire a skiı!.

A) concerns B) has
C). needs D) takes part ~n

6. Psychology deals with human behavior.

A) considers B) is concerned with
C) searches for D) accounts for

7. . . there has been a substantial increase in car prices, people buy cars.
A) in spite of B) nonetheless
C) although D) however

8. .. the doctor's warnings, he persists in smoking.

A) nevertheless B) in contrast
C) despite D) even though

9. . the demand has increased, the prices are higher.

A) because of B) according to
C) since D) that' s why

27
 10. Resit is an optimist ,Ayhan is pessimist.
A) In contrast to B) nonetheless
C) similarly D) on the other hand

11 Mehmet, who is an optimist, Metin is a pessimist.

A) in contrast B) whereas
C) however D) unlike

12. METU and ITU are similar, they are both technicaL.
A) is that B) in that
C) in D) regarding

13 Murat is a teacher so is Ali.

A) like B) similarly
C) just as D) likewise

14. i worked hard 1 could be successful.

A) so B) in order that
C)~ D)~

15. We must cooperate maintain peace.

A) for B) in order that
C)~ D)fur~

ı 6. it is a good idea to take umbrella ......... .it rains.

A) in case of B) provided that
C) unless D) in case

17. Success hard work. Hard work is necessary to succeed.

A) dependent on B) based on
C) is based upon D) depends

18. Many people to living together as a couple before marriage. They

.............that this is not right.
A) oppose / think B) object / claim
C) object / persist D) persist / assert

19. Overpopulation is becoming on increasingly serious problem. . many

families continue to have large numbers of children.
A) although B) nonetheless
C) despite D) therefore

20. Learning a new language is difficult. , the student must study hard.
A) because of B) however
C) thus D) so that

21. The cost of living is very high , many civil servants take part
time jobs.
A) consequence B) as a result
C) as a consequence D) nevertheless

28
 22. Population growth has caused poHution , industrialization
has been another factor.
A) similar to B) similarly
C) in contrast D) inCıuding

23 educational opportunities, medical supplies are limited in

rural areas.
A) in contrast to B) in similar to
C) likewise D) including

24. His grades were low, he was admitted to the university.

A) however B) so that
C) while D) despite

1 restrict a support
2 ren1edy b decay
~

-' inevitable c evaIuate

4 adopt d confine
5 obey e 'accept
6 means f exclude
7 isoIate g shift
8 hamper h collect
9 advocate ı inhibit
lA entire j cure
11 rot k solution
12 treat I unavoidable
13 assess IT comply with
14 alter n vehicle/method
15 gather o complete

1 detach a make known

2 infer b implement
3 stretch c consider
4 reveal d ability
5 appropriate e disregard
6 obvious f conclude
7 fulfill g discover
8 deem h lucid
9 neglect <; quicken
lA acknowledge j serious
11 unique k extend
12 aptitude i relevant
13 accelerate IT valuable
14 severe n admit
15 precious o peerless

29
C. WIRill1fIE §IEN1fIEWa§ CGIrVJINCG TIHIIE §AMDE lMDE.ANJINCG§
Examples:

1. i worked hard for success. (SO THAT)

Answer: i worked hard so that i succeeded.

2. She sings like her mother. (AS)

Answer: She sings as her mother does.

1. Television not only informs us but also entertains us. (AS WELL AS)

2. Apart from stories, i read novels. (IN ADDITION)

3. Despite his great efforts, he failed to persuade me.

4. To study regular1y is essential for success. (REQUIRE)

5. Living things tend to adjust themselves to their environment.

(INCLINATION)

6. He İs so foolish that he will believe everything. (SUCH THAT)

7. Some countries do not let people explain their ideas freely. (PERMIT)

8. If you do not prevent terrorism migration will continue. (UNLESS)

9. Son1e teachers do not have experience. (LACK)

10. Many people migrate because of low living conditions. (SO)

11. Okan is shy. Likewise, Ilhan is very timid. (SIMILAR TO)

12. My father got somebody to repair our TV. (HAVE)

13. Since he drove recklessly, he caused an accident. (DUE TO)

30
 14. In spite of her good qualifications, she was not recruited. (ALTHOUGH)

15. Knowing German helps you to leam English. (FACILITATE)

16. He is not interested in his children properly. (ALLOCATE)

17. Knowing English is necessary to find a quality job. (Empty Subject)

D. J1D~IHIJRLA§JE 1fIHDE IFCQ)lldILCC))WJ:[NCG §ENIrJENCCJE§ WlI1I1BI 1(CC))lIJIl<S. CC))WN

W cc))IRlJ])§ 2
Examples:
1. Air pollution stems from burning low quality coal.
Answer: Low quality coal causes air pollution.

2. Failures in education result from using too many old materials and
bombarding students with too much information in: a short time.
Answer: Giving too much information in a short time to students does not
work.

ı. Many people in underdeveloped countries do not have job opportunl'ties.

Therefore, they have a great tendency to immigrate to developed countries to
make their living.

2. Not only ambition but also having a planned way of life is necessary tö be
successful in life in addition to graduating from a famous university. Although
being a graduate of a prestigious university like Boğaziçi University is very
important, it is not enough to succeed in life.

3. Although technology has developed great1y and has provided us with

numerous benefits, it is the main reason for many serious problems we face
today like pollution and traffic j am.

4. Boğaziçi University provides quality education through its quality materials

and qualified staff. In addition, it has wonderful view.

5. Leaming English provides a lot of advantages. Firstly, if you know English,

you are more likely to have a well-paid job. Secondly, knowing English has
high prestige in the society. That is to say, it is a symbol of status. it is obvious
that some people learn English for social prestige.

6. Traditional and modern families are different froın each other with regard to
many respects. For example, traditional people focus on obedience and
cooperative behavior, but people who accept modem way of life stress the
importance of creativity and individualism. We can conclude that traditional
way of life and modemism differs in child rearing practices.

31

.....
 7. There is a close relationship between learning and motivation. Namely, if you
have high motivation, you are more likely to learn what you study.

8. In those societies where conformity and obedience are stressed, children are
likely to be inward. Since parents do not let them express themselves, they
cannot communicate with others when they grow up and are on their own.
Furthermore, such children cannot decide individuaUy and independently.

9. Unless you lose your independence, war is a murder.

10. Who you are depends on whom you are with.

11. Do not ask what your country can do for you, but ask what you can do for
your country. (John Kennedy)

12. What makes us different from other living organiSlTIS is that we are gregarious
and need to be in the company of others.

13. Çoşkun deviates from social norrns. That is to say, he does not behave
appropriately in the society. Therefore, he is often punished.

1. The increase in TV channels leads to quality programs.

2. Democracy and education are too much interrelated.

3. Monotonous way of life results in stressful way of life.

4. Today children have n10re access to technology like computers.

5. Living in a foreign country may lead to culture shock and language barrier.

6. Violence on television is a major cause ofviolent behavior in society.

7. Tourism is a good source of income.

8. Television is able to educate a lot of people.

9. Some women work in order to contribute to family budget.

32
 i{iR.! cfoing tliings outcfoors. i cfon't
care a60ut grammar. 1Jiatjust isn't
my cup of tea

MJI§CIEILILANIEOU§ GJItAM[]~1LAR TliIP§ li

MOST COMMON STUDENT MISTAKES IN ESSAYS
1. Type of mistake: not parallel
Example ofmistake: llike to eat Japanesefood and eating Thaifood.
1 was able to raise my TOEFL score by studying Iıard and i read lots ofbooks.
Explanation: You need to use the same part of speech or type ofphrase when you have a
series ofwords that are joined with conjunctions.

2. Type ofmistake: 1 can 't understand what this means.

Example ofmistake: Many companies began using computers moutlı.
Explanation: 1 have tried to figure out what you are trying to say, but 1 can 'to

3. Type of mistake: new paragraph

Exanlple of nıİstake: no examples
Explanation: You should break up this long paragraph into two paragraphs.

4. Type of mistake: subject/verb agreement

Example ofmİstake: Slıe are a goodfriend ofmine that i Iıas knownfor a long time.
Explanation: You should break up this long paragraph into two paragraphs.

5. Type of mistake: avt!kward

Example of mistake: We heated the soup in the microwave for too long and tlıe slıape o(
tlıe container elıanged.
According to my experience, 1 grew up in the country and went to a smail schooL.
Dııe to the (act o(lıis being Iate, he missed the beginning ofthe movie.
Explanation: The wording is either too long or unclear. In other words, it sounds funny!

6. Type ofmistake: do not use contractions

Example ofmistake: I'm tired.
1 can 't help you.
I'll've read thirty books by the end ofthe year.
Explanation: Do not use contractions (can 't, don't, it's, we'll, they've, ete.) in farrnal
writing. lnstead, use thefull wordform (cannot, do not, it is, we will, they have, ete.).

7. Type ofmistake: double marking

Example of mistake: Even tlıoııgh 1 need to study, but 1 don 't want to go to the library
today.
Since I want to go to a good school, tlıere(ore I am trying to raise my test scores.
Explanation: This sentence cannot have a conjunction before the the main subject and the
main verb.

8. Type ofmistake: sentence fragment

Example of mistake: Micronesia 's economy is growing. Because their economists are
working hard to improve the economy.
Many students have a hard time passing all the tests to get into college. For example, my
friend in higlı school.

33
 Explanation: This sentence has no main subject or m.ain verb-often this is because the
sentence is actually a subordinate sentence. This particular example is a veıy comman
mistake. You can correct it by joining the two clauses.

9. Type of misıake: do not use get

Example of misıake: When i got home, i got tired, so i got a book and gol into bed.

Explanation: get is considered too informal and too vague to use in formal writing. Change
get to a more specific word !ike become, receive, find, achieve, etc.

10. Type of misıake: illegible writing

Example of nıfstake: We were very surprised by the little @$HG@$*%

Explanation: i can 't figure out the handwriting. Be carefuI.

lL. Type ofmistake: incorrect information

Exal1ıple of misıake: i am going to see a movie with mv friend. (This sentence means you
have onlyone friend in the ..."vhole world; }'OU need to say one ofıny friends.)
i was very good at soecer when i was hig/ı sclıool.(This sentence means that in the past you
were not human-you were a high schooL. You need to use a preposition here, When i was
in Iıig/ı schooL.)
The more people exercise, the yOUllger they will be. (Of course, exercise cannot make you
younger. It can make you feel younger, but actually making sameone younger is
impossible.)
i am fortunate to be able to spend a lot of time with my children. i can teach them
everything about Korea. (Of eourse, it is impossible to teach or even know everything about
Korea or any country. We should change it to many things.)
i would !ike to study in America because all modern technology originated there. (all means
100%; we cannot sczv that absolutely every new thing started in America; just to be safe, you
should use manyar m.ost.
Explanation: The infannation you have presented is either incorrect or sounds like it ınight
be incorrect (if it is indeed carrect, you should explain why it is correct since the reader is
not expecting it to be correct)

12. Type ofmistake: not a word in English

Example of ınistake: Computers are very helpful and advantageable.
ExpLanation: Although it looks !ike it could be a word, it isn 't, at least not in English. Try to
use a differentform ofthe word.

13. Type ofmistake: no preposition

Example of mistake: i would like to discuss about something important that you mentioned
about to me during yesterday.
We went lo downtown yesterday to buy a watch.
When i first canıe to the US, i did not have a lot offriends in here.
In class, my classmate never mentioned about her husband.

34

'·"1
 ı
i
j
ı
Example of misıake: The advent ofthe Internet greatly changed the world. i mean, so many i
people use e-mail nowadays.
I was kind ofmad at the guy who vociferated angry words at me.
i have heard many wondeı1ul things about such cosmopolitan cities as Paris, London,
Tokyo, and Hong Kong and i would love to visit these cities to check tlıenı out.
Accuracy and neatness are important when writing letters to college admissions offices or
whatever.
Explanation: The tone doesn 't match the rest of the essay-it is probably either too formal
or too informaL.

23. Type ofmistake: unclear pronoun referent

Exanıple of nıistake: if people do not speak the same language, li has a greater chance of
miscommunication.
Gary saw his brother yesterday even though he had to work most ofthe day.
1 intend to complete my studies in the United States because they have good programs there.
Having a good friend is important in your childhood. It can help you in many different
situations.
Exp/anation: The referent (the noun that the pronoun replaces) for this pronoun is unclear.

24. Type of mistake: verb tense

Examp/e of mistake: Yesterday i will go to the store because toınorrow 1 needed some food.
Explanation: The verb tense is incorrect-check present, past, future, perfect tenses, etc.

25. Type of nıİstake: word choice

Exal1ıple of ınİstake: if you really care ahout the child, you would teach the kid how to
read.
1 was Iate getting home because 110s1 mv wav.
Exp/anafion: This is not the right word to use in this case-either there is a better word to
use or the word you have used does not match the overall tone ofthe rest ofthe writing.

26. Type of nıistake: wordform

Exanıple ofmistake: People have a lot offi-eedom in Anıerican.
1 want to creation a great ıveb site so that 1 can beco111ing wealt/ı.
Exp/anation: These are not the correct form of the word-check the noun, aı?jective,
adverb, verb forms ofthis ·word.
This particular mistake, American instead ofAmerica is very common.

27. Type ofmistake: wrong vvord

Example ofmistake: Most basketball players are veıy hig/ı and make lots ofdollars.
Even i don 't speak Spanish,· i was able to find a bathroom in the departm.ent store.
i gained a lot ofpoıınds during vacation.
Explanation: This is either the wrong word or not the best word to use in this situation.

28. Type ofmistake: the writing is vague

Exaınple of mistake: if you want to live in America, you will need to have a lot of
experience.
We should use our resources on Earth because the Earth is getfing worse.
Exp/anation: This sentence or idea is too general and does not give us much information.

36
 Explanation: A preposition cannot be used with this word for this meaning. Often, this is
with the words downtown, home, there, here; these words are adverbs in English, not nouns.
Therefore, you cannot use a preposition before them.

14. Type ofmistake: off-topic or irrelevant

Example ofmistake: There are many reasons to buy acar, preferablva nice car.
Explanation: This idea is not related to the general topic afyour essay.

15. Type of mistake: platitude

Example ofmistake: It is okay (or children to (ail sometimes.
It is important to have friends.
Li(e is heaııtifııl.
Explanation: The idea expressed is a common one-most people are aıready aware ofit, so
it is not necessary to state it.

16. Type ofmistake: punctuation

Example of mistake: i love animals. and i like to help them. because theyare helpless. so i
want to become avet.
Explanation: This is a very common problem! ıvlany students put too many periods in their
sentences, especially when they handwrite their essays.

17. Type ofmistake: repetitive or redundant

Example ofmistake: The low-priced car was inexpensive.
Personal/Yı i believe what the newspaper prints.
llike to travel with friends who know me.
Explanation: An idea is stated more than once or some word is unnecessary.

18. Type ofmistake: singular/plural

Example ofmistake: Many year ago, dinosaıır roamed the Earths.
Explanation: This word needs to change either from singular to plural or from plural to
singular.

19. Type ofmistake: singular count noun

Example ofmistake: i like ~ but not banana.
Most people want to live near readily available source ofgasoline.
Explanation: A Singular Count Noun Cannot Stand Alone: you need either to change it to
pluralform or add a determiner (a, the, my, his, her, Gary's, no, any, 1, 3, 50, most, etc.)

20. Type ofmistake: spelling error

Example of mistake: Firstable. 1 want to tank yu (our yor help. Second/ee, eye want two
give you ş1!]!1 monnie.
Explanation: This word is misspelled.

21. Type ofmistake: problem with subject or verb or object

Example ofmistake: My sister she likes to studyall dayand all night.
1 want to buy something for my mother that she willlike it.
There was a terrible accident happen yesterday.
Explanation: There is a problem with the basic sentence structure-either the subject, verb
or object is missing or is repeated.

22. Type ofmistake: the tane does not match that ofthe essay

35
 Let me sl1o'rv you the grammar
mistakes you 've made!

MK§ceJEIJLA~TJEOU§GRhMMAA TKP§) 2
COMMON LANGUAGE MISTAKES
A list of the comman language mistakes occurring in student papers is given below. The
errors are arranged into grammatical categories. Study the list and avoid making the same
mistakes yourselves. The sentences given as examples are the correct versions.

Mistise of the definite artiele:

Abstract nouns do not normally take the definite artiele ("the") when used ın
generalizations:
'The gang cannot distinguish Good from Evi!.'
'She İs afraid to enter/of entering the house to face reality.'
'He prefers to live elose to nature because he is afraid of death.'

Prepositions:
• Wrong use of 'at' after 'come':
'They come home.'
'We can fol1ow the evolutian of her state of mind through the description of the
house.'
• Wrong use of 'with' instead of 'to':
'Daisy is married to Tom.'
• Wrong use of 'to' instead of 'with':
'The problem i am confronted with'
• Wrong use of 'during' instead of 'for':
'She has not seen her son for eight years.'
• Wrong use of'since' instead of 'for':
'They have known each other for eight years.'
• Wrong use of 'in the whole of instead of 'throughout':
'throughout the story... '
• Wrong use of 'in' instead of 'inside':
'She is unaware of the conflict happening inside her.'
• Wrong use of'in' instead of'into':
'She only wants to get into her son's room.'
• Wrong use of 'as' instead of 'like':
'She felt like a stranger.'
• Wrong use of 'of instead of 'with':
'They cause Mrs. Camavon to be disgusted \vith herself.'
• Wrong use of'of instead of'by':
'In this story by Doris Lessing.. '
• Wrong use of 'of instead of 'for':
'I think there are two reasons for the fact that she decides to elear the room.'
'She feels cannısed, and the reason for this is to be found in ... '
• Wrong use of 'that' instead of' as':
'The second waiter feels the same as the old man.'
• Wrong use of 'to' instead of 'at' after 'arrive':
'She must arrive at a decision.'
37
 .. Wrong use of 'explain' ,vithout 'to':
'This story explains to us how we must look beyond the appearance of things.'
.. Wrong use of 'say' without 'to':
'He said to him/told him that he liked the house.'
.. Wrong use of 'present' withoüt 'with':
'John presents us with the evolution of a mother's state of mind.'

Pronouns:
• Wrong use of 'him/her' instead of 'himself/herself' (when the object and subject
are the same person):
'She sees herseır from a certain distance.'
• Wrong use of 'who' (personal pronoun) instead of 'which' (impersonal
pronoun):
'The wolf, which is a wild anima!. .. '
.. Wrong use of 'the one of' instead of 'that of':
'Mrs. Carnavon's behavior is that of a depressed person.'

Negation:
.. Wrong use of 'also not' instead of 'nor':
'He felt no qualm of conscience, nor any regret.'
• Wrong use of 'not anymore' instead of 'no longer':'
'She D1ust go back home because it is no longer possible to stay in France.'

\'erb Forms:
• Inconsistent tenses:
'Her stepfather often comes to see her. One day he asks her ... '
ct Wrong use of the present continuous instead of the present simple:
'The atmosphere is tense and the author intensifies it further with words like'
• Wrong use of the İnfinitive instead of the present participle:
'This is a way to protect herself and to avoid sho,ving what she really feels.'
'This shows that she is not used to going into her son' s room.'
• Wrong use of the present participle instead of the infinitive:
'This scene explains her decision to get rid of Harry' s ,belongings.'
• Wrong use of a 'that' sub-clause instead of the infinitive:
'He would like the old man to leave.'
'She wants them to kno'v.'
• Wrong use of 'can' instead of 'nıay':
'When we watch movies we may or may not identify with the characters.'
• Wrong use of the present tense instead of the present perfect:
'Jim and Crystal Styan have livedlhave been living in a log cabin by ariver for
five years.'

Possessive Forms:
• Wrong use of 'vvho's' instead of 'whose':
'The story is about a woman whose son has died.'

38
 • Wrong use of 'it's' instead of 'its':
'This is an intriguing story, its setling is significant.'

Countable and Uncountable Nouns:

• Wrong use of 'informations' instead of 'information':
'We are given much information about the characters' thoughts.'
• Wrong use of 'evidences' instead of 'evidence':
'We have Httle evidence that the author is being İronİc.'

Vocabulary:
.. Wrong use of' admit' instead of' accept':
'Her son is dead and she can' t accept it.'
• Wrong use of 'accept' instead of 'agree':
'He agreed to come to the cinema.'
• Wrong use of 'actual' instead of 'current':
'The artiele is in the current edition of Le Monde Diplomatique.'
• Wrong use of 'current' instead of 'cornmon':
'The story offers a metaphor for a comm·on misunderstanding between
generations. '
• Wrong use of 'good' instead of 'right/correct':
'Mrs. Carnavon tries to take the right/correct decision.'
• Wrong use of 'good' instead of 'well':
'They knew each other really well. '
• Wrong use of 'good' instead of 'effective':
'The description of the place is most effective.'
• Wrong use of 'loose' instead of 'lose':
'She does not want to lose her memories of him. '
• Wrong use of 'remember' instead of 'remind':
'She decides to remove all the things which could remind her of her son.'
• Wrong use of 'support' instead of 'bear' or 'stand':
'She does this because she can't bear/stand seeing the door locked'
• Wronguse of 'according to me' instead of 'in my opinion' ('in my view', 'as i
see it', etc.):
'In my opinion, the title of the story reflects Mrs. Carnavon's state ofmind'
• Wrong use of 'tell' instead of 'speak':
'In this story Kate Chopin speaks about social class'
• Wrong use of'make' instead of'do':
'But we don't know what her husband does to her'
• Wrong use of'develop' instead of'analyse':
. 'I will now analyse the symbolism of the house.'
• Wrong use of 'remark' instead of 'notice':
'He wants to talk to her but then notices that. .. '
• Wrong use of 'find again' instead of 'rediscqver':
'She want to rediscover the traces ofhis existence'
• Wrong use of 'project' instead of 'plan':
'She has to do what she planned.'
• Wrong use of 'decease' instead of 'die':
'Time stopped when Harry died.'

39
 • Wrong use of'get İn' instead of 'enter':
'As soon as she enters the house... '
• Wrong use of 'critic' instead of 'review':
'I have read a ~_ery good review of that book. '

Miscellaneous:
• Confusion ofnoun with adjeetiva1 form, e.g. 'ironie' instead of 'irony':
'The 1ast sentenee of the story is ironic.'
• Wrong use of 'News' with 'are' instead of 'is':
'What is the 1atest news?'
• Failure to capitalize days of the week and adjeetives of nationa1ity:
'See you on Wednesday.'
'His behavior is c1assieally British.'

40
 Jt's (if<; fearning grammar.
!Ne'ı'er end'ing joG.

MI[§CCIEILILANEOU§ G~ TRIP§) 3

EXPRESSIONS OFTEN CONFUSED, MISU'SED, AND

OVERUSED
affeet/effeet
To affeet (v.) n1eans to move, influence, or change. it alsa means to put on an artiticial
quality of personality or character; such an exaggerated or artificial person may be called
affeeted.
An effeet (n.) is a consequence or result.
To effect (v.) means to put into actian, to complete -a plan or a change, for example.

aggravate
To aggravate means to make \vorse. Do not use it when youreally mean to irritate or
annoy.

all usion/iııusİon
An allusion is a reference; an illusion is a false or deceptive idea or visian.

among/between
Use between for two, among for three or more:
between you and me
among all the members of the family

amount/number
One'has an amount of something (the quantity as a whole) and a number ofthings (that
can be counted):
an amount oftime/a number of hours, days
a large amount ofwork/a number oftasks

bad/badly, good/well
Use bad and good (adjectives) to describe how one feels; use badly and well (adverbs)
to describe how one does something.
He felt bad (sorry, regretful) because he caused the team to lose.
The team lost the game because he played so badly.
She feels good (in good spirits, positive) when her work is going well.
She is feeling well (no longer ill) now after a long bout with the flu.
The team lost because he did not play well.

being as, being that

These expressions are not standard speech. Use because or since instead.

eompare to, eompare with

Use eompare to when you are expressing an analogyar similarity; use eompare with
when you are showing similarities and differences between two things.
He compared his small room to a closet.

41
 The critics compared the movie with the book.

different from (not than)

You should use the' preposıtıon from with different because you are making a
distinction, a separation. Use than for comparisons, to show degrees of the same quality:
, She is only slightly older than her sister, but her personality is very different
from her sister' s.

due to
This expression is popularly used for almost any cause and effect relationship. Avoid its
overuse in your writing:
Absence due to illness is excused.
Delays due to bad weather are common in winter.
it is more precise to say:
The road was closed because of an accident.
The defendant was acquitted by reason of insanity.
There were nıany landslides caused by the heavy rains.

everybody, somebody, someone, nobody

These are singular forms; they may refer to many people, but they refer to each one
individually. Singular antecedents take singular pronouns:
Everybody has hislher books, lunch, apinions.
Someone, a person has hislher opinions.

fartherl further
In general, you n1ay use farther or further for actual or figurative distance:
The nearest town is ten miles farther from here.
The latest agreements move us further toward a full peace.
Use further when you mean nıore:
We have nothing further to discuss.
A final agreement requires further negotiations.

fewer/less
One has fewer things and less something.
less time/ fewer hours
less money/fc,,,er hours
less content/fewer ideas

first, second, ...

To show transition and to enumerate examples, use these terms instead of firstly,
second/y, ...

hang/hanged/hung
When we use this verb in the past tense to denote an execution, we use hanged; for such
things as clothes and pictures, we use hung.
The condemned man was hanged at dawn.
We hung our winter coats in the hall closet.

hopefully
This expression is popularly used to mean we hope, it is hoped, and so on. The carefuI
writer should use it only as an adverb:

42
 The cat looked hopefuIly at the leftover chicken.
We hope the situation will improve.
It is hoped that research willlead to a cure.

however
Along with its cousins therefore, moreover, and consequently, however should be placed
within the sentence, close to the verb it modifies; think of it as a conjunction, not as a
transition at the beginning of a sentence.

if/whether
Use if to introduce conditional expressions; use whether (or not) for choices, decisions,
questions:
If it rains, our game will be postponed.
If you work hard, you will succeed.
i do not know whether we will play or not.

infer/imply
To infer is to conclude, to draw an inference from evidence; to imply is to suggest or to
hint.
We can infer from his comments that he is pleased.
She implied in her speech that she is planning to run for public office.

if ... werel if ... was

Use the if ... were construction for hypothetical conditions and situations:
If you were President, what would you do?
If i were you, i would accept the offer.
Use if ... was for situations that were P9ssible:
If that really was Linda who called yesterday, she should have left a message.

incredible/incredulous
Incredible means unbelievable, beyond belief or understanding. In formal writing, avoid
using it as hyperbole. Use instead such terms as astonishing or extraordinary.
A person is incredulous when he/she utterly cannot believe what is being said.

kind ofIsort of/type of

Avoid using a or an with these expressions:
That type of character is popular in children's books.
Those types of characters are ...
This kind of fabric is best for the new sofa.
Alsa avoid using kind of or sort of when you mean a little, rather, somewhat.

Hellay
These verbs are often confused. Note their principal parts and distinctions İn meaning:
You He on your bed to take anap.
.Themail has lain on your desk since yesterday.
Last winter the snow lay on the ground for weeks.
Note that to lay means to put or place something. (lt İs a transitiye verb and always takes
a direct object.):
You can lay your hat and gloves on the hall table.
He cannot remember where he laid his car keys.

43
like/as/as if
Use like as a preposition, use as and as ifas conjunctions:
He looks just like his father.
it loo1<:s as if it will rain this aftemoon.
You should do the assignments as you were instructed to.

only/just
These modifiers should be placed as elose as possible to the expressions they actually
limit:
i have only two dollars for lunch.
i have just one thing to say.

presently
This should be used to denote the immediate future; it means right away or in a little
while:
i will answer your question presently.
The meeting will begin presently.
For current time, use at present or currently:
He İs currently ajunior at North High.
At present, she is working on her nıasters degree.

toward/towards
Either is acceptable; toward is more fornıaL.

when/where
These are terms of tiıne and place; do not use thenı to introduce definitions.

which/that/who
These relative pronouns introduce elauses that describe or define. Use that for elauses
that arerestrictive (defining, limiting):
The books that you ordered will arriye tomorrow; the ones that Sam ordered
wiU come next week.
Basketball is the game that he plays best.
Use which for elauses that are nonrestrictive (descriptive):
The house on the corner, which was built in the ı 880s, will be restored to its
original design.
Use who for persons. (That is sometinıes used when the identification is distant or
impersonal.) Do not use which for person.
Lady Macbeth is a character that (who) remains fascinating to many students.
Use whom when the pronoun is an object:
To whom should i give the information? (obj. ofprep.)
Whom did you ask?

44 j

.J
MK§CIEIJLANEOU§ G~ TKIP§ 4

TOP TWENTY SPECIFIC PROBLEMS

ı. "It's" versus" Its"
• It's: A contraction, meaning "it is" (as in "It's time for dinner")
• Its: A possessive (as in "The dog \-vas wagging its tail")

2. "To," "Too," and "Two"

• To: Basic n1u1ti-purpose function word (as in "My goal is to die a millionaire")
• Too: Adjective, meaning "very" or "excessively" (as in "The Tigers were too
inexperienced to challenge the Yankees for the pennant")
• T'wo: The number between one and three (as in "Two losses to open a football season İs
two too manyıl)

3. "Who's" versus "Whose"

• Who's: A cop.traction, meaning "who is" (as İn "Who's coming to dinner?")
• Whose: A possessive (as in "Whose dinner is this?")

4. "Affeet" versus "Effect"

• Affeet (verb): "To influence" (as in "President Clinton hoped to affeet the outcome of
the Russian elections")
• Effeet (verb): "To bring about" (as in "President Clinton hoped to effeet a change in
Russian policies")
• Effeet (noun): "Consequence", "result" (as in "Every cause should have at least one
effeet")
• Affeet (noun): Feeling, affection; the conscious subjectiye aspect of an emotion
considered apart from bodily changes (pronounced AF-fect; this is probably NOT the
word that you mean to use in international relations)

5. "There," "Their," and "They're"

• There: Refers to location (as in "that dog over there")
• Theİr: A possessive (as in "They're going to bring theİr new carrı)
e They're: A contraction, meaning "theyare" (as in "They're on their way")

6. "Aeeept" versus" Exeept"

• Accept: A verb, indicating one's consent or approval (as in "The president aeeepted his
counterpart's proposal to submit their dispute to arbitration")
• Exeept: A preposition, conjunction, or verb, indicating exclusion or objection (as in
"Every country exeept the United States agreed to accept the conference's
recommendations")

7. "Have" versus "Of"

• The correct phrases are "could have," "should have," and "would have" -- not "could
of," "should of," or "would of."

45
8. "Principle" versus "Principal"
• Prineiple: A noun, meaning "a fundamental law, doctrine, or assumption" or "a rule or
code of conduct" (as in "My principles prevented me from cheating on that final exam")
• Principal: An adjective, meaning "nıost important, consequential, or influential" (as in
"The principal problem facing Bolivials economy is the country's lack of a seaport")

9. "Dominate" versus "Dominant"

• Dominate: A verb (as in "Mexicols soccer team is going to dominate the next World
Cup competition")
• Dominant: An adjective (as in "The United States was the dominant economic actor
after World War II")

10. "Lead" versus "Led"

• Lead (prononneed "ledU): A metalllc element (as in "Superman's X-ray vision can not
penetrate lead-lined walls")
• Lead (prononneed "leed"): Verb, meaning "to guide" or "to direct" (as in "In the
business world you must lead, fol1ow, or get out of the way")
• Led: The past form of the verb "to lead" (as in "He led the ııama to pasture")

1 ı. "Populous" versus "Populace"

• Populous: An adjective, meaning "densely populated" (as İn "A country's capital is not
necessarily its most populous cityıl)
., Populace: A noun, referring to a set of people living İn a certain area (as in "The entire
populaee was atIected by the radioactive faııaut")

12. "Where" versus

•
ır"Vere"
Where: Refers to a place or location (as in "Where do you think you are going?")
i
• Were: A past form of the verb "to be" (as in "they were going to the store")
j
ı
13. "Than" versus "Then" i
• Than: Used to compare (as in "I vvould rather receİve an A than aB") i
., Then: Refers to tiıne / chronology (as in "He answered first one question, then
another") or consequences (as in "if both countries are deınocracies, then they will solve
their problems short of vvar")

14. "Do" versus "Due"

• Do: A verb, meaning "to brİng to pass," "to carry out," or "to accomplish" (as İn "What
are you trying to do?")
• Due: Similar to "attributable to" or "because of' (as in "Johnls low grade on the test was
due to his failure to study") -- also "something that is owed" (as in a debt or a right)

15. "Lose" versus "Loose"

• Lose: A verb, meanİng the opposite of win (as İn "It is most painful to lose to a hated
rivaı")
• Loose: An adjective, meaning "not securely attached" (as in "The hinge was coming
loose")

46
16. "That," "Whieh," and "Who"
• That: A defining, or restrictive, pronoun. "That" is used to indicate which object is
being discussed, and should not fol1ow a comma (as in "The car that is parked in the
garage is red Li)
• Which: A nondefining, or nonrestrictive, pronoun. "Which" adds some new detail about
a specific object that has aıready been mentioned, and should fol1ow a comma (as in
"My new car, which is red, is parked in the garage")
• Who: A personal pronoun. "Who" should be used in place of "that" or "which" in
discussing a person (as in "The student who did the most work got an A for the course"
or"Bob, who did more work than his classmates, got an A for the course")

17. "e.g.," "Le.," "ete.," and "et aL."

• e.g.: "For example," from the Latin "exempli gratia" (as in "Research on the evolution of
interstate rivalry (e.g., Hensel 1996)... ").
• İ.e.: "That is," from the Latin "id est" (as in "The goal of this web page -- Le., improving
your writing skills -- is...")
• etc.: "And so forth" / "and others of the same kind," from the Latin "et cetera. "
• et al.: "And others," from the Latin "et alii" [masc.], "et aliae" [fern.], or "et alia"
[neutral] (as in "Singer, et aL., found an important difference between the 19th and 20th
centuries").

18. "Now," "Know," and "No"

• Now: Refers to the present time (as in "What we need now is a good rainstorm")
• Know: A verb, reflecting recognition or understanding (as in "I know everything there
is to know about this subject")
• No: The opposite of yes (as in "No, you can't eat that last cookie! Li)

19. "Border" versus "Boarder"

• Border: in international relations, the line on a map that separates two or more
geographic units.
• Boarder: "One who boards," such as someone who is paying for meals and lodging or
sameone whose job involves going aboard seagoing vessels.
• So the correct international relations term is "border," as in the "Canadİan border." A
"Canadian boarder" refers to someone from the Great White Nqrth who is renting a
room, rather than a line on a map separating Canada from Minnesota or New Yürk.

20. "Bloek" versus "Bloc"

• Bloc: In international relations, a combination of individuals, groups, or countries united
by treaty or sharing a common purpose.
• So the correct international relations term is "bloc," as in the "Western bloc" and "Soviet
bloc" İn the Cold War. A "Soviet block" would be a small cube ofwood wİth a hammer
and sickle or pictures of Lenin (making for a very unusual child's toy).

47
 i terI'iN,' iıiece ofll'ork:
GR/I.\ !.\ lAR BOOK!

. .ATLT "-'""'1 ln JL-' . . ~1'--' "U~ tr:: Tr'})

~~.,_""",Jt:: '=.o::.:i\u ~ı;~ .,. . ):' UJ Ultti~lVll1VJU~
L~ LK\ ir1t\ if IM TC5) ırlT1D)~
lLle 0J 5=
CORE OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY 1
apparent(adj.) clear, lucid overt visible manifest,obvious
yield (v.) 1. provide supply produce generate
yield (v.) 2. submit subdue give in capitulate
yield (n.) profıt eaming income harvest, crop
iniurious (adj.) harmful detrimental hurtful damageful
transient (adj.) temporary transitory impermanent provisional
available (adj.) artainable accessible obtainable at hand
intricate (adj.) complex conıplieated sophisticated perplexing
objective (n.) aim goal purpose target
deal with (v.) handie with tackle with treat be concerned with
liberate (v.) release free emane ipate set free
primarily (adv.) fırstlv initially mainly chiefly, basically
include (v.) composed of comprise contain consisting of
include (v.) incorporate cover encompass embrace
sustain (v.) maintain continue go on keep up
fınish (v.) consume terminate deplete exhaust, run out
notion (n.) idea wit concept view
smooth (adi.) even fiat plain level
tendency (n.) inclination propensity trend predisposition
feature (n.) property trait artribute characteristics
implicit (adj.) obscure vague unclear ambiguous
implement (v.) carryout fu Ifıll perform execute, realize
suppose (v.) presume assume consider imagine, think
enormous (adj.) tremendous excessive huge, immense vast, gigantic
unite (v.) associate combine conjoin connect
unite (v.) join affıliate ally confederate
increase (v.) ascend elevate boost proliferate
steeply (adv.) abruptly sudden!y sharply immediately
splendid (adi.) excellent perfect wonderful magnifıcent

nourish (v.) feed foster nurture nurse

gear (v.) speed expedite quicken accelerate
convert (v.) change reverse converse turn into
proper (adj.) suitable relevant convenient appropriate
vital (adj.) inıportant crucial essential signifıcant
logical (adi.) reasonable plausible rational justifıable
steady (adj.) constant permanent fırm consistent
steady (adi.) perpetual stable unchanging Steady-fast
spread (v.) stretch expand extend enlarge
cue (n.) clue hint key evidence
stop (v.) cease halt quit give up
prevent (v.) hinder hamper impede block
prevent (v.) barrier head off intervene İnterfere
device (n.) tool materİal apparatus equipment
oblige (v.) compel impel force coerce
strange (adj.) exotic odd peculiar eccentric

48
 J-{a'ı'c ıl nice grammar (esson! ]

- - -
MK§CEJLJLANIEOU§)
- GI~.i\Mfu1LAJR TKP§) tS
CORE OF -ENG:LIS.H VOCABULARY ,2
decrease (v.) diminish decline descend
decrease (v.) lessen lower alleviate, abate
verify (v.) establish prove sanction
verify (v.) affı rm confırm fortify, rectify
examine (v.) investi,gatescrutinize detect
examine (v.) inspect search inquire
reveal (v.) emer,ge elicit disclose
reveal (v.) divulge uncover show, appear
urge (v.) arouse stir up stimulate
ur,ge (v.) rouse provoke incite
plentiful (adj.) abundant many a great deal
supply (n.) source resource reservoir
common (adj.) prevalent prevailing widespread
tradition (n.) custom mores convention
surplus (adj.) profuse excessive copioLls
promise (v.) swear pled,ge take an oath
claim (v.) allege argue profess
serimıs (adj.) solemn earnest sober
show (v.) display manifest exhibit
show (v.) indicate demonstrate reveal
basic (adj.) maın chief fundamental
rough (adj.) rLlgged uneven craggy
conspicLlous (adj.) remarkable salient noticeable
various (adj.) several diverse different
disseminate (v.) dissipate radiate spread
start (v.) initiate trigger inaugurate
start (v.) commence embark begin
contribute (v.) help conduce aid
compensate for Cv.) pay for make up for offset, balance
perceive (v.) discern realize be aware
ultimately (adv.) fınally eventuaIly at last
chan.ge (v.) alter shift modify, vary
constitute (v.) make up form construct, set up
conceal (v.) hide disguise veil, cover
enhance (v.) improve develop advance
enhance (v.) prosper augment İncrease
consider (v.) regard deem deliberate
exact (adj.) accurate absolute defınite
surprising (adj.) start/in,g amazİng bewİlderİng
peak (n.) summit apex top

49
 MJ[SCClELLANJEOUS GRAI\AMAR TKJFS 7

C'ORE OJF ENG-LISH VOCABULARY 3

flame (n.) blaze fire
rarely(a~ scarcely seldom
spontaneous (adj.) natural (opp.) superficial
be exposed to (v.) be subiected to undergo
considered (adj.) deliberate conscious
collide (v.) c1ash crash
inhabitant (n.) dweııer resident
succeed (v.) achieve accomplish
permit (v.) al10w let
skilI (n.) ability talent
annoy (v.) disturb bother
willing (adi.) eager desireful
competition (n.) rivalry race
inevitable (adi.) indispensable unavoidable
devote to (v.) dedicate to engage in
happy (adi.) content cheerful
precise (adi.) conscise brief
attribute (v.) ascribe confer, bestow
i exploit (v.) utilize profit by
abuse (v.) misuse ma!ign
surmount (v.) overcome cope with
drawback (n.) disadvantage shortcoming
propose (v.) suggest offer
aggravate (v.) worsen deteriorate
casua! (adj.) accidental random
absorb (v.) get in suck
ignore (v.) overlook, omit disregard, neglect
consequence (n.) result outcome
get rid of (v.) discard dispose
prospeetive (adi.) probab!e potential
~_trenuous (adi.) active energetic
separate (v.) segregate divide
surpass (v.) exceed, excel outdo
reinforee (v.) strengthen support
diseuss (v.) debate argue, dispute
avoid (v.) abstain evade, avert
avow (v.) confess admit
impact (n.) influence effeet
prediet (v.) guess foreeast
devastate (v.) eliminate decimate

50
PROFICIENCY
MAXIMISER
i

51
( SEARCH READING ~
BLACK GOLD
Many years ago, when most people got their water direct fron1 wells, they were
sametimes annoyed by a viscous, dark liquid which came out of the ground and contaminated
the water. it smelt bad and was extremely dirty. Same people discovered that it was good for
caulking boats - it prevented water getting in through cracks in the wood. Others found it was a
good medicine for the stomach. But most people thought it was a nuisance. Taday we have a
rather a different opinion about this substance known as crude oil.
In 1855, a young teacher at Yale University, Benjamin Silliman, became interested in
crude oil. Be soan found that it could be used as a fuel for heating and lighting and as a
lubricant. So he asked his friend Edwin Drake, a railway man, to try to produce this oil on his
land in Philadelphia. Drake tried to collect the oil, Vv'hich was seeping to the surface, bydigging
a large hale. This was not successful and he decided to try drilling. Suddenly, as he was drilling
the hale, oil began to gush out in a great stream. The first oil well had started production and the
age of oil was just around the corner. Taday, 1. P. Getty and Howard Bughes, who are said to be
the world's two richest men, both have fortunes based on oil - the first on the Standard Oil Co.
and the second on a highly efficient oil-drilling bit.
Most scientists believe that crude oil is formed by the decomposed ren1ains of billions
of tiny plants and animals which lived in the sea millions or hundreds of millions of years ago.
When these organisn1s died, they decayed and over millions of years layers of slime formed on
the ocean bed; with the pressıU'e of ınoveınents in the earth's crust and the heat this pressure
caused, these layers were conveıied into petroleuın. Only 120 years ago, nobody would have
vv'asted his time trying to dig it up.
Now, 120 years later, the list of crude oil fractions (things which make up the ınixture
called crude oil) and by-products is nearly endless: pet'rol for cars, diesel oil for trains, buses
and lorries, aviation fuels, lubricating oils for all engines, heavy ai ls for power stations and
ships, asphalt for roads, petrochemicals for plastics, synthetic fibers and even for synthetic foo d
products, etc. Taday, a world without petroleum products is almost unin1aginable.
In 1971, the world produced 17.25 billian barrels ofoil (l barrel = 42 U.S. gallons).
Most of this oil was produced in the Middle East - Saudi Arabia, Libya, Kuwait, and Iraq -, in
the U.S.A., and in Venezuela, Mexico, Russia, Nigeria and Iran. But already in 1973 cal' drivers
in many countries found that sonıetimes there was not enough gasoline for their cars or enough
fuel to heat their honıes. And so the search for ınore and n10re oil continues. it is being drilled
for in the frozen wastes of Alaska and Siberia as \vell as in the deserts of Africa and the Middle
East and not onlyon land, but alsa at sea.
The first oil froın the sea was produced some decades ago by the off-shore drilling rigs
in Maracaibo Bay, Venezuela. There the water is shallow and the oil is very near the surface.
The tropical forest comes right down to the water's edge, and taday it seems to continue into the
sea, where there is a whole forest of drilling rigs. There the oil is quite easy to get out, but ll1en
are nowalsa drilling in the cold, deep North Sea between Great Britain and Norway. Perhaps
the only advantage of this difficult and dangerous deep-sea drilling is that an oil-Ieak might not
have the same disastrous ecological consequences as a leak from off-shore drilling, such as the
one off Santa Barbara, California in 1969.
it may seem an easy job to drill holes in the land areas of the eaıih, but even an
exploratory well may be over 3,000 meters deep! The drillers may have to drill through very
hard rock, and when they have drilled part of the well they will probably have to take the entire
drill pipe out to change the drilling bit at the lower end. it is the bit which eats through the rock
and, although it is very sharp and has 132 cutting edges, it quickly wears out. Then, after

52
drilling 3,000 meters, they ınay find nothing! Or, if they strike oil, it may gush out so
powerfully that workers are injured and equipment damaged. A spark might ignite the oil vapor
and cause a fire which would burn so fiercely that it could only be extinguished by explosives.
In the past, such accidents were frequent, but techniques have been developed to help avoid
them.
But imagine working on a deep-sea drilling rig, which is really a huge platform, in a
storm with 50 or 60 meters of water below you! This is how men are vvorking at this moment
100 miles Ç)ff the coasts of Scotland and Mexico. All their food and drink must be brought by
boat or helicopter and, if oil is found, pipelines must be laid by divers on the ocean-bed to carry
the oil to land.
The petroleum vvhich comes out of the ground cannot really be used for anything. It
must first be refined. Refineries are huge "factories" where crude oil is separated into
'''fractions'' which are commonly known as gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil, lubricating oil and fuel
oil. Then these fractions must be distributed by pipeline or tanker to the final distributors, such
as filling stations (for gasoline and diesel oil), which sell it to the ultimate users.
Every person in industrialized societies depends on crude oil. lts fractions provide fuel
for clectricity generators, power his transport, probably heat his home, may help clothe him and,
in the future, feed hin1. The question is: how long will the world's reserves of crude oil last? The
\-vorld's estimated reserves in 1972 were 670 billion barrels, but world consumption is 19 billion
barrels per year, and consumption increases every year.
Crude oil is a non-renewable resource and one day it will probably run out. Many
things in the world will be very different when this happens, but the most interesting and
important question is what alternative sources of energy will be sııccessfully developed.

53
II SEARCH READING i

ı. According to Benjamin Silliman, how can crude oil are utilized?

2. The world's richest men are J.P. Getty and Howard Hughes. Their fortunes ınainly depend on

3. . are coınponents of crude

oil.

4. What are the by-products of crude oil? (Write any two)

+++
• .. .o • •

.
++.
.. .

5. What was the problem faced in 1973?

6. Crude oil is being drilled not only but also .

7. What is the benefit of the deep-sea drilling process?

8. When drillers ıneet oil what cause them to be injured and equipment to be damaged?

9. What is needed in order to make use of the petroleum which comes out of the ground?

10. State any three beııefıts of the fractions of crude oil for human beings.

·
+++
.

·
•+.
" .

++.
• oo oo .. oo oo "oooo .. oo ooOO OOOOoo oooooo oo .. oo oooo .. oo ..

11. The drawbacks of crude oil are that and .

54
 LANGUAGEDEVELOPMENT
How does "da-da" become "Daddy?" How does "oo-ga-bee" become ''!'m glad to see
you" or. "le suis heureuse de vous voir"? Linguists have found that the earliest infantile
verbalizations are quite similar the world over. Selection and repetition of certain sounds by
attending adults and oIder children result in the reinforcement of same syllables and the gradual
extinction of others. Thus, the originally meaningless vocalization gradually takes on
significance as part of same language.
If you listen to a young chiId who is just beginning to use words as a means of
communication, you will find that one word, usually a verb or noun, conveys a vvhole thought.
"Eat!", for example, can mean "I want to eat now," or "I want to eat that (cookie, elothespin,
candy, etc.)." "Daddy" can mean "I see Daddy," "I want Daddy," "Here comes Daddy," and so
on. The thought obviously has to be deduced from the situational context in which the
telegraphic verbalization occurs. Yet somehow, tvvo or three years later, this same child can
speak in sentences of several words organized in fairly correct granimatical array. Plurals, verb
forms, and possessives are all used in adult-like form, assuming that the child has heard them
used correctly. Even in cases where faınily meınbers do not use language correctly, the child
may listen to enough "good" language on television to gain competence. This assumption
follows from research findings which indicate that we learn language largely through imitation.
There is debate about whether children have an innate sense of language, whether there is
one basic Iinguistic system underlying all spoken languages, or whether learning is indeed the
key to the acquisition of language construction. Language development can be placed on a
continuum, Iike other aspects of development, without regard to the source of development, and
children's speech and language diagnosed as being at one point or anather on the continuum.
Thus, the child generalizing grammatical rules more often, or who is very repetitiye in speech,
would be diagnosed as having a younger developmental age in language than one who used
language more correctly.
From whatever source language develops, it rather quickly becomes the medium by
which the child can express his thoughts. Language development, concept formatian, and
communication, therefore, become intertvvined. A case in point is Beilin and Kagan's study of
"Pluralization rules and the conceptualization of number." Using preschool subjects, aged three
to five years, Beilin and Kagan tested sixty-eight white middle-elass and ten non-white children
of above average intelligence on their knowledge of language pluralization rules and their
ability to indicate correctly one or two objects in pictures. The subjects were able to handIe the
number concepts well, generally, but had same difficulties with pluralization rules, particularly
in the case of verbs. Those who failed on the tasks were given training. Verb-pluralization
training led to improved performance, but concept training did not lead to (i.e. transfer)
improvement in the use of plurals. Beilin and Kagan conduded, on the basis of the assessment
and training studies, that the ". . . data suggest that in natural social (principally familial)
environments young children are more apt to acquire number concepts earlier." Theyalsa
pointed out that an understanding of concepts is not vital to using them, but that if the
pluralization rules are not understood, then the child may not use appropriate language until he
does understand the rules. That is. he may be able to count up to five, for example, but avoid
saying "Five people are in the car" because he doesn't understand the mechanics of language
sufficiently to be certain whether itls "Five people is ... " or "Five people are ... " This is
something like our own problem of speaking in an inadequately learned foreign language vvhere

55

-
we've forgotten corrcel \'erb end i ngs for the past tense. As a result, we say everything in the
preseht tense or stop spcaking.
Although we generalIy think of young children as using specific or concrete language, and
older children using general and abstract ternıs, Brown's delightful and insightful paper on
vocabulary developınent indicates that this view of language development may be erraneous.
Which is the more comnıon term for a young child to use: "dog" or "poadle"? Obviously, the
former "Dog," however, is more abstract than "poadle." On the other hand, frequently all men
are called "Daddy," a very specific term used as a generalone, until men are differentiated into
milkmen, brothers, uncles, and mailmen. Then children ınay revert to a more abstract level,
categorizing these persons as "males" or "men." In effect, Brown has shown that there ınay be
two levels of abstraction, one based on lack of differentiation and the other occurring after
differentiation. Both children and adults enlarge their vocabularies as the acquisition of
information brings them from over-generalization to the specific and then on to a new higher-
level abstraction. This is a process largely encouraged by surrounding adults, including parents
and teachers. As pre-psychology students~ for example, "learning" nıay have meant that which
took place in schooL. Then, in introductory psychology, you acquired the information that there
are many kinds of learning that occur both inside and outside of the school setting - social
learning, latent learning, classical conditioning, instruınental conditioning, meınorization, and
so on. Now, when you use the abstraction "learning," you have a more sophisticated concept
than you did originally.
Similarly, in the growth of sentences and syntax, the influence of significant adults is
apparent. The baby says, "Daddy bye-bye," and the mother says "Daddy is going bye-bye," thus
demonstrating a more acceptable language form and enlarging the child's perception of how to
say things. Since children do learn much of their language by imitation, next tiıne the child may
say "Daddy going bye-bye" \vhich, while still not quite correct English, is an expansion of the
earlier construction. Parents correct verb tenses, plurals, double negatives, and other mistakes as
the child's language develops, so that the entering first-grader usually speaks quite acceptably.
The child ınay, however, become so enchanted with inıitating and learning newand larger
words that he uses thenı with miniınal comprehension. Again, there is a probleın of maving
back to a more concrete level. For example, the youngster hears the term "liaison man," used in
the sense of a link between two groups of people, a kind of human bridge. Without further
infornıation, he mayaıso refer to a certain kind of beit as a "liaison" beIt, or to the George
Washington Bridge as a "liaison" between New York and New Jersey. it is obviously not
enough to hear and iınitate words, but one nıust alsa comprehend their very special uses,
especially when used in idioınatic expressions and proverbs.
To iHustrate: ask a five-year-old what iLA stitch in tiıne saves nine" means. The most
frequent response will probably involve a vague reference to sewing. Being abIe to generalize
froın the proverb is an ability which apparently develops much later than we think. Piaget
estimates that this ability isn't developed until well into his stage of formal operations, about age
fourteen or fifteen years. it seems pointless, then, to be forever quoting proverbs to elementary
school children who may parrat them but otherwise profit negligibly from them.
A more comnıon problem for us is simply to learn a second language. There is a
considerable amount of evidence which demonstrates that second-Iflnguage learning is easier for
young children than for adolescents. For one thing, theyare less conscious of tenses,
pluralization rules, and other grammatical structures than are adolescents. They tend to imitate
the teacher much as they imitated the ınather in learning their first language. Penfield and
Roberts alsa point out that the younger child has more flexible vocal apparatus and is, in
addition, less self-conscious than the adolescent. A more positive attitude toward second-
language learning is often present in the younger child, too, for there is a mystery and a magic
about foreign languages which appeals to him (as in the outburst of "pig Latin" and related non-
languages in the early grades), but which is not present in the adolescent. The older the student,

56
the more he tends to get bogged down in the memorization of vocabulary lists and the study of
syntax. As suggested above, it is easier for him to leam concrete terms, for example, "perro" or
"chien" for dog, than it is for him to transIate a proverb correctly from one language to the
other. For the young child, second-language leaming is "fun," while for the older student it is
too frequently an onerous task. This may be due to a growing rigidity in some areas, or to a
resistance to return to such basics at the "advanced" age of fourteen when abstract thinking is
stiıı ne\v and exciting.
The techniques of teaching foreign languages vary from a very traditional vocabulary-
grammar-reading-writing approach to the newer audiovisual (filmstrip and tapes) method or to
an "immersion" technique where the student is in the foreign-language environment full-time.
No one technique is best for every student. The traditional approach is well structured but rarely
stimulating in conteni. The audio-visual methods are often presented with too little time to
"digest" the vocabulary, but do usually result in better conversational ability. An additional
handicap observed in practice, however, is that it is more difficult for an absentee to make up
missed work in this approach. The "immersion" technique is literally one where you "sink-or-
swim." Many students may sink, despairing of ever understanding the language or of being
understood by others in the environmenL On the other hand, those who "swim," appear to
master accent, inflection, and vocabulary with long-Iasting results. As with any other newly
learned skill, however, continuing practice is vital.

57
 CiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiAREiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiJFiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiUL
1:.--.1 , REiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiA
iiiiiiiiiiiiiii
· Di i i i i ~€i i i i i G~i i i i i i i i i i i'i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i üi~~iiiiiiiiiiiiiii]
iiiiiiiiiiiiiii

fuAN~IDA~~@~~fu~W~Nil

1. In "one word" stage of communication children use in which we

infer the meaning froın .

2. Which children are regarded as immature for language development on a continuum?

3. Suppose that you are delivering a speech in your public speaking lesson in which you are

learning English. Your topic is about "how the past experiences affect learning". Samewhere in

your speech, you had to refer to an anecdote expressing one of your past experiences, but you

are confused about past tense indicating suffıxes in English.

What might you probably do İn such a situation?

4. According to Brown 's differentiation theory, which term is more likely to be used, "flower" or

"clove"? And which of them is more concrete?

5. What is a possible problem about imitatian of learning?

In which context may the imitated words not be understandable?

6. What is more diffıcult for older students ın terms of vocabulary development ın a second

language?

58
II SELECTlVE LISTENING
i

1. When considering the implications of "knowledge of the leamer", what do the teachers
know about children in terms oftheir readiness for leaming? (Write onlyone!)

2. Factors that determine a child's readiness are:

.
••• "".""""""."."."""""."""""""""""".,,""""""""",,.,,""",,.,,"""""""""""""""",,.,,"""""""""""""""""""""""""

.+.. . , .

3. An eight-grade child who reads .level isn't ready

to work on" eight-grade and who
isn't master of .isn't ready for
chemistry.

4. The fact that class procedures violate the principle of readiness is because the students'
.........................and are not the same. (Write only two!)

5. Apart from differences in the quality of material presented, what other things must any
instructional program plan for, so as to be successful?

6. Readiness process begins before the child ever enters the schooL. From that time on
through school, children are Ieaming skills for two things. What are they?
.
••• "".""""""""""""".""""""""""""".,,""""""",,.,,"""""""""""",,. , .. """"""".""",,.,,""""",,.,,""""""""""""""""

.
.+. . " .

7. Give the example mentioned ın the taIk, to administrative changes ın terms of

"individualizing of instruction"!

8. In the meantime, much remains to be done. These practices must change if each
........................................ .is to profit from .

59
 1. a). According to the talk, write foUf different age periods that are recognized by a
society!

b). In the Australia and Hindus societies, how many age periods are present?

2. The infant is not considered to be a menıber of the society before ceremonial1y

recognized among
.:. . .
.:. . .

3. What kinds of changes determine the transition from childhood to adulthoad?

.:. . ,.

.:. . .

4. People are generally married in transition from to

5. The transition froın adulthood to old age is not celebrated by society, because it

6. Give the name of the country where the old are compelled to work hard and
disesteenıed!

7. A successful politİcal and admİnİstrative decision requİres and

8. In Western eountrİes, how are the dead remembered?

60
"The law allowing the form ation ofprofessiona/ army force should be enacted. "
Discuss the above statement by supporting onlyone side.

AGAINST

-$- Avoidance of redundant loss in crashes -$- Can be misused by any political movement
can be misused by political -$- The possibility of misconduct and
-$- To some part remedy or the employment exploitation of local dwellers
problem -$- An additional burden to economy
-$- Earlier start for career
-$- Experienced, skilled soldiers; the result is
effective.

re ı
fJfYIlllfTrIfN!(fij Tr(())IPif
"Real democracy is only possible in countries where there are educated voters ".
Write an essay discussing whether you agree or disagree with this statement. You can use the
points given below:

Agree:

../ Uneducated voters are more easily swayed by rhetoric.

../ Uneducated people are not close to public affairs.
../ Uneducated voters assess a candidate according to outward appearance, not according to
the ideas.

Disagree:

../ Uneducated voters are not necessarily ignorant.

~ Everybody feels the effects of lack of freedom.
~ Democracy consists of ideas from every kind of class

61
 PR FICIENCY
MA i i ER
II

62
~ SEARCH READING ı
ECONOMICS, SCARCITY&
THE SOCIAL ORGANISATION

The problem of how socıetıes forge and maintain the bonds which guarantee their
material survival is the basic problem of economics. We know very little of how those bonds
may have been originally constituted. Man appears on the scroll of history as a member of a
group, and as such, the beneficiary of a rudimentary division of labor. Yet it is noteworthy that
even his simplest familiar cooperation is not achieved instinctually as is the case with
communities of insects or of animals, but must be buttressed with magic and taboo and
maintained by more or less repressiye laws and traditions.
Strangely enough, then, we find that man, not nature, is the source of most of our
economic problems. To be sure, the economic problem itself-that is, the need to struggle for
existence-derives ultimately from the scareity of nature. If there were no scarcity, goods would
be as free as air, and economics, at least in one sense of the word" would cease to exist as a
social preoccupation.
And yet if the scarcity of nature sets the stage for the economic problem, it does not
inıpose the only strictures against which men must struggle. For scarcity, as a felt condition, is
not solely the fault of nature. If Americans today, for instance, were content to liye at the level
of Mexican peasants, all our material wants could be fully satisfied with but an hour or two of
daily labor. We would experience little or no scarcity, and our economic problems would
virtually disappear. Instead, we find-in America-and indeed in all industrial societies-that as the
ability to increase nature's yield has risen, so has the reach of human wants. In fact, in societies
such as ours, where relative social status is importantly connected with the possession of
material goods, we often find that "Scarcity" as a psychological experience and goad becomes
more pronounced as we grow wea1thier: our desires to possess the fruits of nature race-out
ahead of our mounting ability to produce goods.
Thus the "wants" that nature must satisfy are by no means fixed while, for that matter,
nature' s yield itseır is not a constant, but varies over a wide range, depending on the social
application of human energy and skiı!. Scarcity is therefore not attributable to nature alone but
to "human nature" as well; and economics is ultimately concerned not merely with the
stinginess of the physical environment, but equally with the appetite of the human temperament.
Hence we must begin a systematic analysis of economics by singling out the functions
which socialorganizations must perform to bring human nature into social harness. And when
we turn our attention to this fundamental problem, we can quickly see that it involves the
solution of two related and yet separate elemental tasks: (1) A society must organize a system
for producing the goods and services it needs for its own perpetuation. (2) it must arrange a
distribution of the fruits of its production among its own members, so that more production can
take place.
What is the difficulty which the production problem poses? What are the obstacles
which a society encounters in organizing a system to produce the goods and services it needs?
Since nature is usually stingy, it would seem that the production problem must be essentially
one of engineering, or technical efficiency. it would seem to revolve around the effort to
economize, to avoid waste and apply social effort as efficaciously as possible.
This İs indeed an important task for any society, and a great deal of formal economic
thought, as the word itself suggests, is devoted to economizing. Yet this is not the core of the
production problem. Long before a society can even concern itself about using its energies
'economically' it must first marshal the energies to carry cut the productive process itself; that

63
is, the basic problem of production is to devise social institutions which will mobilize human
energy for productive purposes.
This basic requirement is not always so easily accomplished. For example in the United
States in ı 933, the energies of near1y thirteen nüllion people-one quarter of our work force-were
not directed into the production process. Although these unemployed men and women were
eager to work, although empty factories were available for them to work in, despite the
existence of pressing wants, somehow a terrible and mystifying breakdown short-circuited the
production process, with the result that an entire third of our previous annual output of goods
and services simp1y disappeared..
We are by no means the only nation which has, on occasion fai1ed to find work for
willing workers. In the very poorest nations, where production is most desperately needed, we
frequently find that unemployment is a chronic condition. The streets of the Asian cities are
thronged with peop1e who cannot find work. But this, too , is not a condition imposed by the
scarcity of nature. There is, after all, an endless amount of work to be done, if only in deaning
the filthy streets or patching up the honıes of the poor, building roads, or planting forests. Yet,
what seems to be lacking a social mechanism to put the unemployed to work.
Putting men to work is only the first step in the solution of the production problem. Men
must not only be put to work; they must be put in the right places. They must produce the goods
and services which society needs. In addition to assuring a large enough quantity of social
effort, the economic institutions of society must also assure the proper allocation of that social
effort. In anation such as India or Brazil, where the great majority of the population is born in
peasant villages and grows up to be peasant cultivators, the solution to this problem offers little
to vex our understanding. The basic demands of society-food and fiber- are precisely the goods
which its peasant population naturally produces. But in an industria1 society, the proper
allocation of effort becomes an enormously complicated task. People in the United States have
denıanded nıore than bread and cotton. They need, for instance, such things as automobiles. Yet
no one "naturally" produces an automobile. On the contrary, in order to produce a one, an
extraordinary spectrum of speciaI tasks must be performed. Some people must make steeI.
Others must make rubber. Still others must coordinate the assembly process itself. And this is
but a tiny shambling of the far from "natural" tasks which must be performed if an automobile
is to be produced.
Once again, in the caSe of peasant who feeds himself and his family from his own crop,
this requirement of adequate distribution nıay seem simp1e enough. But when we go beyond the
most primitive society, the problenı is not always so readily solved. In many of the poorest
nations of the east and south, urban workers have often been unable to deliver their daily
horsepower-hour of work because they have not been given enough of society's output to nın
their human engines to capacity. Worse yet, they often languished the job while granaries
bulgcd with grain and the well-to-do complained of the ineradicable "laziness" of the masses.
At the other side of the picture, the distribution mechanism may fail because the rewards it
hands out do not succeed in persuading people to perform their necessary tasks. Shortly, after
the Russian Revolution some factories were organized into communes in which their managers
and janitors pooled their pay, and from which all drewequal aHotments. The result was a rush
of absenteeism on the part of the previous1y better-paid workers and a threatened breakdown in
industrial production. Not unti1 the unequal wage payments were reinstituted did production
resume its former course.
As was the case with failures in the production process, distributive failures need not
entail a total economic collapse. Societies can exist - and indeed, in the majority of cases, do
exist with badly distorted productive and distributive efforts. it is only rarely, as in the instances
above, misdistribution actively interferes with the actual ability of a society to staff its
production posts. More frequendy, an inadequate solution to the distribution problem reveals
itself in social and p01itica1 unrest or even in revolution.

64
 Societies based on tradition solve the economic problems very manageably. First, they
deal with the production problem - the problem of assuring that the needful tasks will be done -
by assigning the jobs of fathers to their sons. Thus a hereditary chain assures that skills will be
passed along and that the on-going jobs will be staffed from generation to generation. In ancient
Egypt, wrote Adam Smith, the first great"economist, "every man was bound by a principle of
religion to follow the occupation of his father and was supposed to commit the most horrible
sacrilege if he changed it for another." And it was not merely in antiquity that tradition
preserved a productive orderliness within society. In our own western culture, until the fifteenth
or sixteenth centuries, the hereditary allocation of tasks was also the main stabilizing force
within society. Although there was some movement from country to town and from occupation
to occupation, birth usually determined one's role in life. One was born to the soil or to a trade;
and on the soil or vvith in the trade, one followed in the footsteps of one's forebears.
Tfadition solutions to the economic problems of production and distribution are most
commonly encountered in primitive agrarian or no industrial societies, where in addition to
serving an economic function, the unquestioning acceptance of the past provides the necessary
perseverance and endurance to confront harsh destinies. Yet even in our own society, tradition
continues to play a role in solving the economic problem. it plays its smallest role in
determİning the distribution of our ovvn socialoutput, although the persistence of such
traditional payments as tips to waiters, allowances to minors, or bonuses based on length of
service are all vestiges of old traditional ways of distributing goods, as is the differential
between men's and women's pay for equal work.
Even in our society, which is clearly not a "traditional" one, custom provides an
important mechanism for solving the economic problem. But now we must note one very
important consequence of the mechanism of tradition. lts solution to production and
distribution is a static one. A society following the path of tradition in its regulation of
economic affairs is at the expense of large-scale rapid social and economic change.
A second manner of solving the problem of economic continuity also displays an ancient
lineage. This is the method of imposed authority, of economic command. it is a solution based
not so much on the perpetuation of a variable system by the changeless reproduction of its
ways, as on the organization of an economic commander -in-chief.
Economic command, like tradition, offers solutions to the twin problem-s of production
and distribution. In times of crises, such as war or famine, it may be the only way in which a
society can organize its manpower or distribute its goods effectively. Even in America, we
commonly declare martiallaw when an area has been devastated by a great natural disaster. On
such occasions we may press people into service, requisition homes, impose curbs on the use of
private property such as cars, or even limit the amount of food a family may consume.
Quite aside from its obvious utility in meeting emergencies, command has a further
usefulness in solving the economic problem. Unlike tradition, the exercise of command has no
inherent effect of slowing dovvn economic change; indeed, the exercise of authority is the most
povverful instrument society has for enforcing economic change. One example is, of course, the
radical alterations in the systems of production and distribution which authority has effected in
modern China or Russia. But again, even İn our own society, it is sometimes necessary for
economic authority to intervene into the normal flow of economic life to speed up or bring
about change. The government may, for instance, utilize its tax receipts to lay down a network
of roads which brings a backwater community into the flux of active economic life. it may
undertake an irrigation system which will dramatically change the economic life of a vast
region. it may very considerably affect the distribution of income among social classes.
To be sure, economic command which is exercised vvithin framework of a democratic
poEtical process is very different from that vvhich is exercised by strong-arm n1ethods: there is
an immense social distance between a tax system controlled by Congress and outright
expropriation or labor impressments by a supreme and unchallengeable nIler. Yet whilst the

65
means may be much milder, the mechanism is the same. In both cases it interferences with the
existing order of production and distribution, to create a new order ordained froın "above".
There is alsa a third solution to the economic problem-that is, a third solution to the
problem of maintaining socially viable patterns of production and-distribution. This is the
market organization of society, an organization which, in truly-remarkable fashion, allows
society to insure its own provisioning with a minimum of recourse either to tradition or
command.
Because we liye in market-nın society, we are apt to take for granted the puzzling-
indeed, almost paradoxical-nature of the market solution to the economic problem. But assume
for a moment that we could act as economic advisers to a society which had not yet decided on
its mode of economic organization. Suppose, for instance, that we were called on to act as
consultants to one of the new nations emerging from the continent of Africa.
Could be seriously suggest to such an en1ergent natian that it entrust itself to a market
solution of the economic problem? That will be a problem to which we shall return. But the
very perplexity which the market idea would rouse in the mind of sameone unacquainted with it
may serve to increase our own wonderment at this most sophisticated and interesting of all
economic mechanism. How does it take care of cloth production? How does it happen that in a
market-run natian each person can indeed do as he wishes and, withal, fulfill the needs vıhich
society as a whole presents?

66
i~i E
SiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiAiiiiiiiiiiiRiiiiiiiiiiiCiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiREiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiADiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiIiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiNGi i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i~1
JECC(Q)N({])OOllCC§9 §CCAIRS.CCll1TYe&};1TIBIIE §([))CCIIAIL
([))IRS.CGAWll§Ailll(Q)N
1) Scarcity seems to be the problem of economics not only in America but also in many
other countries. But with .in natural production, there
is .in people's needs. So, it can be said that these two are
directly/indirectly proportional to each other.

2) Which three steps in term of efficiency should be taken in order to solve the problem
with deficiency of nature's yield?

3) To solve the production probıem it is not enough just to make people to work. More
important is to make them:
a) , , , ..
b) .

4) What would have happened if the Egyptian man, who lived in a tradition-based cu1ture
and .whose both grandfather and father were sellers, become himself a trader?

5) What is the most crucial resu1t of the process that is led by tradition?

6) How does tradition differ from the exercise of command?

7) Among the three solutions to the economic problem, described in the text, what is the
advantage of the market organization society method when compared with the tradition
and command?

67
 PUBERTALDEVELOPMENT

Puberty is a stage of heightened emotionality. The pubertal child begins to

experience heightened feelings and undertakes to revise his or her own attitudes. The increase
in emotional differentiation is apparent in the various moods experienced. The pubescent
becomes increasingly sensitiye and reacts strongly to events and social situations. While the
advanced adolescent is able to control the emotions to a considerable extent, the young
adolescent is swept along by the vivid currents of feelings and sentiments. When
aroused, emotions are frequently out of proportion to the initial stimulus. Attempts to control
enıotional expression are frequent but not always successful. The emotional1y charged
actions resemble the heightened negativism and temper seen during the Iate second and
third years of life at the beginning of early childhood.
Ambivalent feelings are the rule rather than the exception at puberty. The
adolescent often experiences contradictory feelings-that is, love and hate, concern and
apathy-toward persons and events. Trivial disappointınents often arouse his antagonisın
without destroying his original feeling of cordiality or enthusiasm. The capacity for keeping
affectiye experiences in harmony seems to be lost for some time.
The effort to progress in social, emotional, and sexual maturation is probably the
most difticult task of the pubertal period. Transference of affection and love from parents to
peers, including menıbers of the opposite sex, represents a nıajor change in emotional
cathexis. Anıbivalence and discourageınent are common while this key shift of feeli.ngs is
occurring. New adjustnıents at any age are accompanied by enıotional tensions and
heightened affeeti ve reactions. This transference is barely conıparable to any earlier
emotional changes. Development of new attitudes and integration of divergent peer values are
parts of a painful process. Lack of preparation for the adolescent role, parental insensitivity
and objections, and rising financial necessities all contribute to a state of enıotional
uneasiness. This leads to occasional tensions near the boiling po int, the energies of which,
when not sufficiently discharged physically, accumulate and interrupt the functioning of
weaker or nıore sensitiye organisın systenıs. Headaches, stoınach aches, and heightened
blood pressure are sonıe exaınples of these disturbances. As a result, organisnı balance and
personal health are disturbed, especial1y if such states arise often. New defense tactics are
needed to restore and preserve soıne kind of balance. Dropping carefully developed plans
and reverting to daydreanıing, and aggressive and hostile reactions are among the defensi ve
reactions often used by adolescents to protect themselves from the threats of the adult or peer
world. The young adolescent experiences nıany obstac1es in finding his or her place in peer
şociety and cu1ture.
Enl0tional instability is a counterpart of the physiological and social changes
occurring during puberty. Strong likes and dislikes expressed in most teenage groups press
the pubertal child to change his attitudes toward parents, teachers and other groups he
comes in contact with. In group situations more than anywhere else, the young teenager
feels that many of his childhood beliefs and attitudes are not tenable and feels an urgency to
construct a new set. The young teenager encounters many peers who have very different
attitudes toward religious practice, academic achievement, sexuality, and drugs (Kagan,
1972). Ambivalence grows, as he cannot easily discredit the position taken by others. Since
the integrity of the value and belief systems central to the conceptualization of self, it is
necessary to keep it intact by defining the meaning of his existence and his role in adult and

68
peer society and by selecting personal goals worthy of much effort. The resetting of his
motivational hierarchy is often a result of peer influence that competes with and often
overrules what parents have worked hard to establish. Kagan (1972) attributes a great
significance to the cognitive quality of motivation and treats motives as cognitive
representations of goals. Nonetheless, emotional and sexual factors rank high at this age.
Kagan suggests that masteryand resolution of uncertainty and hostility are primary
motives, if sensory pleasure is added; this comes close to the goals and strivings of the young
adolescent.
Late childhood is usually a healthyage, marked by good adjustment to hoıne, school
and peers, but the situation changes, rather drasticaııy after major pubertal changes erupt.
Often the young adolescents feel iıı and suffer bodily discomforts, and stomach pains. At
times he or she has little energy for work or even for play, feels tired if not exhausted, or is
annoyed by other minor disturbances of a psychosomatic nature. The adolescent may
experience a generally run-down condition or be bothered frequently by influenza, sore
throat, or tonsillitis; but sametimes "feeling ill" is used as an escape from disagreeable duties
and responsibilities. There are no severe illnesses specific to this stage and, excluding
accidents and narcotics, very few adolescents die from illnesses or their compIications.
There are some physiological explanations for the young adolescent's lack of energy
and frequent colds and aches. First of all, the slower growth of blood vessels in relation to the
heart raises the blood pressure and creates both strain on the heart and feelings of tension and
tiredness. At this phase of accelerated growth, a young person should not be pressed into
robust activities or excessive competition in athletics. Usually, though, the pubertal child feels
inclined to expend a great amount of energy, even beyond his or her capacity. By over
expending energy in sports and Iate hours and endless unnecessary activity, often with an
irregular intake of food, the adolescent occasionally develops an enlarged heart or respiratory
disturbances.
At puberty the oil-producing glands increase their productivity, resulting in skin
eruptions and acne. Rapid growth, emotional turmoil, and unpredictable eating and
activity patterns also contribute to skin disturbances. Difficulties in social relationships and the
resulting conflicts and frustrations are additional contributing causes. But following the
completion of major pubertal changes physical health usually reaches its highest level in Iate
adolescence and early adulthood.
The smoking of tobacco is seen as a symbol of sophistication by man teenagers.
Peer pressure is often a factor in starting to smoke cigarettes. Since cigarette smoking is
fairly common among teenagers today, its detrimental effects on growth and health
should be considered. After each cigarette the heart beats faster for about thirty to sixty
minutes. This superfluous activity lowers the cardiac reserve. The use of tobacco mildly
constricts blood vessels slowing down oxygenation and producing quicker loss of breath in
strenuous activities. Another frequent result of smoking is loss of appetite because of slower
than normalstomach movement, and eating less may prevent the full nutrition required for
growth. Medical research studies indicate that non smokers have the best records for health
and length of life; moderate smoker have poorer records and heavy smokers the worst
records. Athletes who smoke experience greater difficulty in strenuous competition
(LaSalle & Geer 1963, pp. 2 ı 2-213; Vermes, ı 973). Arecent study of ı ,007 high school
student in central India (Husni-Palacios & Scheuer, ı 972) reports that about half this sample
did not smoke at all; ı 6.8 percent smoked either very heavily or one pack a day; and ı 7.3
percent smoked only a few cigarettes per day. About ı 5 percent had stopped or wanted to stop
smoking. About 23 percent of this saınple had experimented \vith barbiturates, marijuana, or a
combination of drugs.
The developmental tasks of puberty are not particıılar to this one period, since most
of them extend into later adolescence. Some pubertal developments however, including

69
body control, peer identification, social sensitivity reorganization of personality and self,
rise of external interests and activities, and progress in controlling impulses especially sexual
urges and emotional moods-are prerequisites for later adolescent adjustment and
achievement. At anyage, gains in growth must be accompanied by increases of control

70
 II SELECTIVE LISTENING
i

1. In some countries, an automobile was required to stop when .. , .

2. it was not until ~ .in that

appreciable progress was ınade.

3. a) When did the Parliament pass a Road Loeomotive Act?

b) What did this act do?

4. Give tvvo examples of American steamers!

.:. . .
.
:. . '" '" '" '" '" '" ' " '" " .

5. By what was a piston driven in a cylinder according to Christian Huygen's

description of an engine?

6. Etienne Lenoir, a built an internal-combustion engine that ran on

'" '" '" .. igııited by .

7. How did Daimer improve Otto's engine?

8. In which countries did Karl Benz' three-wheeled cars arouse interest?

);;- .
);;- .
}> .

9. An Association of Licensed Autoı11obile Manufacturers was forıl1ed İn

.........................................to .

ı O. Henry Ford painted cars in ,

manufactured thenı in and sold thenı

1 ı. What replaced the all-wood construction of earlier cars?

12. Give two examples of the refinements in automobiles.

.:. . .
.:. . .

72
TJlYI&JlJlllN«H Jl(jJ)IPIIre II

"Nowadays there is growing controversy over the use of live animals in the
experiments and this is known as vivisection. "
Discuss this statement by using the fol1owing points as guidelines. You may add other
points if you wish.

•:. Animal tests are essential; \vithout theın drugs like insulin would not be
develaped .
•:. Future tests are needed to cure cancer and epilepsy, for instance.
•:. Animals used are mainly oıi.ly bred rats and mice.

Against:

.:. Animals aren't used for medical reasons, but alsa for cosmetics.
•:. Animals are used for chemical welfare tests.
•:. Failure of drugs like thalidamide shows animals aren't realistic guide to human
reaction .
•:. The experİrYıents are so erueL.

"Many parts of the world are 10sİııg İnıportant natural resoıırces !ike forests,
alZİ.1nals, or c/ean water".
Discuss the causes of the extinction of natural resources using the folIowing points.
You may use your own if you \vish.

•:. air and 'vater poUution

.:. peaple's irresponsibility to use the resources efficiently
.:. lack of enough legal control on usage of natural resources
.:. increasing needs of people as the populatian growth
.:. disasters such as fires and floods

74
II CAREFUL LISTENING
i
cc CD)JMrnJlIIDNlICAillICD)N
1. What is the origin of speech?

2. What are the two advantages ofwriting over speech?

.... . .
.
••• . .
3. What are the two types ofpicture-writing?
>- .
>- .
4. What did the use of syllabaries originate from?

5. What was not represented in syllabaries?

6. Which type ofwriting is considered the most developed?

7. a. Where was printing first invented?

b. What material was the first printing press made of?

c. When was printing first brought to Europe?

8. What is the Morse code?

9. a. When was the wireless radio myented?

b. in what way did this invention play an important role in the development of
electronic commurucation?

10. When did the BBC first start to make regular transmissions?

73
PROFICIENCY
MAXIMISER
III

75
~ SEARCH READING)

EARLY CHILDH'OOD

The growth of imaginatiön, which began in Iate infancy, increases sharply during the
preschool years- At that tiıne children sho\v n1uch interest in make-believe activities in which
they personify and portray fragments of their past adventures, television plays, and adult
activities. Home and family, doctor and patient, cowboys and Indians-all are represented by
the use of dolls, household tools, toys, and miniature figures. The incident of Washington and
the cherry tree is repeated in a variety of contexts. Children are· also stimulated and amused by
their contacts with neighborhood children and adults, as well as with anin1als. They may
organize parties and drink from empty cups, eat at an eınpty table, and sel L buy, and exchange
their toys. All these activities are accon1panied by much self-centered conversation, showing-
off, and attempts to an1use others and influence them.
The imagination can be stimulated by reading children siınple stories, such as "Peter
Rabbit," "LittIe Red Riding Hood," "Hansel and Gretel," "The Five Chinese Brothers," "The
Three Bears," "The Story of LittIe Black Sal11bo," "Alice in Wonderland," and "Winnie-the-
Pooh." The Little Golden Book of Fairy Tales is an excellent anthology for stimulating the
in1agination. The child's curiosity increases his or her receptivity to practicaI1y any stories.
During the preschool age there İs a noticeable expansion of intellectual curiosity, desire
to know and conceptualize, and attempts to act in accordance with thought-out conclusions. Thc
first intellect-oriented question "What's that?" is now vividly supplemented by the furthcr
frequent questions: "Why?", "How?", "What for?" The child begins to understand and
appreciate the purposes various objects serve, \vhat İnakes things work, and where they C<Hllı'
fron1. It is good for the child if parents and other adults answer such questions adcquatcly anu in
this \Vay forn1 correct concepts, attitudes, and expectations, because the child needs an
accu111ulation of workable knovvledge before beginning formal educatİon. Impatience and
irrİtability with the child's frequent questioning İs interpreted by many children as rc.icctioıı.
Several carefully designed studies show that hostile mothers have sons who scorc high in
inteIligence in the first year but have con1paratively low IQs froıu four to eİghteen years of age
(Bayley & Schafer, 1964; HurIy, 1965). Question-and-answer learning İs intellectually
stimulating and e1üninates 111uch trial and errör. Fahey's study (1942) estin1ates that questioning
accounts for lOto 15 percent of the preschool child's conversatİon. He suggests further
investigations to detern1ine the n1eaning and in1plications of the child's questioning activity.
Berlyne and Fron1n1er (1966) reported two experiments in which 180 Canadian children from
kindergarten through grade six were exposed to a series of stiı11uli consisting of stories and
pictures and invited to ask questions after each item. Novel, surprising, and incongruous items
elicited n10re questions than others, supporting Berlyne's theory of epistemic (cognitively
critical) curiosity. Generally, questioning increased with age, indicating a higher sensitivity to
infonuational gaps and a need to' relieve the uncertainty of any kind.
An accumulation of various patterns and skills is largely a result of opportunity. Most of
the concepts acquired by the child result froıu his communication with others. Native
intelligence cannot be evaluated, since test results depend in large part on the amount of
knowledge acquired through interaction with the environment or with persons and objects in ii.
Piaget (1952) rightly observes that "the more a child has seen and heard the ınore he wants to
see and hear." The Montessori teaching method, which uses visual material appealing to
preschool children and makes provision for self-corrective matching, is helpful for most
children and is greatIy needed by cu1turally disadvantaged children of preschool age. Only an
educationally rich environn1ent offers the child sufficient opportunity for obtaining stİınulation

76
of all modalities. Such an environment satisfies the nearly inexhaustible curiosity to look, listen,
poke, sniff, and feel.
At the preschool age the child shows much more interest in others than before. Group
activities become more and more appealing. At four years of age, he begins to need individuals
of his own age or slightly older. At five years of age, any long isolation from adults or other
children becomes unbearable. The child is eager to join and to learn to assume roles in group
situations. Socialization is not something children can do for themselves, nor is television a
good substitute for it. Exposure and interaction with adults and other children of different ages
are necessary for a child to acquire proper attitudes and social skills. Parents have a challenging
responsibility to provide opportunities for early social experience with other children and adults.
it is their task to stimulate adjustive and cooperative behavior through verbal instrnction and
direct control. They may have to moderate the child's desire to dominate, to secure the
limelight, and to be excessively possessive, all of which interfere with progress in relating to
others. When parents do their part, social progress is satisfactory, since the child of four and
beyond has a strong desire to please the adult and to find a peer companion. In Bronfenbrenner's
words (1972. pp. 663-664):

Children need people in order to becaıne hun1an ... It is primarily through observing,
playing, and working with others older and younger than himself that a child discovers
hoth what he can do and who he can become-that he develops both his ability and his
identity.

When behavior modification is necessary, parents ought to leam how to play the role of
a positive reinforcer rather than the traditional role of a disciplinarian. Often just a proper shift
of parental attention increases the frequency of des,irable behavior. When a mother is clearly
İllstructı'd in hecoming inattentİve whenever her child engages in any deviant behavior and very
attentive and pleasant fol1owing desirable behavior, the child's behavior usual1y shifts for the
hetter. The child's desirable behavior is now the most effective means he has to obtain her.
~ıtll'ntion and her smile. These are powerful rewards for most children. The mother's consistency
oftcn cvokcs dramatic overall reorganization of the child's activity. In some cases, however,
certain punishment contingencies (isolation, time out, etc.) are necessary to help the child
inhihit certain oppositional forms of behavior. At present it is felt that many parents, and even
soıne teachers, are too attentiye to deviant actions of children. With some children, however,
who rarely if ever show any improvement and in whom there is a dearth of desirable behavior, it
may not be eas"y to find opportunities for attention (Cohen, 1972; Wahler, 1972).
Most experiences involve valuation-a personal judgment of worth, merit, desirability,
or significance. Cognitive and emotional powers seem to be inclined toward valuation of one
kind or another. What the child likes or dislikes is not likely to agree fully with what his mother
or father seems to favor. From the very early years of life, parents are engaged in behavioral and
verbal conditioning; they see some of their child's activities as desirable and others as
regrettable. Consciously or not, they introduce the morality of what is good in general and
possibly what is right for the child. Moral behavior is simply "doing what is good and what is
right." At the preschool age "what is right" is determined largely by parents and older siblings.
Other persons and sources like television are also involved to a considerable degree. The child
models himself on his parents and to a lesser degree on various television characters (Stein,
1972).
Jean Piaget (1932) distinguishes restraint and cooperation as two different types of
moral experience and behavior evoked by interpersonal situations. Situations of restraint force
conformity to parental demands until these responses become habituated, "vhile cooperation
fosters agreement, motivating the child to want to conform. The young child tends to change
rules according to his momentary dislike for them, "vhile the older child accepts established

77
rules. When the rule of reciprocal cooperation replaces the rule of adult restraint in motivating
an action, it can be considered a ınoral act (Piaget. 1932, p. 62).
In more obvious situations, the nl0ral sense of right and wrong gradually deepens unless
parents are unwilling to use proper instruction and example. Moral conduct is fostered ınainly
by a deepening awareness of fundaınental moral concepts. The understanding of moral concepts
is dosely related to intellectual maturation and emotional identification with the values and
ideals suggested. In stin1ulating the child's awareness of moral values and virtues, parents must
guard against a preaching attitude, a "Do as I say, not as I do" philosophy. At the preschooI age,
the child can be taught principles of honesty, justice, and fair play in many concrete situations
ofhis activity.
In Western culture, religious experience often begins through observation of situations
and actions such as the presence of across, a short prayer before meals, or any religious
ceremony. The presence of religious artides often evokes questions about them, providing
anather opportunity for religious experience. Taking the child to church or to religious shrines
can help him sense the awe-inspiring atmosphere of a religious environn1ent.
By six or seven the child is capable of understanding by analogy most fundamental
concepts, such as the idea of God as creatar and heavenly father or the purpose of prayer.
Illustrated stories of the Bible or other reIigious classics can provide material for further growth
in religious knowledge. The child's curiosity and natural openness to many religious
experiences aids hinı or her in acquiring moral guides and ımderstanding the purpose of right
behavior in human life. Early childhood is the right time to lay the base for religious and
humanistic value orientation" since "nothing is more important than the person that child
becomes; he alone holds the key to future life" (Rheingold, 1973).
Since the young child is constantly exposed to the social stimulation of parents, other
children, and other adults and since he or she usually establishes strong international ties \vith
theın, the natural tendencies are molded by thenı. Through verbal reinforceınent, contingent
responses grovv stronger and' engender trait, attitude, and habit patterns. Moreover, parents
pranıote maturity by showing pleasure \vith and verbally reinforcing relatively mature responses
to everyday demands. Conversely, if they pay attention to or otherwise reinforce the immature
responses of the child, they lessen the incentive to grow and ınature. With some additional
professional training, parents could greatly raise their ability to n10dify children's behavior
(Herbert & Baer, ı 972).
Social reinforceınent rates high with children. In Warren and Cairns's experinıental
study (ı 972), the primary treatment involved two levels of frequency of prior presentation of
the social reinforcer ("right"), and t\VO levels of signal reliability (discriminative and
ambiguous). The results with ı 00 second-grade children indicate that the higher level of signal
satiation had results opposite to those expected: they enhanced the effectiveness of the social
reinforcer, while extended use of the ambiguous signal reduced its effectiveness.
During the preschool years, the child's beliefs, attitudes, and traits are often significantly
altered by association with neighborhood children and other persons. If any major difference
from other children is obsetved regarding, for example, limits of free moveınent, language,
dothes, or hairstyles, the child will try to imitate what is new. This, in turn,' often creates
conilict with parents and occasionally forms the basis for an undesirable attitude.

78
II SEARCH READING i
JEAJRliLY CCIBIllJLID)IBI(O)([))ID)
ı. What causes children to cope with various activities during the preschool age?

2. a) What kind of reaction should the parents give to their children's inexhaustible questions?

b) Why?

3. As a parent pays more attention to his child's and becomes

..
inattentive the child's becomes better.

4. What is the characteristic way ofvaIuation in chiIdren's preschool ages?

5. How do the children in West start to gain the concept of religion?

6. Because ofwhich factor, children try to imitate their friends with regarding the risk to

quarreI with. their parents?

79
 LANGUAGE TEACHING
METHODOLOGY:THENATURAL
APPROACH

In the early stages of speech production we use randam volunteered group responses,
which place little demand on the individual student but allow early use of the target language. The
instructar asks a question and everyone can respond as they wish without raising the hand.
Suppose, for example, the instructor asks about the weather: Hovis the weather taday? Son1e
students will answer internaIly, silently. Others will mumble a bareIy audible response. However,
same students, perhaps half of the class, will utter responses which are both audible and
comprehensible. They will probably include fine, good, cool, eloudy, and so forth. That is, they
are all correct answers (semanticaIly) and all are produced at approxin1ately the same time. In
cases of questions with a single logical answer, the responses will be same, but somewhat
dispersed in time. In initial stages practically all activities are done in this mode. The result is that
the students hear a great dealaf input during a class session {usually several hundred
utterances) to which theyali can respond in same way. Randam volunteered group responses are
not as orderly as a group choral repetitian, but approximate real comn1unication while the
latter do not. Our experience is that older groups adapt themselves rapidly to this sart of
response freedonı. For children, it is the normal way to respond.
The possibility of the students ınaking errors in early stages is lin1ited sin1ply beC3USC tlll'
possibilities of oral production are alsa linıİted. During Total Physical Response (TPR)
activities, the students ma)' err only by failing to understand and by executing the command
incorrectly. it is unlikely however, that the entire class will misunderstand; therefore, therc V,"jJ ı
always be a correct model to imitate. In our experiences with TPR, students constantly check the
actions oftheir classmates and seIf correct almost immediately when necessary.
In the other activities of the prespeaking stage, the only responses which are required are
the names of the other students in the class and perhaps a simpIe yes or no. Mistakes with these
activities usually stenı from a misunderstanding of the question (indicated by silence or the
identification of the wrong student) or from forgetting the name of the student being described.
In either case, unless the instructor has asked the question of an individual student (a rare practice
in early stages), correction is automatic and immediate since, as in TPR, ınost of the elass will
have answered conectly at the saıne time.
Mistakes appear when the student starts to produce utterances in the target language.
However, in early Natural Approach activities, errors are minimized since in the activities
designed to encourage initial speech production, only single word responses are normally
appropriate. When they occur~ errors are of three types. First, the answer given may be incorrect.
For example, the instructar pointing to a picture of a table asks, "What is this?" and student
replies, chair. In this case, the instructor is justified in correcting the error directIy. No, this
isn't a chair, it's a table.
Another possibility is that the utterance is apprapriate and wel1-formed, but pronounced
inconectly. In this case, the instructar can simply use the mispronounced lexical item in an
expanded answer. For exaınple, instructar says, this woman is wearing a red (pointing
to a blouse). A student mispronounces the word blouse. The instructor might reply "Yes, that's
right; she's wearing a red blouse."

8ü
 AIso common and (probably universal) are responses which are appropriate but
syntactically incomplete or morphologically ill-formed. For example, the instrnctor asks, is this a
picture of a man or a woman? Students reply, woman, omitting required article. The instrnctor
again gives a positive response (and more comprehensible input), Yes, this is a woman. Or the
question, "What is the man doing in the picture?" the students may reply run. The instructor
expands the answer. "Yes, that's right, he's running."
The point of these expansions is to supply comprehensible input and encourage
communication, not to expect that the students will correct themselves and repeat the utterance in
a correct fonn. Furthennore, it should not be thought that the students will in all cases,
immediately attend to and benefit from these expansions.
If the studenfs level of acquisition is not ready for the acquisition of a particular rule,
then most likely the expansion will be accepted only as a sign of comprehension and success in
communication, but will not be utilized for progress in acquisition of grammar. Indeed, in many
cases the rules themselves will be so complex that the student will have to hear these expansions
(another input) many times before acquisition of a particular rule or item is even begun.
Thus, theoretically, expansions may not be absolutely necessary. Theyare probably helpful,
however, in that they provide additional, comprehensible input. In the activities which
encourage more complex speech production, there wil1, of course, be more errors. The "cure"
however, is the same: more comprehensible input provided by the instructor.
In any case, whatever technique is followed to ensure that the student is surrounded
with comprehensible input, the important point is that direct correction of errors is not necessary
and will in most cases be detrimental to the objective of lowering the affective filters.
In courses in which reading and writing are not goals, the activities can be done without
any reference to the printed word. With young children, this is also the case since even in the
situation in which reading and writing wil1 fol1ow, these activities can serve as a "reading
readiness" period. On the other hand adolescent who "vill later be leaming how to read and write
in the target language both reading and writing can be profitably begun during both the
prespeaking and early production stages.
lnitially, TPR commands are nonnal1y given only in oral fonn. Later, the instructor may
wish to write them on the chalkboard and let the students copy them in a notebook. This is of
course only a copy exercise, but it does allow for the opportunity to see in print what theyaIready
have comprehended in the spoken language. If the natiye language has the same writing system or
the same alphabet as the target language, this will involve only a minor adjustment of associating
some new sounds to familiar sYffibols and perhaps a few new symbols.
With inputusing description of class companions and pictures, many instructors using the
Natural Approach report good results with a technique which includes writing new, key words on
the chalkboard as theyare introduced for the first time in the comprehensible input which the
instructor supplies to the students. These words can be copied into notebooks by the students as
theyare introduced. Most instructors have reported that this technique does not, for the most part,
distract fronı the concentration on the message of the input, since what is written are new content
words, not grammatical forms (articles, function words, auxiliaries, copulas, endings and
other grammatical morphemes). In addition, these usually have the effect of solving down the
rate of input, thus increasing comprehension. For many students it also helps to focus on the
key lexical items rather than the totality of the elements in the sentence. Finally, in our
experience, many adults are quite visually oriented and this visual image of a new word helps them
to retain it more quickly and longer.
In a very recent study, however, Purcell and Suter surveyed acquirers of English as a
second language, and concluded that accuracy of pronunciation of English correlated with
the acquirers' first language (speakers of Arabic and Farsi had better accents than speakers of
Japanese and Thai), the amount of interaction with English speakers, perfonnance on a test of
phonetic ability, and the degree of concern the speakers had about their accenL Surprisingly

SI
 enough, the aınount of fonnal classroom training in ESL, even when the courses were specifically
aimed at pronunciation, did not relate to pronunciation ability. Thus, it may be possible that direct
classroom exercises are of lin1ited use.
Pronunciation ability, or a good accent, may be nearly completely dependent on what has
been acquired, not on rules which have been learned. it is possible to leam conscious rules about
pronunciation, but performers, especial1y in the beginning stages, usually have too many more
important things to attend to in performance.
One interesting hypothesis is thatpronunciation ability, or phonological competence is
in fact acquired quite rapidly, but that speakers do not "perform" their competence possibly
because they do not feel comfortable using an authentic accent in the second language. They
therefore "fall backıl on first language phonological competence, resulting in an "accent".
The preproduction· period seems to be of benefit by allowing the students to develop a
"feel" for phonology befüre theyare required to produce it. it is not clear, for exaınple, that direct
repetition by the student after the instructor, a practice often used in the Audiolingual approach,
actually encourages the developnıent of pronunciation skills. There is experimental evidence that
suggests, in fact, that a silent period may be of greater benefit. In early Natural Approach
activities, although students are not forced into choral group repetition of new words and phrases,
some students do repeat and inıitate the pronunciation iınmediately, while others simply listen
(and may repeat intemaIly).
Many instructors are convinced that if they do not emphasize correct pronunciation
at beginning of a course, students wil1 establish "bad" habits which will be difficult, if not
impossible, to change Iater. \\lhile it appears to be true that one who has spoken a language for
many years with a very strong accent ınay have difficulty changing, there is no evidence, on the
other hand, that pronunciation habits are so finnly established in the first couple of years of
language study; indeed, infomıal experiences with thousands of language students leads us to
believe that pronunciation often improves with experience and can improve considerably as Iate
as the third or fourth year of language study.
Another mistaken belief, in our opinion, is that students must achieve native-like
pronunciation skills to be successful. Only language instructors set such difficult standards
since natiye speakers never expect foreigners to speak their language without an accenL They
adopt more realistic expectations: the acquirer should pronounce in a fashion which is
understandable without an extraordinary effort by the natiye speaker. Nor should the acqtıirers'
pronunciation be ovedy ilTitating or distracting. But these requirements are a far cry fronı the
"perfection" demanded by nıany language instıuctors.
For us the n10st important goal of the early stages of the Natural Approach is to lower the
affectiye filter. This is because a high filter will prevent acquisition-the central goal of the Natural
Approach. We want students to become comfortable with the class activities and with interacting
with each other in the target laııguage. They should begin to develop confidence in their ability to
comprehend the target language as well as have a positive attitude towards acquiring a new
language in general
A great deal of vocabulary must be acquired very earlyon, at least on a recognition
level, if the student is to be successful with the Natural Approach. Indeed, many instructors who
have had extensive experience teaching with Natural Approach activities characterize the early
stages as consisting of activities whose purpose is to give comprehensible input with an ever
expanding vocabulary.
Leaming plays a very small role in Natural Approach classes in initial stages. In that case
of children, all activities are directed at acquisition. For adolescents and adults, same provisian for
learning may be helpfuI although learning wiIl not of course dominate the class. In the first place,
many adults would not be happy with an approach which depends entirely on unconscious
processes. Theyare used to study new materialan a conscious level and feel a need to "study" the
language theyare leaming. it may be true, although we have no formal evidence, that conscious

82
study of vocabulary helps to speed the acquisition process since the more words the students can
recognize in an utterance the more comprehensible the input wiIl be.
In addition, some adults are quite proficient in the study of grammar, and they may feel
more comfortable if they can read a good succinct explanation of the forms and structures the
instructor is using in the input theyare receiving. In some Natural Approach courses in
secondary schools and universities, the students have a grammar handbook and some students
report that such materials are a great help to them.
The help from the study of grammar is probably more psychological than linguistic. it
is probably that the study of grammar rules in early stages of language acquisition contributes very
little directly to the ability to comprehend the input from the instructor and that its benefits are
more in the area of increased security for certain kinds of students. On the other hand, our
experience is that too much emphasis on that can be very detrimental to the acquisition process.
If the students learn a number of morphological and syntactic rules, they may spend so much
mental "processing" time on these iteıııs during a comprehension activity that they "miss" some
of the key lexical items and actually understand less than students vvho have not studied grammar.
If this happens, and we have personaIly seen many such instances, acquisition actuaIly falls
behind. Thus, too much leaming in some cases can be a detriment to overall progress in the
development of communication skills.
In conclusion, the question of the integration of materials to promote leaming in the initial
stages of the Natural Approach becomes one of balance. Learning materials (vocabulary and
grammar study) should be included if the instructor believes that the students can benefit from
such study without interfering with the acquisition process.

83
i CAREFUL READING
i
J1~IID~D1J2a)~® 1T®2a)~ThliiIID~JMI®üThı®cd1®n®~~
1TOO~NA1TIDmAfu~W~~ACOO

1. What causes students make mistakes when TPR activities are carried on in the classroom?

2. The possibility of making a mistake in the Natural Approach is as almost

all responses, except , are usuaııy not acceptable. But jf
students do errors, they generally do them in three different ways, which are:
a) .
b) .
c) .

3. The actıvıtıes that require students use advanced speaking skills will incIııde
............................................................................................., and the teacher can solve this problem
by .

4. What does the advantage of letting the students write down the information given on the blackboard
in their notebooks provide for the teacher?

5. A problem of a speaker's poor pronunciation lies not in his competence, but in performance. What
might the possible explanation for this kind of situation be?

6. According to the writers, there are two common misunderstandings related to pronunciation among
Engl ish teachers. What are they?
a) .
b) ..

7. In the Natural Approach there is a possibility thaL ..

..................................................... makes students (especially adult ones) to acquire new items faster.

8. lf the student study grammar at the beginning stages of language learning, they will benefit
............................................................ mare than .

84
II SELECTIVE LISTENING
i
1fIHIJE AGIE OJF IEı~RCGH1fIEmAITEN1f
1. Give the name of the periods of the Intellectual Revolution!
.
••• . .
.
•+. . " .

2. Enlightenment is an attempt and one's life from

the restrictions imposed either by or and
in accordance with the dictates of his own reason and experience.

3. What is the name of the writer of "What is Enlightenment?", and when was it
published?

4. Definitions of enlightenment embrace not only the but

the whole period starting from the unset of the .

5. The Renaissance was only a beginning of a shift from a world

view to an world view.

6. The Renaissance thought and is .

7. What were the models that the philosophy of 1i h century adopted?

.......................................... and .

8. ~ Who were the real founders of the enlightenment movement?

9. ~ Newton had trained in but the publications of Kepler had

made him concentrate on the study of , and ..

10. What was the order basic scientific contribution ofNewton?

85
II CAREFUL LrSTENIN~ ı
i· L A ,c". R:/'O/,'"E·.' ~C- /0'N,,O"····,MAI,
J

M .:./. 1 ...: .: . . . . . . . '

, tC'" 'S'"
..::
j
' "J;' j.' .'.';

1. What does macroeconomics study?

2. Write down two of the questions that macroeconomics deals with!

..:.:. .
.
.
.

3. How is aggregate supply defined in the talk?

4. What are two of the factors which cause aggregate supply to grow over time?
n .
n .
5. What is aggregate demand?

6. Which kind of inflation occurs when international cartels put pressure on the market?

7. Which kind of inflation occurs when sellers raise prices and wages without reason?

8. Nation-wide unemployment results when aggregate demand .

............................ aggregate supply.

9. The demand for labor arising from a capacity gap is called ..

10. What is the way to cure mass unemployment?

11. Write down two of the factors which cause unemployment for particular workers?
.:. . '" .
.:. .. , "" ..

12. Wha~ kind of social problems contribute to structural unemployment?

.
.

86
"What kinds ofqualities are necessary to be successful in life?"
You can use the points below and any other you wish.

* Graduating from a famous university.

* Ambition. (Competitiveness)
* Hard working.
* Sense of humor.
* Planned way of life.
* Responsibility.
* Being indifferent to minor events.

Advertising has many negative effects on the public.

Write a composition of about one page discussing the above statemenL
Use the points given below or any others you wish.

- Waste of time
- Increases prices
- Influences people's purchasing decisions
- Leads to extravagancy
- Harmful goods also advertising
- Some ads may misinform us.

87
 PROFICIENCY
MAXIMISER
LV

88
( SEARCH READING J

THE 1974ACT
In the Act - both 'credit' and "consumer" are used in a wider sense than might be
expected. Credit is defined to incIude a cash loan and any other form of financial
accommodation: A 'consumer credit agreement' is an agreement between an individual (but not
a company) and any other person (who may be a company) by which the former ('the debtor')
obtains credit from the latter ('the creditor') up to a certain amount. But the very broad scope of
these words is limited by the effect of various exemptions from the operation of the Act.
The first problem therefore is to know whether the Act applies to one's business
transactions. The consequences of supplying credit in ignorance that the Act does apply can be
very serious. The most frequent sanction is that the credit agreement becomes unenforceable or
ınay only be enforced if the court (in the Act the 'court' means the county court) gives leave,
which it will only do if it considers that the debtor has not been prejudiced in a material way by
the creditor's neglect of the Act, innocent as that may have been.
Hence it can suddenly dawn on a business - or its auditors - that it has far more bad
debts than it supposed simply because it cannot resort to the courts against a defaulting debtor.
What kinds of transaction do constitute the supply of 'credif in the sense defined? The purpose
of the Act is to consolidate and reform earlier statutes which dealt piecemeal with various types
of credit. A debtor usually obtains credit for the purpose of getting goods or services for which
he lacks the means to make immediate paYIDent in fulL. He may do this by raising a loan.
As the Court of Appeal remarked in the Introductions Case of 1970, no one borrows
without having a purpose for spending the money when he gets it. But originally the abuses of
loan contracts were regulated by the Moneylenders Acts without regard to the use of the money.
Moreover, a bank was outside the scope of those Acts. This was very proper and convenient for
the large and respectable institutions with branches along the high street which everyone
recognizes as abank. Specialized lenders such as finance houses were in a 'grey area' of
uncertainty.
This point was illustrated" by United Dominions Trust. Ltd. v. Kirkwood 1966 where a
debtor who had no other defense to an action to recover his debt argued that the finance
company from which he had borrowed the money was not a bank but an unlicensed
moneylender. His unmeritorious defense failed but it caused some alann and led to the rapid
enactment of legislation by which those on the borderline could register (with official approval)
as banks.
A hire purchase agreement avoids that risk by providing that the person to whom the
goods are supplied must complete a series of rental payments before he may exercise the option
to purchase them outright. Until that point is reached he does not own the goods and generally
has no legal power to seıı them. The unpaid supplier may then be able to recover the goods
from the hirer if he defaults. But the right of recovery - and other aspects of hire purchase -came
to be regulated by a series of Hirer Purchase Acts passed between 1937 and 1961.
Moreover, govemments tried to regulate the credit element in the macro economy by
imposing minimum payment provisions on hire purchase business in certain types of goods.
These diffieu1ties induced traders to move away from hire purchase to conditional sale, and also
to straight rental agreements, which gaye no ultimate optian to purchase but could not be
terminated until the rental payments had reached a total which provided the cash value of the
goods plus a credit charge. The definition of credit in the 1974 Act brings together every form
of credit with a view to abolishing the technical differences between one fonn and anather. The
intentian is that the general principles should apply regardless of the legal fonn of the
transactian.

89
 Arather unexpected feature of the new code is that 'consumer' is restricted to
individuals (ineluding partnerships) but it makes no distinction between the uses to which the
debtor puts the goods which he obtains on credit. Hence the rules apply to, for example the
supply of expensive office equipment to a sole practitioner or partnership for business use just
as much as to a hire purchase agreement with a householder for the supply of a refrigerator. But
there are two general and important limiting factors: A debtor which is a corporate body such as
a company mal' well obtain goods on credit but its transactions fall outside the scope of the
1974 Act, since it is not an individual. Secondll', the Act regulates agreements under which the
amount of credit given does not exceed f15.000. The new financial liınit comes into effect in
Mal' 1985; the original limit of the Act was f5,000. The increase is made to keep the Act
broadly in line with its original intention despite the rapid fall in the value of money over the
past ten years.
Transactions with company debtors, and the supply of credit in excess of rıs .000 are
exeluded from the scope or the Act on the grounds that in such cases the debtor is usualIl' well
able to look after his own interests by obtaining professional advice before Dıaking an
agreement and in negotiating the tenns of the agreement. it nıay occur to you t.o ask vvhether the
milkman who de1İvers a pinta or two every morning, and ca11s on Fridays to collect payment for
the week's supplies is providing credit to which the Act applies. it would be absurd to deal with
simple, straight forward or very smaIl transactions involving deferred payment on the same
basis as large and important ones.
There are also types of eredit such as loans for the purchase of land where safeguards of
this kind would be un\vorkable or unnecessary. Bence the Act exeludes 'small agreements',
where the amount involved does not exceed f50 (previously f30), agreements in which certain
types of lender are involved such as a local au.thority building society, an insurance cOI11pany
and so on.
There is also an inıportant exenıption for agreements in which the total nuınber of
installments to be paid does not exceed four. The exenıptions ınal' be from all the rules İnıposed
by the Act or only froı11 sonıe of theın. Thİs is by its nature a very İnvolved paıi of the subject.
Anyone who is in doubt probabıl' does well to obtain professional advice as to whether his
terms of business bring hiın within the scope of the Act or not to only for sonıe purposes.
There is also a very confusİngly expressed category of debtor-creditor-supplier
agreement which comprises both bilateral arrangements in which the same person supplies the
goods and in effect supplies the credit by offering deferred paynıent ternıs and three-·sided
agreeınents in which A supplies goods and B lends ınoney to pay for those goods under an
existing arrangenıent between the t\VO of thenı. Such a case ı11.ay arise when a trader adveıiises
that he can arrange eas)' eredit tern1S \vith a finance company. But if a bank lends nıoney to a
customer for the deelared purpose of buying goods from a third party with \\fhoı11. the bank has
no previous arrangeınent that is not a debtor-creditor-suppIier agreeınent although three paıiies
are involved in the transaction
There is a requirement that the debtor sha11 be aware of the true cost of obtaining credit.
Even someone who is not good -with figures (which ineludes the author of this artiele) can
recognize that if a debtor is required to pay, say ten per cent per annum on the initial amount of
his loan while he pays it off by installınents, he is paying much nıore than ten per cent on the
amount outstanding. But it requires algebraic formulae to set out how a total charge for credit İs
to be described in an advertisement or quotation for a credit transaction. In coınputing the
amount of credit given to detennine whether the transaction tails within the rı 5,000 liınİt it is
necessary to deduct any down payment from the total. A system of this kind will only work if
there is effectiye supervision. This is a task given to the Director-General of Fair Trading and
his main means of exercising his supervisory function is the grant (or refusal) of licenses, which
are required by those who carry on a consumer credit or consumer hire business on a regular
basis involved in an agreement of the type regulated by the Act.

90

.'~'

;~.
 A license is also required for various ancillary types of credit business such as credit-
brokerage (introducing people in need of credit to those \vho supply it), debt-collection or a
credit reference agency (collecting information on the financial standing of individuals with a
view to supplying it in connection with the supply of credit)
it is worth noting that a supplier of goods who introduces his customers to a finance
company with which they may then arrange to obtain credit is a credit-broker who requires a
license. A license man either he granted to an individual or to an organized body e.g. of
accountants whose members carry on activities for which a license under the Act is needed.
Although the proportion of applications for licenses which are refused is very small -
less than one fifth of one per cent - it is a powerful lever in the hands of the Director-General in
enforcing proper standards. A trader who offers credit to which the Act applies is likely to
promote business either by advertising or at least by supplying quotations to prospective
debtors. The regulations on this subject are very involved but for anyone who needs to find out
"vhether they affect him the best course is probably to apply to the Office of Fair Trading for a
. copy of its explanatory leaflet.
The right is given only if two circumstances have attended the making of an otherwise
perfectly proper agreement regulated by the Act. First, there must have been antecedent
negotiations which included oral representations. In simpler terms the debtor has been induced
by some sales talk to sign an agreement. When the salesman has gone the debtor repents of
what he has done. However, to claim a right to cancel he must also show that a second
condition is met: This second condition relates to the place where the agreement has been
signed If the debtor went along to the office or place of business of the creditor to sign the
document he has probably had enough time to change his mind before he gets there. But if he
was first pressurized by asalesman on his doorstep (or in his sitting-room) and signed on the
dotted line at once he may within the ensuing five days give notice to cancel the agreement.
The notice like all notices required to be given under the Act must be in writing though
it need not be in any partieıılar form if the intention is made clear. The right of cancellation in
the two circumstances described (both must exist together) is described in the agreement which
is signed and in certain cases a separate notice of the right to cancel must be given to the debtor
If the debtor cancels his agreement - being entitled to do so - he may recover whatever
money he has so far paid, such as an initial payment, or recover any goods, such as goods given
in part exchange, which he may have handed over. He of course must repay any money which
he has obtained from the creditor or return any goods which have been supplied to him under
the agreement. However, the creditors' rights of recovery in these respects are restricted by
various rules.
The general advice which one must offer to those businesses which - quite properly -
use salesmen to get business is to take. two precautions. First, send the agreement to the
prospective debtor to read and ask him to come along to the office to sign it when he is ready to
do so. Secondly, do not hand over goods or payaver money under an agreement which is
cancelable until the five days allawed for cancellation has expired.
Borrowing money to buy land or buildings is arather special case of much difficulty
would result if a borrower could sign the contract and then cancel everything shortly afterwards.
The safeguards given in these cases do not include any right of cancellatian (nar are the
qualifying circumstances for cancellatian at all likely to exist). But there is a consideration
period of seven days between sending a copy of the agreement to read and another copy to be
signed. During that period the prospective lender must abstain from approaching the borrower
and alsa for a further seven days after sending him the second copy for his signature - unless the
borrower takes the initiative or returns the signed copy.
There are same rather more straightforward requirements over the agreement for credit
which is signed. it must of course be an agreement made in writing. The form of it is prescribed,

91
and it must state certain key particulars in such a way that the borrower is unlikely to overlook
them.
The guiding principle in the rules on the signature of the agreement is that the debtor
must know exactly what he is signing or has signed at every stage. First, the particulars to be
inserted in each standard form of agreement to make it ready for an individual transactian must
have been written (or typed) in before he signs it. it is a fatal mistake to say to the prospective
debtor "Just sign at the bottom and we wi11 insert the particulars afterwards." it must of course
be easily legible. If any of these rules is breached the agreement is improperly executed and can
only be enforced by leave of the court (and in same instances may not be enforceable at all).
The borrower must at all times have available for reference a copy of what has been
signed. it often happens that the agreement presented to him for his signature has stilI to be
signed by the creditor or a guarantor. The borrower's signature is then merely a stage towards
completion. But when he signs it and hands or sends it back he must have been provided with a
copy (to retain for immediate reference) of the incomplete document which he has signed.
When the other necessary signatures have been added a second copy 111USt then be sent to hin1
showing all the signatures. If the borrower is the last to sign so that his signature renders the
agreement completely executed he must receive a copy which he retains, in addition to the
signed copy which he hands back or returns. (The mavement of these various copies may be by
personal deliveryar by post.) If the agreement is cancelable the second copy must be sent by
post, when a second copy is required. In any other case a separate notice of his right to cancel
must be sent to him.
The debtor has various rights to copies and to information relating to his commitments
during the currency of the agreement. Any document to which the agreement refers, such as the
conditions of sale of the supplier, must be provided with any copy of the agreement itself which
has to be delivered so that there is a complete set of all the relevant papers.
In general, the debtor who obtains goods on credit and finds that theyare defective or
not of contract description or quality will make his daim against the supplier. But İn the case of
a three-party debtor-creditor-supplier agreement he has a similar daim against the person who
financed the sale provided that the c.ash price is at least El 00 and not more than E30.000. If he
cancels a cancelable agreement his right to recover any money paid so far or any goods given in
part exchange is also against both supplier and creditor jointly.
. The last major set of safeguards (or problems - depending on which side you are on) is
the rights developed in earlier hire-purchase legislation given to a debtor who is in defaul t or
who wishes to terminate the agreement before it has expired.
Let us take preınature termination first. The debtor will expect to be required to give up
the goods to the o\vner sİnce theyare not yet his property. If he has failed to take reasonable
care of them he must pay for his default in that respect. The goods, when recovered by the
owner are now second hand and as such of much less value than when supplied new (if that was
the case). On the other hand the debtor/hirer will have paid some installments before he decides
to terminate the agreement. Is he required to pay any more towards the reduced value of the
goods in their present condition? He must always pay any installments which were aIready due
when he terminated the agreement.
If his total payments so far exceed one half of the total price he is not required to pay
more. If however his total payments are less than half the price he is liable to pay an additional
sum sufficient to raise the total paid to one half of the total payable under the agreement (plus
the whole of any installation charges). The agreement may stipulate for payment of less than
half (but not for more) and the court may, if it thinks it fair, reduce the statutory half to some
lesser fraction.
it more often happens that a hirer under a hiı;.e-purchase agreement fails to keep up the
agreed payments and the owner wishes to recover(his goods before the situation deteriorates
stiıı more. \\Thatever his complaint of default against the hirer, he must first give him a "default

92
notice" which specifies what he complains of and, if it is remediable, requests that action be
taken to do this. At least seven days must be allowed in which the hirer may comply. If willing
and able in that period, he may apply to the court for relief.
There is a second safeguard to the hirer who is in default. If he has paid at least one-
third of the total price of the goods plus the whole of any installation charge, the owner cannot
recover the goods from him (as theyare protected goods) without first applying to the court for
an order to that effect.
As mentioned above either party may wish, or be obliged to apply to the court. In such
cases the court has wide discretionary powers to adjust the transaction in whatever way it
considers faif. it can, for example, make a time order under which modifies the repayment
schedule. These safeguards relate to goods supplied under a hire-purchase or conditional sale
agreement whose effect is that the hirer, if he completes his payments, will ultimately purchase
the goods.
Obviously these rules do not fit the case of a hirer under a rental agreement which does
not give him an option to purchase at the end. In such cases the suppIier of the goods will wish
to impose a long period during which the agreement cannot be terminated so that the
accumulating rental payments will suffice to pay off the cash value (plus a credit charge) of the
goods. However, it provides that any such rental agreement must always be termİnable at the
optian of the hirer after a period of 18 months (or such shorter period as the agreement itself
provides).
Moreover the period of notice to be given to terminate the agreement, when that
becomes possible, must not be longer than three months or, if less, the interval between rental
payments. But these safeguards could be very dangerous to the supplier. Accordingly ~hey only
apply to rental agreements in which the annual rental does not exceed 300: there are some other
exemptions such as when the supplier obtains goods to meet the specific requirements of the
hirer.
This artiele can only indicate the outline of a complicated set of rules. The businessman
in doubt would do well to obtain professional advice if it appears to him that he is. Or it could
be within the scope of the Act in his dealings.

93
II SEARCH RE~~ING

1. People want to obtain credits for various reasons. The most common reason is

2. The 1974 Act is not applied to the debtor ifhe is a (n) .

3. In , a contributor provides the goods and the other is the source of money.
4. What should those 'who make use of salesmen when carrying out business do
beforehand?
a) .
b) .
5. What do the regulations emphasize on the issue of signing?

6. A debtor can ask for the conıpensation of the bad quality products
a) in which agreem.ent? .
b) under which condition? .
7. A debtor rented some goods, but he couldn't take well care oftheıTI and the goods got
damaged. Moreover, he wants to cancel the agreement. Under which condition he
doesn't have to compensate for ınore than half of the installments?

8. What does a default notice include?

................................................ and .

9. This artiele increased your knowledge on the financial agreements to a great extent.
However the artiele lack of something, that is

94
 YOUR BABY IS LEARNING TO TALK!!!

Animals have their systems of communication transmitted genetically from generation

to generation. The young bee communicates with its fellow bees in the unchanging stereotyped
systenı that bees have always used. it does not have to learn the system, it is bom with it. A
newborn puppy removed from its mother and other dogs and raised in a bottle, would, after
several years still be able to communicate with other dogs, even though it had not in the
meantime encountered others of its species.
Only the human baby must start from scratch and learn the language spoken by its
parents and others in the community. A number of theories have been advanced how this
leaming takes place. John Leek, the l7 tİı century English philosopher believed that at birth the
hunıan mind is a tabula rasa or clean slate waiting for impressions and experience to make
their recordings there. In the l8 th century Herder suggested that the urge to speak was an
inherent impulse. In the 19 tİı century Herman Paul stated that a person's speech formations do
not come from a memorized stock. More recently, generatiye transformationalists have
repeated Paul's statement, adding that the child has the ability to utter an infinite number of
well-formed sentences that he has never heard before nor spoken before. Although certain
empiricists today still believe that our linguistic system is acquired by experience, it would
appear that a baby is bom with apparatus and the capacity for speech and perhaps more.
Whether the built-in impulse to talkemerges from a spe,cific and isolated section of the
brain, a culture acquisition device, as it has been called by some anthropologists, or whether
the capacity is a non-Iocalized psychological trait exclusive to human beings is still not known.
To caıı the impulse complex neural equipment is about the best we can do at present. But we
know it is there, and we know that it works. However, speech itself must be leamed.
The processes involved in the development of language control are stiıı a mystery. The
stupid child as well as the bright one masters a complete system of complex rules undedining a
language; and the child leams the system whether he is taught direetly or whether he is left
alone to pick it up by himself from those about him.
Children in isolation from all other human beings, though, do not spontaneously begin
to speak a language. There are a number of documented cases of children raised in isolation
from fellow human beings. Around the end of the l8 tİı century, one of these children- Victor,
the wild boy of Aveyron- was captured vvhen he was about twelve years old. He could not talk
and he behaved in every way like a wild animaL. A physician·tried for five years to teach him
to speak with almost no success. Another case was in India, early in this century: two children,
Kamala and Amala, were found living with wolves. They behaved like wolves, and didn't
speak. The younger one died before any speech training results could be truly ascertained. The
older one lived and eventually leamed to speak a few words only. Judging from this case as
well as from recent studies in language acquisition, it appears that children must be supported
in their speech development from the very beginning by their constant reinforcement. it can be
from parents or older ehildren or some other human beingo With attention and support, children
begin to react and respond so quickly to new verbal situations that their reactions are almast
instantaneous.
A baby's very first sounds can hardly be caııed speech sounds. His cries signal hunger,
thirst, or some other discomfort, or theyare simply, a part of an instinctive testing of his
muscles and organs, inCıuding the vocal cords. No specific sounds are assoeiated with specific
needs, in spite of what fond parents and relatives may say. If they see that the baby is wet or

95
 his bottle is enıpty, they may link his particular cries with the particular situation. But in
controlled experiments, ·with ll10thers and others listening from behind screens to the different
cries of the babies, no accurate associations could be made. Thus, even mothers can be VvTong.
However, pediatricians can teıı from distinctive peculiar cries if the baby has brain danıage or
certain other abnormalities.
After two or three months of these organical1y determined cries, the baby moves into
the babbling stage, in which his sounds signify, among other things, contentment. More
inıportant, it is in this stage that his pre-linguistic sounds gradual1y progress to imitatiye
sounds. Before this cognitive or reasoning level is reached, though, the baby has gone
through an interesting face of sound production. The month-old baby's vocalizations consist
of a ratio of nearly five vowels to one consonant, while the adult's is approxi.ı:nately one to
one in English. The first vowels are front vowels, the back vowels come as the baby develops
physically. Consonants develop the other way: back consonants first, then front consonants.
it is said that babies normaııy make sounds reflecting the whole range of sounds in the
. world's languages. Ari American baby may dearIy sound the French thrilled ıır" and the
Gennan ,ıü". After once making a particular sound, the baby has, in effect, opened up the
vocal tract and neural passages so that it will be easier for him to repeat that sound.
Moving toward the 12 th month stage, the average infant takes more and more notice
speakers around him, usual1y his parents. His self stimulating babbling gives way to
stimulation from the sounds of those about hinı, particularIy, when his attempted repetition
of those sounds brings pleasing attention to himself. Adults will often repeat after hinı the
sounds of the natiye language which the baby most dosely approximates. By 1i h month his
perceptive development has usuaııy progressed to the point where he can repeat sound
patterns Aden older person. The youngster's gradual physical growth is accompanied by
the equal1y gradual development of the speech areas of the brain. His physical speech
apparatus is slowly developing too. This development is not completed until well after
the adolescence voice change at 12 to 14. At about 17 month the child understands and
responds to sinıple comrrıands such as "Give nıe that", and "Touch your nose".
Competence or coınprehension conıes long before production of true speech-sounds.
That is the child usually begins to distinguish words spoken by others by the end of his
babbling period.
From the 12 th month stage until he actually learns to talk, the child is continually
making a tremendous effort.. Stimulated by an echoic tendency, he tries to repeat the sounds
he hears. This echoic tendency is denl0nstrated first in the babbling stage, in which he
echoes himself, then, as his perception becomes more acute, he echoes others -parent
and older children. Another impulse at this stage is to please, because when he
approximates actual language sounds, he is rewarded by smiles, exclaınatİon of delight
and caresses. Perhaps this is one of the reasons why he stops his babbling and atteınpts
İlnitation of the v/ords he hears. On the average, then, the baby is attempting to form words
by 12 months, though the interpretations of proud parents may prematurely convert such
sounds as "da" to" daddy", and "ba" to "ball". Apparently his control of words, his ability to
form them intelligent1y, and his comprehension of their meaning coıne about by trial and
error, his success being indicated by parents l reactions. Before 2 years, his understandable
vocabulary has increased considerably, and he can form 2 and 3 words locutions. To
measure the actual vocabulary possessed by the developing child, and his full awareness of
the meaning of each item, is rather difficult, and psychologists do not c1aim absolute
accuracy for their results. One set of results gives less than half-a-dozen words for the one-
year-old, nearly 300 words for the same youngster at age two, and about 2000 words at age
three. Again, his comprehension vocabulary is much greater than his production vocabulary-
the stock of words he himself articulates. His actual production does not seem to be
necessarily related any intellectual status, although parents sometimes develop anxiety over

96
a non-talking infant. i remember vividly one new mother bending over her baby's crib,
repeating "Rhinoceros, Rhinoceros, R1ıinoceros," with the idea in rnind of making a genius
out of the child. The second baby of the woman, bom about a year and a half later, was pretty
much left to himself; as far as vocabulary development is concerned He developed verbally at
just about the same rate as his older sibling.
In at least one area of speech development, it would appear that parental reinforcement
rnight even retard the child's effort. That is in the reinforcement of baby talk. The child's
mispronunciation in his early efforts -"wa-wa" for "water" and "kika" for "kitty cat"-sounds so
cute, particularly to first-time parents, that they repeat the child's pronunciation, reinforcing
him in his mispronunciation. This may result in ridicule for the youngster later on when he
begins to play with his more elearly articulating playmates.
The young child has a perception of meaningful sound-categories and of the relation of
word-symbols to their referents much earlier that does of syntactical arrangement of words. In
fact, in associating word-symbols with referents, he includes events as referents, too, as when he
applies the word "mama give" to his mother's feeding and cuddling him. That is,
"ınama give" is a single symbol related to the event "mama give". This stage in child's speech
development is called the holophrastic stage, in which this one to one relationship exists.
Sonıetime after he passes his second year, he begins to recognize that his single word symbols
n1ay be broken into parts: He leams that "marna give" and "papa give" involve manipulation of
separate linguistic unit, and he begins to play with the units, just as he plays with his toys. This is
the analytical stage. He experiments, putting together his units and testing them on his
listeners, usual1y his parents. He might say, "Doggy bite daddy", or "daddy bite doggy"
convincing his parents that theyare raising an incorrigible liar, unless they realize that he is
just leaming the flexibility of language, he is not concemed with truth. A strain of this sart of
testing carries an impishness that could be labeled the "Denis the menace" syndrome. As he
gnn\s oldcr, he might repeat words and phrases which he has heard, in order to check the
effects on his parents. They might be revelations of ill-timed truth, like "You've got a big
nose", to the visiting rich unde, or they might be incredibly vulgar expressions he has
oyerheard someone else use, convincing the parents that their incorrigible liar is also a
degcncrate. The semantic impact has not yet touched the child; he is stil1 in trial and error stage of
learning the language.
The average child does not do much with verbs in his developing sentenees until he is
about three years old. His memory increases tremendously after this age, so that he is able to
retain words and phrases and is able to tum out longer loeutions of inereasing eomplexity. He
experimentsby analogy, partieularly with verbs, as when he says, "The bird flied in the tree,"
and "The eat runned under the house."

97
 ı. What do the cases of wild children say about the nature of language acquisition in chiId?

2. After the first three rnonths, the child's sound patterns undergo three nevv

developrnents. \Vhat are these developments?

a) '" '" , '" '" '" ..

b) '" .

3. The child's first sounds are vowe1s and consonants.

4. When a Turkish baby says "ınaın" for "ınama", the parents gencrally repeat the

words just as a child says then1. What does this lead to?

1) , , " '" .

2) .

5. What is the reason for the parents' tolerance of the chiId's sornetimes offensive and vulgar

expressions of then1 or other people?

98
 II SELECTIVE LISTENING
i
1fHJE CGrRJEIENIHIOU§JE JEfJFIECır
1. The glass allows the sun's heat and warms up the

inside by the heat and preventing it from escaping.

2. What happens if the amount of effective heat-trapping gases increases?

3. Name the first gas mentioned in the talk which eauses the Greenhouse effeet.
(Do not write the symbol, write the full name)

4. What are fossil fuels? (Write all ofthem)

5. Why etıtting or burning trees eause an inerease in the amount of CÜı in the
atmosphere?

6. Give two of the areas that the Chlorofluoroearbons (CFCs) are used.

7. a) Inerease rate of Methane (CH4) is at % and Nitrous üxide (NıÜ) at

............... % per year.

b) CH 4 eomes from Nıü eomes from .

........................ (Compound specifie)

8. The estimated increase in Global Temperature for the next 50 years is 5°C. What
will happen as the temperature İncreases? (Write any two)

9. Write two ways of eonserving fuel.

a) , b) ,0 .

ı O. How can individuals help prevent the Greenhouse Effect?

1 ı. If we don't proteet Earth immediately, no one will be able to save us from

resulting and .

99
 II CAREFUL LISTENING
i

1. What is administration in general tenns?

2. What is the distinction between the adnıinistration and leadership?

3. Please cite two examples of nonnal behavior?

.+.· .
•+.
· .

4. V/hat are the critical responsibilities for educational adn1inistration? (Write

an)' two)
·
."'+ .
++.· .

5. What is "extemal adaptation" concemed with?

6. The coordination ofunits and departments İs ..

7. Please indicate three function of administration?

..
..
•

100
 PROFICIENCY··
MAXIMISER
V

102

,',- ..
'~:r; .
.. ", .;.; .:~.;.:.ı;;~~ı;,.lı" .;-.:i1
MYJJllI7lI!N«E Jl((})IPL!C il

"Turkey should become a member ofEuropean Community"

Write a composition of about one page discussing the above statement.
Use the points given below or any others you wish.

- Increase in exports
- New investments from Europe
- Guaranteed market for Turkish goods
- Increase in quality of Turkish products due to competition

AGAfNST

- Closing down of some industries unable to compete with EC products, e.g. car
factories
- Decrease in the standard of living because of an increase in the prices of goods
- Possible increase in the rate of inflation
- Undesirable effects on economic relations with non-EC neighbors

"In spite of developments in every field of life, there are still some serioııs problems
threatening human beings."
Discııss the subject using the points given below or any others you wish.

•:. Nuclear weapons.

•:. Stress.
•:. Traffic.
•:. Overpopulation.
~:.. Pollution (Noise, environment, air, etc.)

ıoı
( SEARCH READING ~
THE HUMAN IMPACT üN CLIMATE

"The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate."

With these carefully chosen words, the Intergovemmental Panel on Climate Change UoinHy
supported by the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environmental
Program) recognized in 1995 that human beings are far from inconsequential when it comes to
the health of the planet. What the panel did not spell out- and what scientists and politicians
dispute fiercely- is exactly when, where and how much that influence has and wiU be felt.
So far the climate changes thought to relate to human endeavors have been
relatively modest. But various projections suggest that the degree of change will become
dramatic by the middle of the 21 st century, exceeding anything seen in nature during the past
10,000 years. Although same regions may benefit for a time, overall the alterations are
expected to be disruptive or even severe. If researchers could clarify the extent to which
specific activities influence climate, they would be in a much better pasition to suggest
strategies for ameliarating the worst disturbances. Is such quantification possible? We think it is
and that it can be achieved by the year 2050- but only if that goal remains an international
priority.
Despite uncertainties about details of climate change, our activities Cıearly affect
the atmasphere in several troubling ways. Burning fossil fuels in power plants and
automobiles eject partiCıes and gases that alter the compasition of the atmasphere. Visible
poUution from sulfur-rich fuels includes micron-size particles called aerosols, which often cast
a milky haze in the sky.
These aerosols temporarily cool the atmasphere because they reflect same of the
sun's rays back to space, but they stay in the air for only for a few days before rain sweeps
them to the planet's surface. Certain invisible gases deliver a more lasting impact. Carbon
dioxide remains in the atmasphere for a century or more. Worse yet, such gases trap same of
the salar radiation that the planet otherwise radiates back to space, creating a "blanket" that
insulates and warms the lower atmasphere.
Indisputably, fossil-fuel emissions alone have increased carbon dioxide
concentrations in the atmasphere by about 30 percent since the start of the Industrial
Revalutian in the Iate 1700s. Oceans and plants help to offset this flux by scrubbing same of
the gas out of the air over time, yet carbon dioxide concentrations continue to grow. The
inevitable resuIt of pumping the sky full of greenhouse gases is global warming. Indeed,
most scientists agree that the earth's mean temperature has risen at "least 0.6 degree Celsius
(more than one degree Fahrenheit) over the past 120 years, much of it caused by the burnin'g
of fossil fuels.
The global warming that results from the greenhouse effect dries the planet by
evaporating moisture from oceans, soils and plants. Additional moisture in the atmasphere
provides a swollen reservoir of water that 'is tapped by all precipitating weather systems, be
they tropicaJ storms, thundershowers, snowstorıns or frontal systems. This enhanced water
cycle brings on maresevere droughts in dry areas and leads to strikingly heavy rain or
snowfall in wet regions, which heightens the risk of flooding. Such weather patterns have
burdened many parts of the world in recent decades.
Human activities aside from burning fossil fuels can alsa cause havoc on the
elimate system. For instance, the conversion of forests to farınland eliminates trees that would
otherwise absorb carbon from the atmasphere and reduce the greenhouse effect. Fewer trees
alsa mean greater rainfall runoff, thereby increasing the risk of floods.

103
 it is one tlı i ng to ha\ ,--' a sensı..' of the factors that can bring about climate change.
It is anather to kno'v\' how tbL' hUl1ıan activity in any given place will affect the local and
global elinıate. To achicve that aiın, those of us who are concemed about the huınan infiuence
on elimate will have to be ablc to construct more accurate elimate model s than have ever
been designed before. '1\1 e will therefore require the technological musele of
supercoınputers a millian tiınes faster than those in use taday. We will alsa have to continue
to disentangle the myriad interactions anıong the oceans, atmasphere and biosphere to know
exactly what variables to feed into the coınputer models.
Most İlnportant, we must be able to deınonstrate that our models accurately simulate
past and present climate change befor~ we can rely on nl0dels to predict the future. To do
that, we need long-terın records. Clinıate sinıulation and prediction wiIl come of age only
with an ongoing record of changes as they happen.
For scientists who model elimate patterns, everything from the waxing and 'Naning of
ice ages to the desertification of central Africa plays out inside the models' run on
superconıputers. Interactions aınong the components of the elimate systeın- the atmasphere,
oceans, land, sea ice, freshwater and biosphere- behave according to physical lavvs
represented by dozens of ınathematical equations. :i\10delers instruct the coınputers to solve
these equations for each box İn a three-dinıensional grid that covers the globe. Because the
nature is not constrained by boxes, the elıore is not only to incorporate the correct
nıathenıatics within each box but alsa to describe appropriately the transfer of energy and
mass into and out of the boxes.
The computers at the world's preeıninent elimate ınodeling facilities canperfonn
between 10 and 50 billion operations per second, but with so many evolving variables, the
siınulation of a single century can take nıonths. The time it takes to run a simulation, then,
linıits the resolutian (or nunıber of boxes) that can be ineluded within dinıate nıodcls. For
typical ınodels designers to nıİınic the detailed evolution of weather systeıns, boxes in thc
three-dinıensional grid ıneasure about 250 kiloıneters square in the horizontal directian and
one kilonıeter in the veıiicaL. Tracking patterns within sl1ıaller areas thus proves espccial1;.!
difficult.
Even the most sophisticated of our current global nıodels cannot directly siınulate
conditions such as cloud eover and formation of rain. Powerful thunderstorm clouds that
can unleash sudden downpours often operate on scales of less than 10 kilometers. and
raindrops condense at submiliıneter scales. Because each of these events happen in regions
smaIler than the voluıne of the smallest grid unit, their characteristics must be inferred by
elaborate statistical techniques.
Such small-scale weather phenomena develop randamly. The frequency of these
random events can differ extensively fronı place to place, but most agents that alter elimate.
such as rising levels of greenhouse gases, affect all areas of the planet much nıore unifonnly.
The variability of weather 'v\liIl increasingly mask large-scale climate activity as smaIler
regions are considered. Lifting that mask is difficult, because it requires running several
sinıulations, each with slightly different starting conditions. The elimate features that occur
in every simulation constitute the elimate "signal", whereas those that are not reproducible are
considered weather-related elimate "noise."
Conservative estimates indicate that computer-processing speed will have increased
by well over a million tiınes by 2050. With that computational power, climate modelers
could perform many sİınulations with different starting conditions and better distinguish
elimate signals fronı elimate noise. We could also routinely run longer simulations of hundreds
of years with less than one-kilometer horizontal resolution and an average of 100-meter
vertical resolutian over the oceans and atmosphere.
Faster computers help to predict elimate change only if the mathematical equations
fed into them perfectly describe \vhat happens in nature. If amodel atmosphere simulation is

104
based on wrong temperature measurements, for example, to be too cold by four
degrees C (not uncommon a decade ago), the simulation will indicate that the atmosphere
can hold about 20 percent less water than its actua1 capacity- a significant error that renders
meaningless any subsequent estimates of evaporation and precipitation. Another problem
is that we do not yet know how to replicate adequately all the processes that influence
climate, such as sudden fluctuations in the carbon cycle. What is more, these changes can
initiate feedback cycles that, if ignored, can 1ead the model astray. Raising temperature,
for example, sometimes enhances another variable, such as moisture content of the
atmosphere, which in turn amplifies the original perturbation. (In this case, more moisture in the
air causes increased waıming because water vapor is a powerful greenhouse gas.)
Researchers are only beginning to realize how much some of these positive
feedbacks infl uence the pIanet's life-giving carbon cycle. The 1991 eruption of Mount
Pinatubo in the Philippines, for example, belched out enough ash and sulfur dioxide to cause
a temporary global cooling as those compounds interacted with water droplets in the air to
black some of the sun's incoming radiation. This depleted energy can inhibit carbon dioxide
uptake in plaints.
Using land in a different way can perturb continental and regional c1imate systems in
ways that are difficu1t to transIate into equations. Clearing forests for farming and ranching
brightens the land surface. Croplands are lighter-colored than dark forest and thus reflect
more solar radiation, which tends to cool the atmosphere, especial1y in autumn and summer.
Climate simulations can never move out of the realm of good guesses without
accurate observations to validate them and to show that the models do indeed reflect
reality. In other words, to reduce our uncertainty about the sensitivity of the c1imate system to
human activity, we need to know how the climate has changed in the past. To do this, we
have to rely on indicators such as air andchemicals trapped in ice cores, the width of the
rİngs, coral growth, and the sediment deposits on the bottom of oceans and lakes. These
snapshots provide us with information that aids in piecing together past conditions. To
truly understand the present c1imate, however, we require more than snapshots of physica1,
chemical and biological quantities we alsa need the equivalent of long-running videotape
records of the currently evolving dimate. Ongoing measurements of sea ice, and ocean
temperature and salinity are just some of the variables involved.
But the present outlook is grim: no U.S or international institution has the mandate
or resources to monitor long-term climate. Scientists currently compile their
interpretations of climate change from large networks of satellites and surface sensors
such as buoys, ships, observatories, weather stations and airplanes that are being operated for
other purposes, such as short-term weather forecasting As a result, depictions of past
climate variability are often equivocal or missing.
Whatever the state of climate monitoring may -be, another challenge in the next decade
will be to ensure that the quantities we do measure actually represent real multidecadal changes
in the environment. For example, when a satellite is replaced with another in a different orbit
after it completes its four-year life span, the replacement usually has new instruments and
observes the earth at a different time of day. Over a period of years, then, we end up
measuring not only climate variability but also the changes introduced by observing
climate in a different way. Unless precautions are taken to quantify the modifications in
observing technologyand sampling methods before the oIder technology is replaced,
climate records could be rendered useless because it will be impossible to compare the
new set of data with its older counterpart.
Future scientists must be abl~. to evaluate their c1imate simulations with unequivocal
data that are properly archived. Unfortunately, the data we have archived from satellites
and critical surface sensors are in jeopardy of being lost forever. Long-teım surface
observations in the U.S. are stiıı being recorded on outdated punched paper tapes or are stored

I05
on decaying paper or on old computer hardware. About half the data froın our new Doppler
radars are lost because the recording system relies on people to deal vvith the details of data
preservation during severe weather events, when warnings and other critical functions are a
more immediate concem.
Over the next 50 years we can broadly understand, if we choose to, how huınan beings
are affecting the global, regional and even smaller aspects of elimate. But waiting until then
to take action would be foolhardy. Long lifetimes of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere, coupled with the climate's typically slow response to evolving
conditions, mean that even if we cut back on harmful human activities today, the planet very
likely wiıı stiıı undergo substantial change.
Glaciers melting in the Andes highlands and elsewhere are aıready confirming the
reality of a waning planet. Rising sea level- and drowning coastlines- testify to the
projected global warming of perhaps two degrees C or more by the end of the next century.
Climate change will in all likelihood capture the n10st attention when its effects exacerbate
other pressures on society. The spread of settlements into coastal regions and low-lying areas
vulnerable to flooding is just one of the initial difficulties that we will most likely face. But
as long as society can fall back on the uncertainty of human impact on climate, legislative
mandates for changing standards of fossil-fuel emissions or forest elear-cutting wilI be hard
fought.

106
 l
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Gi i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i~1
SiiiiiiiiiiiiiAiiiiiiiiiiiiiRiiiiiiiiiiiiiCiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiREiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiADiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiN

ilIHIIE IBI1IJMLAN LLOOWACC1f ((J)N CCILllMLAliJE

1. What would the quantification of the human impact on global c1imate enable the
researchers to do?

2. How do we detect the presence of aerosols in the air?

3. Burning fossil fuels increases the levels of COı in the atmosphere. What agents help to
reduce increased levels?

4. What human activity other than burning fossil fuels disturbs the c1imate?

5. Although climate modelers have powerful computers, it takes a long lime to simulate
c1imate even short time periods. Why is it so?

6. Give two examples of variables that if miscalculated can cause great distortions in the
c1imate models buİ1t on them:
a) b) .

7. Why is the atmasphere eooler over farmlands than over forests?

8. What are measured to understand the climatic change that took place in the past?

9. Even if we start taking measures against climate disturbance, we'll observe harniful
effects for a long time because of ..

107
 A linguist doing field work on an hitherto undescribed language gathers a corpus of
material from an informant or a few informants. This may consist of only a few thousand
phrases and sentences, perhaps only a sınall portian of it in connected discourse. On the basis of
this limited amount of material he will write his description. Inevitably the question arises as to
just what he is describing and how he canjustify his work.

it would seem comparatively simple to produce adescriptian of the corpus. But this
would very seldam serve any significant purpose. The corpus usually has very little intrinsic
value. it is too fraught with the personal peculiarities of the informants and the investigator. It is
colored by the artificiality of the situation in which it is produced and recorded. it has little or
no internal coherence. Much of the subject matter is trivial. If such a corpus has any value, it is
largely -- often solely -- because it is a sample of the language. The only worth-while
description is one of the language, not of the corpus. The linguist's problem, then, is to get from
his sample to the characteristics of the whole. This is, of course, a problem comman to all
empiric sciences, and always a difficult one.

Behind this is anather problem, alsa with close parallels in all sciences: that of obtaining
. a corpus which will have a maximum usefulness for analysis. It must be representative. That is,
it ınust exemplify the full range of structural features in such a way that they can be identified,
characterized, and related to other parts of the system. If the sample is not representative the
result may be vitiated: the description will not be of the language, but a more or less sin1ilar
pseudo language. A sufficiently large corpus of randonily gathered Dıaterial would seem to 111eet
this need. But there are difficulties: Same grammatical features are quite infrequent; an
unplanned corpus ınay have to be extreınely large to include adequate representation of these.
Others are very conıman; even a ınoderate amount of material to exeınplify these far beyand
\vhat is required to establish or confirm an analysis. Vast amounts of unneeded data can only
complicate recording, filing, searching and all the others processes involved in analysis. An
adequate supply of needles is not assured simply by building a big enough haystack. a linguist,
therefore, strives t obtain a corpus that will be representative in the ıııinimum total bulk.

Obtaining a representative corpus can alsa be a very difficult nıatter. The field iinguist
nıust be continuously aware of all the factors which ınight affect the representatives of his
sanıple. It may be biased by the method of collection. it may be seriously distorted by the
bilingual situation, or by the cultural abnormality of the linguist' s intrusian. it may be
canıpromised by his, or the informantfs, prejudices about the language. Limitations of subject
matter may exclude significant parts of the structure. Not only must the linguist be aware of
these possibilities, but he must take specific steps to minimize the biases, both in his gathering
and in his analysis.

Linguistic field works is, therefore, an art requırıng skill and experience. No
predetermined program can be followed successfully. The investigation must improvise,
adjusting his further elicitation to his evaIuatian of the materials aıready gathered. A
preliminary analysis must be carried along with the work of gathering a corpus. This analysis
will point out deficiencies and suggest ways of removing theın.

The difference between adescriptian of a corpus and of a language is partly a matter of

scope. A corpus consists of a few thousand sentences. A language might be considered as

108
 consisting of a very large number of sentences - all those, either aıready spoken or not yet used,
which would be accepted by native .spep.kers as "belonging" to that language. Even the largest
corpus can be only an infinitesimal portian of language.

A description of a corpus would be under obligation to cover all the sentences of the
corpus, but only these. it would c1assify them and relate them to one another. A description of a
language would similarly cover all sentences of the language and no others. These it would
c1assify and relate. Since it would necessarily cover many sentences which the linguist had not
observed, the description would constitute a prediction of sentences which could reasonably be
expected to occur, given the proper stimulus.

Obviously, the linguist cannot know the advance what he is to describe. Nor can he
define in advance what a sentence is. Only the grammar itself can do that. But he must have
some general idea of what is meant when a sentence is assumed to "belong" to a language.
Otherwise he would have no basis on which to proceed with his work.

The occurrence of a sentence in a carefully elicited corpus is prima-facie evidence that

the sentence does "belong" to the language, but nothing more. Informants do make mistakes.
Occasionally very bad sentences will occur. Most ofthese will not be accepted by the informant
when checked at another time and in another context. Sometimes the informant will voluntarily
correct himself. But almost inevitably occasional ungrammatical sequences will get past the
linguist's vigilance into his corpus. The analyst wiU have to bear constantly in mind the
possibility of error. But he cannot afford to be too free with this as an explanation of s~eming
irregularities. To exc1ude a sentence from a corpus such as a non-grammatical is a serious
matter, never to be taken lightly. And, of course, when errors do occur, theyare very much
IDare frequently the responsibility of the linguist than of the informant.

it is hardly possible to proceed merely vvith the knöwledge that certain sentences -- the
sentences of the corpus -- are grammatical (or more realistically, that the sentences of the corpus
are largely grammatical). There is needed also some idea of the sort of sequences that are not
grammaticaL. The Enguist must get this also from his field work. As he gets some knowledge of
the language and the culture, he can set up situations where it seems entirely reasonable to
expect a certain sentence or type of sentence. If he finds it impossible to obtain, this is hint that
it is in some way out-of-bounds. Or he may suggest a form and find that the informants reject it.
Or he may have tried to communicate by use of the language and failed. Or he may note the
instances where the informant corrects himself. The canceled "sentence" may be more valuable
for analysis than the "correct" form which is substituted for it. The linguist's feeling for what is
non-grammatical is commonly inchoate, but it is essential, one of the seldom recognized results
of good field work.

However it cannot simply be assumed that if the informant rejects a sentence it is non-
grammaticaL. There are severalother possibilities. it might non-sensical, the sort of sentence for
which there is no conceivable occasion. Boiling ice danced across the leaf may be taken as an
example of a non-sensical sentence. If asked specifically what is wrong with it, a native
informant might launch into an explanation that ice doesn't boil, etc. This would be a diagnosis
not so much of linguistic faults as of semantic inappropriateness. "The of was could." might, by
contrast, be an example of a non-grammatical sentence. A critique might mention that there is
no noun, whereas the normally occurs only before nouns, etc. A less sophisticated informant
might merely say "Well, we don't talk that way." or something which could at least be
construed as meaning that in some way which be cannot necessarily explains he feels that the

109

i
L
sentence is put together Vvl'ong, i.e., that the trouble is linguistic. A non-sensical sentence may
be quite grammaticaL. If so, this merely means that, should tp.e oecasion arise, the sentence in
question might well be said, and in that situation might seeıTI quite natural, even usual. A non-
grammatical sentence cannot be used unless the language is changed. If the distinction between
graıumaticalness and soeialiness can be drawn, the task of a grammar is to deseribe the
grammatical sentences, sensicalar non-sensical, deady distinguishing them from the non-
grammaticaL. The fact that same grammatical sentences do not oecur is a separate problem, part
of it, at least, falIing in the domain of seıuantics.

To be non-sensical does not mean the same as to be untrue. "The maan is made of green
cheese." is presumably untrue, but it is sensical, since there have been repeated oceasİons to say
it, and, indeed, it probably has been set many time more often than eertain quite true sentences.
Moreover, it is possible to lie in every language (in what situations and how frequently varies,
and is culturally controlled; e.g., it is conventional in America to telI mothers that their babies
are beautiful.), and a grammar must cover such usages. Nevertheless, same of the sentences
which the informant rejects are merely untrue. They may be comman enough as sentences,
either cireumstance where an untruthful sentence seems in order. Or again, many sentences will
be rejected by the informant ınerely because theyare tabooed. Tabooed sentences not only can
be said, theyare· said. But in certain, perhaps quite general, situations theyare serupulously
avoided.

An inforınant may, therefore, reject a sentence because it is non-grammatical, non-

sensical, untruthful, or tabooed or for some combinations of these reasons. The linguistic
signifieance of his rejection depends on the reason for rejection. it may be extremely difficuIt
for the linguist to identify this. Sometin1es the inforınant's reıuarks, or the mode ofhis rejection,
will give a hint. He n1ight say something like: "We wouldn't say it that way" or "Well, i
suppose you could say that, but we wouldn't." or "Nice people don't say that." In any case, such
remarks are difficult to interpret, requiring considerable knowledge of the culture. With some
informants, comments can be of Iittle direct heIp. it may take a very sophisticated chain of
reasoning and of considerable ingenuity to draw these distinctions satisfactoriIy.

110
i~i
CiiiiiiiiiiiiiAiiiiiiiiiiiiiREiiiiiiiiiiiiiFiiiiiiiiiiiiiUiiiiiiiiiiiiiLiiiiiiiiiiiiiREiiiiiiiiiiiiiAiiiiiiiiiiiiDiiiiiiiiiiiiiINiiiiiiiiiiiiiGiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiijiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiil1

1. Based on the amount of the material gathered by a linguist what is the problem he
faees when writing his deseription?

2. What would eause the deseription of the eorpus to be that of a pseudo-Ianguage?

3. What is the advantage of a preliminary analysis when gathering a eorpus?

4. The deseription of a eorpus would have no need to prediet sentenees but the
deseription of a language would. Why?

5. The prima-facie evidenee that the sentenee belongs to the language is what?

6. Should a non-sensieal sentenee be grammatieally carrect, what might well be the

eonsequenees?

7. How does the author see the task of grammar?

.................................................................................................................................

8. For what reasons would an infannant rejeet a sentence?

a) b) ..............................................................
c) d)

III
 II SELECTIVE LISTE~ING
''vi'
II
ı
ı. Generally, an allergy causes relative!y ll1ild symtomps like from

2. A rare and severe allergic reaction can trigger anaphylactic shock that occasionally leads
to death as in the case of .

3. What do antibodies do?

4. a). What are allergens?

b). Write down at least four exaınples for allergens!

5. There is an inherited inclination to whereas al1ergies

to ' is not inherited.

6. What do the antibodies cause vvhen a person comes in contact with the same substance
again?

7. The changes in blood vessels and in the speed of blood flowing inside theın allow

8. Where are smooth muscles found?

9. How can the reactions to widespread allergic substances be lessened?

10. What does the specialist inject under the skin to desentize the person against allergens?

112
 II CAREFUL LISTENING
i

1. Give the definitions of culture for people and sociologists?

For people .
For Sociologists .

2. What is the "Physical übjects" of a cu1ture? Give an example!

·
••• .
·
••• .

3. Give three topics non-material culture?

·
••• ..
·
••• .
·
••• .

4. What is the meaning of the terms beliefs?

5. What is anorm?

6. The first type of norms is the the customary, popular, widely

performed but The second type is the mores, that
are associated with strong feelings of and the last type which is
the most known type the , norms that are ; ..

7. What was the invention that unrevealed the ability of transfering the culture?

113
 re
WJ&JIFIff{(G 1f({j)fPif II

"Some governments in the world tend to change tlıeir educational systenıs very often. "
What may be the possible disadvantages of this situation?
Use the points given below or any others you wish.

•:. Adaptian of the teachers

.:. Adaption of the students.
•:. Difficulty in material development for different systems.
•:. Expenditures will increase.
•:. Motivation will decrease.

WJ&JI7!I!NrG F((J)JFIfC 2

ULately, people have turned to religion and religioııs issııes all over the world. "
What may be the possible reasons for this tendency?
Use the points given belavv or any others you wish.

Q Dissatisfaction with what technology brought.

Q Need to reestablish nl0ral values.
Q To prevent social corruption.
Q To decrease the number of crimes.
Q A good means for unity.
Q Looking for peace and quietness.
Q To overeome the fcar of death and vanity

114
 PROFICIENCY
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115
f SEARCH READING)
HONG KONG BLUES

Yao Yongzhan missed last week's rally in Hong Kong's Victoria Park. Ten months after
his arrest, the ı 9-year-old Hong Kong resident remains in a Chinese prison, accused of being a
"counterrevolutionary." As a student at Shanghai's Fudan University, he took an active role in
last spring's pro-democracy demonstrations. A few days after Beijing launched its brutal
crackdown, he was arrested in Shanghai as he prepared to board a plane for Hong Kong. But he
was with the 20.000 ınarchers in Victoria Park even so. His face looked do\vn on the protest
from hundreds of posters on the surrounding fences and walls. The rally's organizers erected a
replica of Tiananmen Square's Monunıent to the Martyrs and demonstrators heaped menl0rial
wreaths and bouquets of yello\v chrysanthemums at the obelisk's base in honor of the "heroes
who died in the fight for democracy." Then they went home, leaving behind thousands of yellow
ribbons that fiuttered in the spring breeze. "The democracy movement will form [again] in
China," promised Lee Wing-tat, one of the rally's organizers. "Though we can't have detnocracy
today, one day we wilı. ii

Few in Hong Kong share that confidence. Six years ago Britain agreed to hand over
control of the crown colony to Beijing in '99' and since then Hong Kong's anxieties have
steadily grown. Residents are abandoning their honıes, friends and jobs to seek refuge in new
lands. In 1984, vvhen the agreement was reached, the territory had roughly 90.000 emigrants a
year. This year the figure is expected to reach 55.000. At the Chinese University of Hong Kong,
adn1inistrators figure one fourth of the staff \\'ill have left by 1997. Surveys indicate that at
least half of the territory's doctors are planning to en1igrate-possibly as ınanyas 90 percent.
In an internal poll taken by the Hong Kong Society of Accountants, 80 percent of the
respondents said they were preparing to leave.
To a casual observer the colony seeıns like its hypercapitalistic old self. Many residents"
are seeking one last chance before 1997 to invest, ınake a profit, take the money and run. "Hong
Kong people have always thought short term" says Prof Wang Gungwu, vice chancellor of
Hong Kong University. "They always knew one day this place would go back to China." The
territory has seen ınany waves of emigration in its history, Wang says; the difference this tinıe is
that the departures "are notcoolie labor and snıall merchants but big traders, intel1ectuals and
educated people." The quest for the last big score has permeated every social stratum. "We hear
of Phenomenal bets being placed at the Happy Valley racetrack," a foreign diplomat says. "lt's a
go-for-broke mentality." ltls not always harınless sport: last year the nuınber of violent crimes
rose nearly 13 percent, and cases of murder and manslaughter increased 43 percent. Meanwhile
the family, traditionally the center of Chinese society, is disintegrating as individuals do what they
must to save themselves.
London and Beijing have tried to calm Hong Kong's nerves, but their efforts have been
elumsy at best. Last week Beijing promulgated the" Basic Law, the so-called mini-constitution
under which Hong Kong will operate after ı 997. The idea was to guarantee certain rights to the
colony's residents. But Beijing's idea of liberality is not Hong Kong's. While China's leaders have
promised to give Hong Kong economic free rein for 10 years after '97, they drew the line at
letting the territory go its own way politically. The Basic Law provides for only half of
Hong Kong's legislators to be directly elected, and u1timate authority will reside with the
National People's Congress in Beijing, the final interpreter of every point in the Basic Law.
Martin Lee, a member of Hong Kong's Legislative Council and an outspoken advocate of
democracy, finds several sections of the law especially worrisome; inc1uding an antisubversion
elause left wide apen to Beijing's interpretation, strict limits on the pace of political reform and

116
procedures for China to declare a state of emergency in Hong Kong. As, the law stands, Lee
says, "I am afraid the current emigration of both people and capital from Hong Kong will
intensify." When the final draft was completed in February, at least one member of the
Legislative Council openly wept in frustration.
S/ap shot: London's efforts to ease Hong Kong's fears have done little better. Last week
the British government announced details of its long-awaited N ationality Bill, which would
grant the "right of abode" to 50.000 of Hong Kong's 5 millian residents and their families an
estimated 225,000 immigrants, all told. The bill was meant to boast Hong Kong's confidence by,
in effect, providing the recipients with an "insurance policy" that might encourage them to stay
after 1997, knowing they could leave at any time. Instead, the result has been to aggravate
tensions not only in Hong Kong but in Beijing and Britain as welL. China's leaders were furious
when Britain first announced the billlast December without first consulting them. They saw it
both as a slap at Chinese sovereignty and as a shameless attempt to skim off the cream of Hong
Kong's taleni. Last week mainland officials warned again that after 1997, Hong Kong residents
who gain passports under the Nationality Act must first renounce their Chinese citizenship--and
the enunciation itself will be subject to Beijing's approval. The warning only added to Hong
Kong's anxieties.
In Britain, meanwhile, the idea of importing more Asian immigrants has further eroded
Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's aıready shaky popularity. A nasty showdown over the bill
is expected when Parliament returns from its Easter break. Although Thatcher's Conservatives
hold a 98-seat majority in the 660-member Parliament, arebel faction within the party claims to
have mustered 91 Tory votes against the bilL. Labor Party leader Neil Kinnock, who says he
opposes the bill for its "elitist" emphasis on the immigrants' educational and professional
backgrounds, has threatened to expel any Labor frontbencher who supports it. But the thought
of siding with the Tory rebels on any immigration bill so appalls same Labor backbenchers that
a number of them -30, by one estimate- are expected either to abstaİn or to vote with the
Tory loyalists. The numbers narro\vly favor Thatcher, who is determİned to see the bill
carried. "I see it as amatter of solemn duty," she declared last week. "Others," she added with
palpable contempt, "may not see it that way."
Few in Hong Kong take much comfort from such calculations. They worry that
Parliament will reject the bill or water it down. Even if it passes intact, the measure is unlikely to
stern the panic. The Hong Kong government expects at least 750,000 residents to apply for the
right of abode- up to 15 times as manyas the bill authorizes. The plan gives preference to the
educated, the skilled, the rich and those in the prime of life. Lawyers, doctors and teachers in
Hong Kong complain it still won't help them alL. Only 323 of the territory's 3,500 lawyers will
be allowed to settle in Britain, and only 2,584 of its 44,700 health-care professionals. Not many
Hong Kong residents truly want to liye in Britain. "They think the weather is gloomy and job
opportunities are better elsewhere," says lawyer Albert Ho. "And racİsm [in Britain] is very
intense." StilI, they say, a more generous invitation would have been nice.
With no assurance of safe haven in Britain, many Hong Kong residents are going
elsewhere as fast as possible. Corporations are doing whatever they can to slow their best
executives' departure. Some companies offer "corporate emigration programs." French firms
recently persuaded Paris to promise roughly 1,000 special visas for their. Hong Kong
employees-and their offices were promptly swamped with job applicants. One Western bank is
considering a "pregnancy perk" that would cover $5.800 or so in expenses for female
executives and male managers' wives wishing to give birth overseas. That way the baby could
enter the world with a big advantage over its parents: foreign citizenship.
Panic stop: These days the corporate watchword is "orderly departure." Companies
rent conference halIs and hire legal experts to give their employees seminars on the hows and
wheres of emigration. William Kuo, a solicitor at an international law firm, says that sİnce the
Tiananmen Square crackdown, quelling panic became a top priority in Hong Kong. "It was

117
psychological counseling as much as a legal service," says Kuo. "You bring in an authority
figure to explain the real rules." In the past year Kuo's group has lectured at least 6,000 residents;
one bank alone sent 800 employees. "The nutnbers are shocking," he says 'We're booked solid
through May, with two or three seminars a week."
Sonıe companies have even begun to bear the expenses of tai hong yen-literally,
"astronauts"-top executives who keep their jobs in Hong Kong while sending their families off
to establish residence in Canada, Australia or America. The astronaut package for an
individual executiye can cost $150,000 to $200,000, and the expenses don't always end there:
executives \vith foreign passports often feel free to demand much higher salaries. There are
emotional costs, too. Same marriages collapse under the strain of prolonged separation, and
even when they don't, both partners suffer. "In the beginning, we thought it would be easy," says
a 46-year-old astronaut who has spent the last 18 months shuttling between his Hong Kong job
and his family in Toronto. "H's not."
For all the fancy perks, the most patent lure is stilI the old standby, maney. Labor
shortages have whipped up a bidding \var. Staff tumover rates of 30 percent were common last
year. "Salaries have inflated. If people don't get regular 25 to 30 percent increases, they look
elsewhere," says a European banker. "For a couple hundred dollars more, everybody goes." In
the rush to cash in before Beijing takes over, other considerations seenı trivial, 'people don't talk
much about loyalty anymore," says the head of a prominent Hong Kong construction firın, "now
it's every man for himself'
Fast traek: The money frenzy isn't confined to Hong Kong's langtime residents. In
fact, foreigners are arriving almost as fast as the local leave. For young professionals, who
enjoy the security of foreign citizenship, Hong Kong offers phenomenal opportunities-at least
in the short term. "At 24 I'd never have this sart of authority back in the States," says Dayna
Bender, arecent arriva} froın California. I'm making double what i made at my last job in San
Francisco." Tvvo years after receiving a Master of Arts degree from Stanford, Bender is
deputy ınanager of the Hong Kong exporter Panther Manufacturing, which ships 5 millian
watches a year to America. At the Shui On construction conglomerate, the number of expatriate
managers has doubled to 40 in the past three years--one fifth of the total management staff.
Many emigrants have learned the hard way why expatriates iike Hong Kong. In 1988
:f\Aonita Lo shut down her Hong Kong ad agency and move to Canada. She soan found work as
a graphic designer for a Vancouver interior-decorating firın. But her new enıployer didn't play
by Hong Kong rules. "My bass promised me raises and pronıotions, yet my raise was only 25
cents an heur," she says. Eight monthe:; ago Lo quit her Canadian job and returned to Hong
Kong. The nıoney is better, but she isn't staying. This month she's leaving back to Canada to
accept a job as a depaıiment store elerk, try to finish out the residence requireınent for
citizenship and "see how long i can stand ii." "I never imagined the job situation could be so
bad," she says. "You begin to doubt your own ability."
As Hong Kong's residents flee to new countries, theyare leaving behind a growing
number of elderly and handicapped to relatives. Immigration laws generalll' favor the able over
the infirın and the educated over the illiterate. Dr. Leonard Lee, a psychiatrist at Hong Kong
Universityand Queen Mary's Hospital, says he became aware of the trend last year while
working at a government hospital. "Suddenly you realize a patient hasn't been visited by his
parents for three months. Then you realize they've aıready gone overseas. Same patients get
very upset when they discover they have been dumped by their families." Private nursing
homes report cases of aged parents being brought in by their departing children. The kids usually
keep up with the bills, but the territory's social-welfare system is aiready overburdened.
Worse problems lie ahead as Hong Kong's population becomes heavily weighted with
older people. By the end of the decade the number of the residents over 45 is expected to
grow by 73 percent. And when young people who haven't left are shirking their filial
responsibilities "We are concerned about the increasing number of elderly people who have

118
contact with their children," says Thomas Mulvey of the Social Welfare Society. "H'S sueh a
disappointment to the old people beeause it goes against the traditional values of the Chinese
family." H ean be tough on the kids, as welL. "I'd like to offer families going overseas a survival
kit to prepare thern." says Dr. Lee. "They need to think about the families' elderly relatives in
Hong Kong, and what to do if they get sick.
Like wartime: For those who cling to the ancient ideal of the family, splitting up is
especially painful. Christina Chung' s family lived in Hong Kong for young generations. Now the
young filmmaker is almost the onlyone left. One of her sisters slipped off to Canada two years
ago and her brother followed. "My father was furious", Chung recalls he opposed people
deserting Hong Kong to become second class citizens abroad. The craekdown in Beijing
changed his mind. "My sister applied for him to immigrate to Canada, and he agreed," says
Chung. (Their mother died years ago.) Another sister has a British passport, and Chung has an
Australian one. "Sometimes i get so depressed-where is my home?" Chung says. "You can't
imagine what separation does to Chinese families like ours. H's like wartime without the war."
Hong Kong's residents eope with their worries as best they know how. As a rule
they're reluctant to seek help from the alien discipline of psychiatry. Those who can afford it
still drink cognac by the tumbler at nightspots like Club Volvo, whieh keeps 4,000 private
bottles reserved for its regular customers. Many young astronauts obsessively play golf or
tennis to take their minds off their sundered lives. Aeupuncturists, hairdressers, and masseuses
ail report a brisk demand for their services. So do fortunetellers. "My clients now ask where to
immigrate and when." says Diego Swing, a Eurasian Tarot reader. "I must say the cards don't
look good for 1997." He estimates that at least 10 percent of his clients have aIready fled the
country.
Psychic powers are hardly necessary to foresee problems when Beijing moves in. With
many of its most able exeeutives and professionals gone, HOJ:?g Kong is unlikely to remain the
economic powerhouse it has been. The expatriates may stay while the money is good, but as
visitors, not as members of the community. Even under the most favorable circumstances,
Hong Kong will be a changed city. Andrew Tsui of the exeeutive-seareh agency and Russell
Reynolds Associates predict that as Hong Kong's executiye suites become internationalized, the
territory's style of business will change: "The corporate profile, executiye decision making,
allocation of resources-these will all be very different in the Iate 1990s!" What will happen
if China's .leaders decide to get tough is another question.
The most frightening aspect of Hong Kong's plight is that its fears only confirm
Beijing's darkest suspicions. Hong Kong is aIready viewed as a hotbed of Westernized
thought and pro-democratic subversion. Why else would the territory object so strongly to
being reunited with the mainland? And Beijing has shown how it deals with troublemakers.
"When we talk of an imaginary scenano, the most graphic deseription is Chinese Anny tanks
rolling down Nathan Road," says Tony Halmos of Honor Hong Kong, a lobbying group
dedicated to holding Britain to its commitments. "H's highly unlikely, but not utterly
inconceivable." Few Hong Kong residents are eager to find ouİ. "A foreign passport will do
you no good if you stay here after 1997," says T L. Tsim, a department director at the city's
Chinese University. "If there's rioting in the streets here and the People's Liberation Arrny
opens fire, I'm not going to stand up and wave my passport and say, You've made a mistake. I'm
British. You shouldn't have shot me." Tsim is taking no chances. He says he'll be gone by the end
of 1992.

119
[SEARCH ı€~JFİ~G ]
IBIc[)) Ncr:;TI~(Q)NCGr l83JLıuJE§
ı. Who are the emigrants of Hong Kong this time according to W. Gungwu?

2. Who has .the final say in every point in the Basic Law?

3. Britain's acknowledgment of the bill was considered by Chinese authority to seem like
..............................................and .

4. For what reasons do many Hong Kong people not vvant to liye in Britain according to
AIbert Ho?
.:. . .
.:. . .
.:. . .

5. What do companies do to provide theİr eınployees with informatiye conferences related

to en1igration?
Q .

Q .

6. What is the nnn1ber oftota1 management staffin Shui On?

7. According to immigration Iaws, and are

more favorable than and " .

8. What do young people generally do in order to forget their sundered Iives?

9. What will change in the Iate 1990s according to Andrew Tsui?

.:. . .
.:. . .
.:. . '" , '" . " ,. " . '" .
120
 LANGUAGE AND DISADVANTAGE
As we have seen, each language exists in a number of different varieties, and individuals too will
vary in the variety they use according to occasion. Not every individual will necessarily
command the same range of varieties as every other person, but throughout the total linguistic
community there will be a considerable overlap, a situation which seems necessary if there is to
be good communication. However, such differences may exist within the total community that
the varlety (or varieties) spoken by one group may be quite unlike the variety spoken by some
other group, while both may stilI be varieties of the same language. In such circumstances we
may appreciate why influential groups in a society come to prefer one variety to another and why
a variety spoken by a group that has a favored position in society is likely to be accorded more
prestige and hence often comes to be used as a model for speakers of other varieties - than one
spoken by a group that is less favored.

We should observe that linguists are agreed that no variety of a language is inherently better than
any other. They insist that all languages and all varieties of particular languages are 'equal'. The
only exceptions they recognize are pidgins, which are by definition restricted varieties, or the
varietie$ we associate with people who are impaired in some way, eg., certain mentally
handicapped. A 'standard' variety of a language is 'better' only in a social sense: it has a preferred
status, it gives those who use it certain social advantages, and it increases their life chances.
Nonstandard varieties tend to produce the opposite effect. These are some of the cO,nsequences
that follow from elevating one varietyand denigrating others, but there is no reason to suppose
that any one of the varieties is intrinsically more worthy than any other. If the capital cities of
England and France had been York and Avignon respectively, Standard English and Standard
French today would be quite different from what they actually are, and speakers of RP and
Parisian French would in such circumstances be regarded rather differently, as speaking
somewhat peculiar local dialects that would not be very heIpfuI if you want to get on in the
world. This attitude that linguists have toward different languages and their different yarieties is
not one that everyone else shares. Many people believe that some languages or varieties are
better than others, e.g., that some languages are particularly 'beautiful', others 'primitive', some
dialects more 'expressive', others 'deficient', and so on. In others words, it is widely believed that
you can be advantaged or disadvantaged not just socially or aesthetically, but also cognitively,
ie., intellectually, by the accident of which language or variety of a language you happen to
speak.

In this chapter I willlook at two different linguistic situations which have been widely discussed
in term~ of such disadvantage. One of these concems certain social class differences in the use of
language in England; the other is the variety of English found in the United States that is often
referred to as Black English. In each case, one or more investigators have pointed out important
social and educational consequences of the linguistic differences that they believe to exist. We
will attempt to look at some of the basic facts and issues and to assess the various claims that
have been made about both those linguistic differences and the consequences that are said to
follow.

The work of Basil Bemstein, a British sociologist who is concemed with educational matters,
has been very influential, particularly in the United Kingdom. Bemstein is interested in the
process of socialization, i.e., how a child acquires a specific cultural identity and responds to that
identity. In particular, he has been interested in the role of language İn sociaIization. Bemstein's

121
work and theorİes have been widely discussed and both misconstrued and misrepresented, so it is
not always easy to detern1ine whether he actually said what he is said to have said. He has not
always helped his own case either, for his writings are often obscure and sometimes ambiguous.
Certain North Americans have been particularly critical of Bernstein, as we will see, but he has
not gone uncriticised on his own side of the Atlantic either.

Bernstein1s views of the relationship between language and culture appear to have been heavily
influenced by his reading of Whorf. One more than one occasion he has pointed out how Whorf
alerted him to the selectiye effect of the culture upoiı the patterning of grammar together with the
,pattemIs semantic and thus cognitive significance. Whorf opened up for him what he calls the
deep structure of linguistical1y regulated communic<;ttion.

Bemstein regards language as something which both influences culture and is in tunı influenced
by culture, with the second influence apparently stronger than the first. A child growing up in a
particular linguistic environment and culture learns the language of that environment and that
culture and then proceeds to pass on that leaming to the next generation. Bernstein believes that
there is a direct and reciprocal relationship between a particular kind of social structure, in both
its establishment and its maintenance, and the way people in that social structure use language.
Moreover, this relationship is a continuing one in that it is handed down from generation to
generation. For Bernstein a particular kind of social structure leads to a particular kind of
linguistit behavior and this behavior in turn reproduces the original social structure.
Consequently, a cycle exists in which certain social patterns produce certain linguistic patterns,
which in turn reproduce the social patterns, and so on.

Individuals also leam their social roles through the process of communication. This process
differs from', 'social group to social group, and, because it is different in each social group,
existing role differences are perpetuated in society. What is of particular concern to Bernstein,
therefore, are the quite different types of language that different social groups employ. He clainıs
that there are two quite distinct varieties of language in use in society. He calls one variety
elaborated code (originally formal code) and the other variety restricted code (originally public
code). According to Bernstein, these codes have very different characteristics. For example,
elab'orated code makes use of accurate grammatical order and syntax to regulate what is said;
uses complex sentences that employ a range of devices for conjunction and subordination;
employs prepositions to show relationships of both a temporal and logical nature; shows frequent
use of the pronoun I; uses with care a wide range of adjectives and adverbs; allows for remarks
to be qualified; and, according to Bernstein (196 ı, p. ı 69), 'is a language use \A,ıhich points to the
possibilities inherent in a complex conceptual hierarchy for the organizing of experience.' In
contrast, restricted code en1ploys short, grammatically sİlnple, and often unfinished sentences of
poor syntactic form; uses a few conjunctions sin1ply and repetitively; employs little
subordination; tends toward a dislocated presentation of information; is rigid and lin1ited in the
use of adjectives and adverbs; makes infrequent use of impersonal pronoun subjects; confounds
reasons and conclusions; makes frequent appeals to Isympathetic circularity, e.g., You know?;
uses idioms frequently, and is La language of implicit meaning.

it is Bernsteinls view that every speaker of the language has access to the restricted code because
all employ this code on certain occasions; e.g., it is the language of intimacy between familiars.
However, not all social classes have equal access to the elaborated code, particularly lower
working-Cıass people and their children, who are likely to have little experience with it.
According to Bernstein, the consequences of this unequal distribution are considerable. In
particular, children from the lower working class are likely to find themselves at a disadvantage
when they attend school, in which extensive use is made of the elaborated code. He says: The
different focusing of experience through a restricted code creates a major problem of educability

122
only where the school produces discontinuity between its symbolic orders and those of the child.
Our schools are not made for these children; why should the children respond? To ask the child
to switch to an elaborated code which presupposes different role relationships and systems of
meaning without a sensitive understanding of the required contexts must create for the child a
bewildering and potentia1ly damaging experience.

According to Bemstein, therefore, there are serious consequences for the children of the lower
working class when they come to school because elaborated code is the medium of instrnction in
schooling. When schools attempt to develop in children the ability to manipulate elaborated
code, theyare really involved in trying to change cultural patterns, and such involvement may
have profound social and psychological consequences for all engaged in the task. Educational
failure is likely to be the result.

Bemstein's theories have been employed in a variety of studies. A typical study is one by
Henderson (1972), who investigated the language used by a hundred mothers to their seven-year-
old children. The mothers were divided into a middle-class (MC) group and a working-class
(WC) group. Henderson reports that, relative to working-Cıass mothers, middle-class mothers
report they favor the use of abstract definitions, explicit rather than implicit definitions, and
information giving strategies in answering children's questions, and they use language to transmit
moral principles and to indicate feelings. In contrast to a child from the working class, a child
from the middle class is oriented through language to principles as these relate to objects and
persons and is given access to the systems through which knowledge is acquired. Henderson's
findings appear to support Bernstein's theory that social classes differ in their use of language
and pass these differences on from generation to generation. Henderson points out the
consequences such findings have so far as education is concemed:

it should be apparent that the linguistic socialization of the MC Child is critically relevant to his
ability to profit from the educational experience as this is currently defined. There is little
discontinuity between the symbolic orders of the school and those to which he has been
socialized through his family; whereas for the working-Cıass child there is a hiatus between the
symbolic orders of the school and those of his family. He is less oriented towards the meta-
languages of control and innovation and the pattem of social relationships through which they
are transmitted. The genesis of educational failure, according to our findings, may well be found
in the pattem of communication and control which are realizations and thus transmitters of
specific stibcultures.

The important word here is hiatus: there is a gap between what the lower working-Cıass child
brings to school and what happens in schooL. Moreover, present types of schooling do not close
the gap, and child-rearing practices continue to ensure that it exists in subsequent generations.

In his more recent work Bemstein is now much concemed with what he calls position-oriented
and person-oriented families. In position-oriented families language use is closely related to such
matters as close physical contact among members, a set of shared assumptions, and a preference
for implicit rather than explicit meaning in communication. On the other hand, in person-
oriented families language use depends less on these factors, and communication is more explicit
and more context-free, that is, less dependent for interpretation on such matters as the physical
surroundings. According to Bemstein, position orientation leads to a strong sense of social
identity with some loss of personal autonomy, whereas person orientation fosters personal
autonomy but at the expense of social identity. We can easily note how these two orientations
relate to Bernstein's restricted and elaborated codes, for position orientation appears to require
less complexity and elaboration in language use than person orientation. Bemstein's shift in

123
emphasis also appears to. indicate some relaxing of his Cıaİıns about language as he turns his
attention to general asp~cts ofsocialization and their educational consequences.

Other investigators, many undoubtedly influenced by Bemstein's ideas, have commented on the
different ways in which adults in various social classes respond linguistical1y to their children.
Cook (1971) found that lower working-Cıass mothers used more commands to their young
children than did mid<;lle-Cıass mothers, who preferred to point out to their children the
consequences of what they were doing, particularly the consequences to the mother's feelings;
e.g., 'Now you've broken that cup and i am very angry.' Cook also found that lower working-
class mothers often relied on their positional authority to get their way, by saying things like 'l'm
you mother' and 'I'm telling you to do that.' Other investigators, e.g., Newson and Newson
(1970), found that working-Cıass mothers invoke authority figures such as police officers in
threatening their children. Robinson and Rackstraw (1967) found that middle-class mothers, far
more often than lower working-class mothers, tried to answer their children's Wh- questions, i.e.,
information seeking questions; with genuine explanations rather than with answers like 'Because
i say so' or 'Because they do'. Such explanations would involve causes, consequences, analogies,
and so on. Similar evidence is reported from studies in the United States, e.g., Hess and Shipman
(1965). In this study, middle-class mothers and lower working-class mothers, faced with the task
of helping their four-year-old children in either block-sorting tasks or the use of an Etch-a-
Sketch, revealed important differences in behavior, with middle class mothers f'].r better able to
help or instruct their children than lower working-class mothers, who were unable to offer much
assistance to their children. In a discussion of their results, Hess and Shipman point out ho"v
frustrated the child of a lower working-Cıass mother must feel in such circumstances. The child
is often required to do things without any explanation being giyen, without adequate instructions,
and without models for the desired behavior; moreover, rewards and punishments seem quite
randoın and, when these do occur, punishments are usually more frequent and intense than
rewards. These views are in accord with Bernstein's. it is his view that people in the ıniddle class
n1uch more so than those in the working class employ language to discuss cause and effect, and
moral principles and their application in bringing up children. Theyare more likely to encourage
verbal interaction, less likely to avoid answering difficult questions and employ coercion, and
more likely to employ language to induce desired behavioral changes.

Bemstein believes that the English social-class system does not al10w the lower working class
easy access to the elaborated code. Members of that class most frequently use restricted code,
which limits the intellectual horizons of its speakers. We should note that in Bernstein's view it İs
the lower working class, not the whole of the working class, who are penalized in this way; too
often his work is interpreted as a claim about the working class as a whole. Of course, Bernstein
and his followers must accept much of the responsibility for this .misunderstanding since they
generally omit the word lower and appear to be discussing the whole of the working class.
Among critics, however, Rosen (1972) has criticized Bemstein on the ground that he has not
looked Cıosely enough at working-c1ass life and language. He has produced stereotypes rather
than collect large amounts o(data, and many of the key terms in his work are quite inadequately
defined, e.g., code, class, and elaborated, and so on. Many of the arguments also appear to be
circular in nature and th~ hypotheses weak.

Labov has echoed many of these criticisms and added a few of his own. He has argued that one
cannot reason from the kindsof data presented by Bemstein that there is a qualitative difference
between the two kinds of speech Bernstein describes, let alone a qualitative difference that would
result in cognitive and intellectual differences. For example, he says: 'The cognitive style of a
speaker has no fixed relation to the number of unusual adjectives or conjunctions that he uses.' A
quantitative difference does not establish a qualitative one, particularly if the functions are
ignored or down-played. Many linguists would agree with Labov that it is not the range of

124
devices that is found in a particular variety of language that is important so much as the way in
which speakers actuaIly use whatever devices exisİ. For example, the English of a thousand
years ago, Old English, lacked certain devices that Modem English has, but it would surely be
false to claim that King Alfred was considerably less 'smart' than your next door neighbor as a
consequence of this apparent 'deficiency'.

There are obviously many assumptions in the work of Bemstein and his foIlowers that need to be
examined quite closely. One very important one, for example, is that middle-class investigators
can assess working-Cıass language objectively using the kinds of techniques they have employed.
Perhaps, if there are such things as restricted codes and elaborated codes, the investigators just
simply missed finding out how working-Cıass children use elaborated code they certainly know
about its use in writing! it is quite possible that a close unbiased examination of the language
used by lower working-class children will seriously weaken a number of Bemstein's claims.

Bemstein is, of course, aware that not all of the language differences between working-class
children and middle-class children are advantageous to the latter. He has acknowledged that
young middle-class children do not tend to respond as uninhibitedly as their working-class
counterparts in certain activities, for example role-playing. Apparently, they often want to know
what the rules are before they will play in this way because they want to avoid doing the wrong
thing. There mayaıso be an additional constraint at work in the use of elaborated code: you tailor
your language to fit the social occasion and particularly the expectations that others have of you.
Therefore, when you are unsure of, or concemed with, those expectations, you may react by
saying little and saying that very carefully. In certain circumstances it will even be the case that
users of the restricted code wiIl be the more verbal, since theyare unlikely to be as concemed
with the impression theyare making on others.

In his work Bemstein has opened up an interesting area of investigation into the varieties of
language used by children. His views have been dismissed far too readily by many linguists, who
tend to reject all his claims because a few may be untenable. The kinds of data that Bemstein has
presented raise important issues. Linguists generally approach these issues differently but it
cannot be said that they have really been any more successful than Bemstein in dealing with
them.

125
 ]1

1. Do !inguistic structur create any difference between the standard varietyand the non-

standard one?

2. How is the cü-cle of social constmction proceeds to Bemstein?

3. According to Bernstein and Handerson what creates the problem in educatİon through

the restricted code?

4. The position-oriented faınilies use .language

prefer whereas the person-oriented ones communication.

5. In investigation done on the way adults respond their children, vvhat is a ·working-Cıass

ıTIother doing when telling her motller about a fabricated monster?

6. What is a misunderstanding of Bernstein's view of working class?

126
II SELECTIVE LISTENING
i

1. What are the great issues that oppose us today? (Write any two!)
.
••• . " '" '" .
.
••• . .
2. Economics is a social science concerned chiefly with the way society employs its
limited resources to .. , for ..
3. Human resoıırces are , .
4. What are the properties of the problems that are studied in economics?
Q .

Q .

5. What are the two things that economics deals with as far as the scarcity of resources is
concerned?
•
•
6. What does a society's economic system consist of? (Write any two!)
·
••• .

·
••• .
7. Understanding whose behavior is stressed on in microeconomics? (Write any two!)
Q .

Q .

8. What kind ofproblems does macroeconomics concentrate on? (Write any two!)
·
••• .
·
••• .
9. What is the ultimate goal ofmacro and microeconomics? (Write onlyone)

10. What can be determined from the automobile study?

ı ı. Modem scientists use the terms , and

..................more or less interchangeably.

127
II CAREFUL LISTENING
i

1. Once societies reached an advanced level of and

...................................it is more logical to explain the phenomenon of population in
tenns of sociological, and .influence.

2. What is demography?

3. Why is it difficult to collect worldwide population figures?

4. Throughout the history, both death-rate and birth-rate have been .

The reasons for the fonner are and .

5. Which places in the world have now a population that universal in the past?
.:. . .
.:. . .

6. What caused the death-rate to decrease?

7. In which parts of the world is the population expansion the greatest?

Q .
Q .

8. Why did some countries encourage people to have more children?

9. What is one of the properties of the first stage of transition?

10. Industrial growth begins at : stage.

11. If the underdeveloped countries industrialize, there will be .

... ... ... ... .. . ... . .. . .. . .. . .. . ... until the population is stabilized.

12. What are the two possibilities for slowing down the growth ofpopulation?
.:. . .
.:. . .

128
Write a compasition about one page discussing tlze advantages of participating in social,
cııltural
and extra-cıırricıılar activities. You can use the guidelines below or any others you
wish.

•:. To make friends

.:. To become part of a group (identification)
.:. Sociability
.:. To learn something nevv
.:. To entertain

Write a composition discussing the reasons for the increase of crime in big cities.
You can use the below points or any other you wish.

~ Lack of education
~ Migratian resuIting in unemployment and inadequate housing conditions
~ Corruption ofyouth (drugs, alcohal, etc.)
~ Lack of authority
~ Change in values

129
 PROFICIENCY
MAXIMISER
Vii

130
[ SEARCH READING ~
NORMAL DEVIANTS
Movement of the hospitalized patient as well as his subsequent movement into
and within the community is affected by his status as a deviant member of society and the
stigma which is attached to this status. These characteristics can be analyzed in abstraction
from the intrinsic characteristics of his ilIness, although it is, of course, recognized that,
concretely, mental illnesses distinguish such patients from other types of deviants.
However, the problems that mental patients face in adapting to hospital life, and the ex-
ınental patients face in adapting to life outside the hospital, is ones we can learn
considerably about from available studies of other groupings that meet with problematic
social acceptance.
The individual in our society-as in any other-is socialized through a diffuse and
continuing process into making certain demands upon himself and certain demands for him-
self upon others. it is partly through the satisfaction of these demands that the individual
constructs an identity or self-conception and cements it vvith self-esteem.
For some individuals, however, a realization occurs, whether suddenIyor
gradually, that theyare less or will be treated as less than they have learned to expect of and
for themselves, and that the frustration of these ingrained expectations is due to the
possession of an attribute that functions as a social stigma. Defining themselves as persons
who wilI run in a particular race, they come to find that they have been partly disqualified
and involuntarily re-identified in terms of their disqualification. The new category to which
they find they belong separates them from those whom they thought they were like, and
brings them together with those from whom they previously differed. Often this
rea1İzation is brought home in some institution such as a jail, hospital, or orphanage,
where they learn a great deal about their stigma while in prolonged intimate contact
with those who will be their fellow-sufferers. And very often face-to-face interaction with .
those who are not stigmatized will officially proceed on the assumption that the stigma is
not real or relevant, and unofficially proceed on the assumption that it is or may at any
time become so. .
Our society appears to have several basic types of stigma. There are "tribal" stigmas,
arising from unapproved racial, national, and religious affiliations. There are the stigmas
attached to physical handicap, inc1uding-to stretch the term-those associated with the
undesirable characteristics of female sex and old age. And there are stigmas pertaining to
what is somehow seen as a decay of moral responsibility, involving those persons who are
unemployed or who have a known record of alcoholism, addiction, sexual deviation, penal
servitude; or who have been committed to a mental hospital.
Persons who have frustrated identity expectations because of a stigma find
themselves "in a spot," and adapt to their situation in certain patterned ways. In this regard,
there are interesting differences within and between each type of stigma. For example,
tribal stigmas commonly incorporate whole kinships, tending to reinforce family solidarity,
while physical stigmas tend to cut across the nuclear family, creating a special set of
problems in this regard and ensuring that stigmatized groupings need not give rise to
stigmatized groups. Nonetheless, there appear to be significant social processes common to
all stigmatized groupings.
it is assumed here that a great deal of what is common to stigmatized people
can and ~hould be understood by making two kinds of conceptual simplifications; one is
that these people are of the same culture as those who stigmatize them, and the other is that
theyare and remain psychologically normaL. This is the sense of the term "normal deviant"

131
 to refer to these people. (The tertn "native minorities" might do as well except that it
implies carporate features that are not always found.) One is led to make these two
assumptions of norınalcy, abstractly, because quite disparate stigmas give rise to similar
social processes, and because persons "incorrectly" rejected tend to manifest the processes
while those who are "incorrectly" accepted do not.
There are, of course, groupings of persons who are not socially accepted in certain
ways and who are appreciably abnormal in one or both of the senses mentioned. The selves
these people are denied are likely then to be ones to which theyare not currently attached.
(This is the case with true "Ghetto communities.") For such groupings, a different
framework of analysis rnust be applied. But in the United States today, it appears that
almost every type of unaccepted person can profitably be understood, initially at !east, by
separating his responses into two components-the part that can be understood without
having to posit cultural or psychological deviation, and the part that cannot. If vve sift out
first what can be understood by assuming cuItural and psychological normaley, then what
remains will be easier to understand and easier to subj ect to required but perhaps quite
different frames of references. For example, one framework of analysis is necessary if we
define the mental hospital as a place where people know they can "get away" with
certain kinds of symptomatic behavior; another framework is necessary if we are to
define that hospital as the place where an individual is assured certain kinds of
acceptance as an ordinary person, even though his symptoms brand him as an
extraordinary one. Similarly, a paranoid patient can place himself in two kinds of
difficulty: Unless he is careful (he feels) those who are chasing him will catch him-a
problem that requires psychiatric understanding whether he appreciates this or not;
unless he conceals or resolves his paranoia, a part of him may know that he is not likely to
get out of the hospital-and this places him in a spot that is not psychiatric at aıı, but rather
simila.r to the convict's v/hen he tel1s the parole board of his future plans.
The set of social processes-the social dynanıies-eomınon to norınal deviants
ınay be suggested fewer than four headings:
1. lntrapersonal: This includes such phenomena as self-hate, dissociation and
denial, "secondary gains," etc.
2. lnterpersona! responses within the deviant groupings: Here one finds such
things as the focusing of conversational interest upon one's deviancy, upon the plight of
one's deviant grouping, upon atrocity stories iI1ustrating the injustice of the wider
society, upon fel1ow-deviants \vho have beeome heroes of participation in the wider
society; the use of a "line" or "sad tale" to aceount for one's menıbership; the use toward
one's own people of epithets and derogatory labels usuaIly applied by hostile non-
deviants; the tendeney to internal ranking, leading to distantiation from one's extremely
deviant brethren, etc.
3. lnterpersona! responses betH'een members of the deviant grouping and
the wider society: This incIudes such phenoınena as so-eal1ed oversensitivity to slights;
concern lest one's innocent actions be taken as a sign of deviation; uncertainty as to
whether others are perceiving one as a deviant, and as to what their "real" attitude is
to deviants; vacillation between submissive withdrawal and aggressive assertiveness;
identifieation of certain non-deviants as friends of one's people before whom it is possible
to relax; total and differential "passing," and the concornitant problems; development
of strategies through which to make known one's deviancy and yet put others at ease with
it, etc.
4. Collective responses: Here would be considered such organized and
deputized actions as fo mı al diseussion of mutual problems; staged satirical skits
ironicaııy expressing the viev/s of the wider soeiety; publieation of partisan newspapers and
magazines, dealing with the virtues of one's grouping and the injustiees of society;

132

.c.;:. • .~ ·J.-:.L·: ,..:--:.:.:

formation of group lendership and a cadre of paid professionals who engage in Iobbying
and other pressure group activity; participation in intergroup games and civic ceremoniaIs. it
may be noted that these collective actions are often taken through voluntary associations
formed by and for deviants, who provide also for mutuaI support and protected
sociability, and that in America, clubs for ex-mentaI patients have not so far proven very
successful.
All ofthese processes can be found to be operative in varying degrees among patients
in mental hospitaIs. it is suggested, therefore, that research utilizing this frame of
reference would be usefuI in adding to our knowledge and understanding of relations
between mental patients and the extra-hospital world. Ultimately, it should also contribute to
discovery of ways to diminish the barriers that suuound mental patients and to increase
the flow and movement of patients more directly in accordance with their true potentiaI for
rehabilitation.

133
[SEARCH REfDIN?
J
1. Which İs the word in paragraplı 1 that says to be a deviant is a mark of shame or guilt?

2. One dayan individual realizes that he is treated as less than he has learned to expect of
himself. V/here does this awareness happen?

3. Individuals nıay be attached to different types of stigmas. For example, psychopaths and
drug users are considered as , nationalist anel racİsts are associated with
so-called ; and fenıinists get stigmas related to .

4. The term "native 111İnorİties" is less acceptable than the term "nomıal deviant". Why?

5. In the United States aln10st eveı)' type of unaccepted persons can be understood by
separating their responses into two conıponents. What are the components?
o
o

6. Under what heading is the social process where young find eonsideration of possible ways
to introduee to all one' s devianey?

7. \Vhat benefits 'voLlld result İronı research using the set of social processes as a fraıne of
reference?

134
 EACHING ESL TO ADULT LEARNERS
1. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the population of non-native speakers of English
increased dramatically in the past decade (International Reading Association, 1993). To heIp
adult non-native speakers to learn English as a second language is one of the important missions
of adult education. To carry out this mission effectively, we need to have asound theory to
guide us. Though there are many existing SLA (second language acquisition) theories, such as
Krashen's monitor model (1981, 1985), McLaughlin's information processing model (1983),
Schumann's acculturation theory (1986, 1978), and Cummins' language proficiency models
(1986, 1981), they fail to offer significant insight about adult ESL learning and instruction.
Thus, we need a better model, which can shed light on adult language learning processes and
help us improve ESL instruction.
This paper proposes such a model, which consists of three major components: the processing
orientation hypothesis, extemal and internal conditions, and leaming task analysis.

2. The first component of the new model deals with the internal linguistic processing
mechanism. i hypothesize that once the linguistic input is registered, it is processed in two major
different ways, target language oriented and metalanguage orientated. By target language
orientated, we refer to a heavy utilization of the target language in processing the inpuİ. In case
of learning English as a second language, this means leaming English through reasoning and
thinking in English. By metalanguage language orientated, we'mean the linguistic processing is
accomplished by relying on a language other than the one being leamed. One example will be
learning Esporantal through thinking, reasoning or processing in English. In most cases, the
metalanguage orientation means the LI orientation, but sometimes theyare not identical. For the
sake of convenience, hereafter I use "the L2 orientation" for "the target language orientation"
and "the Ll orientation for "the metalanguage orientation". The processing orientation a learner
adopts is not static. A learner may shift from one orientation to another. If 'vve represent the
processing of L2 with a continuum, then the so-called L1 and L2 orientations are actually two
extremes of such a continuum. Theoretically, it is possible that each type of orientation may
shift toward the other end along the continuum, but in real life, the shift from an L2 to an L1
orientation is rare. In most cases, the shift is from an LI orientation to an L2 orientation.A
gradual shift from an LI orientation to an L2 orientation represents progress one has made in
leaming the second language. A complete shift to the L2 orientation means that the leamer has
achieved a higher level proficiency in the target language.

3. Though an L2 orientation rather than an Ll orientation is conductive to a high level of

attained L2 proficiency, an Ll orientation is an inevitable stage in adult L2 leaming. This is
because second language learning progresses with a shift from the LI orientation to the L2
orientation along the processing continuum, and the most important condition for this shift is the
development of both explicit and implicit knowledge of L2, particularly lexical structures of the
target language. A beginn-ing ESL learner proficient in his or her own natiye language has
developed an adequate. linguistic system with well-developed L1 lexical structures. Those
structures contain a variety of information, inc1uding syntactic, semantic, phonological, graphic,
and even concrete experiences or anecdotes related to the concepts designated by the lexicon.As
the leamer is making progress in leaming a target language, those lexical sİructures are
undergoing gradual changes. When a concept designated by a lexicon or phrase being learned in
the target language aıready exists in the leamer's Ll linguistic system, the learner does not need

135
to learn all the inforn1ation related to that lexicon or phrase, but only the information which is
not available in the existing structure. In such a case, the new information is either the
phonologicaI or graphic information of the lexicon in the target language. This means that at the
beginning stage, the lexical structures of the concepts whose designator have been acquired by
the leamer are only partially related to the target language. In other words, though an L2 learner
may have learned part of the L2 linguistic system, the representation of the learned L2 !inguistic
system is rounded in lexical structures with only small segments encoded in the target language.
At this level of L2 proficiency, if the learner is engaged in using what he or she has learned to
communicate, he or she has to activate relevant lexical structures to get access to semantic
information. However, most of the semantic information is encoded in Lı, and in accessing it,
the Iearner goes back to his or her native language. An Lı orientated processing takes place.

4. As the Ieamer makes progress in L2, he or she is graduaIly expanding his or her
knowledge base of the formal properties of the target language and acquiring new infonnation
about' the lexicons he or she has aIready leamed. The new information is integrated into the
existing structures. This process continues. With new information constantly added, the lexical
structure change, and the proportion of the structure which is related to the target language
increases. The increase brings about an increase in the degree to which the learner uses the
target language in making sense of the incoming data and performing social functions. When
enough information in L2 about a lexic9n is acquired, its lexical structure changes from aLl
dominated structure to a structure with two more or less equal components, one of which is
organized in Lı and the other in L2, with each containing rich information about that lexicon.
When the lexical structures develop to such a degree, the learner no longer needs to go to
activate the Ll section of the lexical structure in meaning making processes. When a large
amount of the learner's lexical structures reach this stage, an L2 orientation dominates, which in
turn speeds up the learning process and leads to the attainment ofhigh L2 proficiency.

5. Besides the grovvth and development of the L2 kno\vledge base, other factors also affect
a leamer's processing orientations. One of these factors is the linguistic complexity of the input.
When the input is easy to process within the learner's L2 capability, an L2 orientation may take
place. When the complexity of the input is beyond the learner's L2 capability, an Ll orientation
is most likely. Anther factor is the intricacy of the task the learner is engaged in. If a task
demands an L2 proficiency which is beyond the learner's capacity, this task may trigger an Ll
orientation. If the task is not chal1enging enough in terms of a learner's L2 proficieney, an L2
orientation is possible. A third factor is the learner's knowledge baekground. To construet
meaning, one needs to activate background knowledge. The linguistic codes in which the
background kno\vledge has been encoded determine the way the background knowledge is
retrieved. If the background information is encoded in Ll, the retrieval of that information tends
to be L i oriented. If the information is eneoded in L2, the retrieval process may be L2 oriented.

6. The described relationship between these factors and processing orientations seems to be
one-way, but it is in fact reciprocal. An L2 orientation aids in encoding the incoming
information in L2, enables one to process the L2 input directly, thus facilitates the learning
process, and enhances attained· proficiency, while an Lı orientation makes it hard to store
information in L2, delays the process of having an L2 task performed when the task requires the
retrieval of stored information, thus slows down the learning process and hinders one from
attaining a high level of L2 proficiency.

136
7. Language is human and social; its acquisition takes place in a social context and is
affected by the context. In this context, social and cultural variables, economic and political
factors, daily occurrences, and linguistic input are important external conditions for second
language acquisition. Related to internal conditions are affective and cognitive factorso Affective
variables include personality, self-esteem, personal attitudes toward both Ll and L2 cultures and
people, perceived social distance between the Ll and L2 cultures, perceived economic status of
L2, career orientation, understanding of ways to achieve personal goals, and motivation to learn
L2. Cognitive variables include cognitive strategies, learning style, intelligence, memory, and
cognitive strategies.

8. Internal and external conditions act upon each other and shape each other: internal
conditions are shaped by the environments the learner is in, and the perception of extemal
conditions is filtered by the internal conditions. The way one responses to and interacts with
external conditions defines him or her. The experiences one has gone through shapes one's view
of the target language, its cu1ture and its people and the native language, its cuIture and people.
Posİtive attitudes toward each cuIturaI group may positively shape the learner's attitude, which
may lead him or her to develop high self-esteem and strong motivation and drive to learn from
the other group without feeling to have his or her self-identity threatened. But negative attitudes
toward one's ovvn culture may give rise to low self-esteem, and negative attitudes toward the
culture of the target language may prevent one from making real efforts to know that culture and
to learn the language. The same can be said of the roles Ll and L2 play in the leamers' life.
Great economic and political values associated with knowing L2 may transform into a strong
extrinsic motivation for a learner to leam the second language. However, if knowing the second
language helps Iittle enhance one's economic or political status, the absence of economic or
political incentiye may generate no motivation on the part of the learner in learning L2.
Similar1y, affective variables define the way one interacts with his or her environment.
Introversion and extroversion affect the efforts one would like to make to shy away or to
actively engage in social interactions with others, thereby decreasing or increasing the
opportunities to be exposed to linguistic inpuİ. Low self-esteem may give one a sense of a
pessimistic view of one's potentials and discourage one from trying to achieve one's goal or
dream.

9. Gagne et al (1992) classifies learning into five types: intellectual skills, cognitive
strategies, verbal information, motor skills, and attitudes. Learning a second language involves
all those capabilities. it involves learning verbal information because it requires integration of
existing knowledge and new information. it involves attitudes as they modify the learner's
choice of action (Gagne, Briggs, & Wager, 1992). it involves discrimination, identification of
object properties, defining concepts, and formation of higher-order rules. These functions are
intellectual skills. Learning a second language is to learn to solve social interaction and meaning
making problems. Problem solving requires learners to monitor and control "leaming and
memory processes" and to be "able to select and regulate the employment of relevant intellectual
skills and bring to bear task-oriented cognitive strategies" (Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1992). In
addition, several hundred muscles are used in the articulation of human speech (throat, larynx,
mouth, lips, tongue and other muscles). To coordinate those muscles in producing new sounds,
sounds which differ from those one is familiar vvith requires a tremendous degree of muscular
control or the psychomotor coordination of the "speech muscles" (Brown 1994, 57). Muscular
control is within the domain of learned motor skills.

137
10. As second language learning involves all five types of capabiIities, the theories guiding
ESL instruction should be theüries dealing with the learning of all these capabilities. However,
ESL instrnction draws insight heavily on cognitive and humanistic theories, which are sound
theories for intellectual and cognitive, affective aspects of leaming, but are not sound theories to
guide the leaming of motor skills. Gagne et al (1992) pointed out "the learning of motor skills is
best accomplished by repeated practice." Repeated practice is based on behaviourism.
Therefore, ESL instruction should broaden its theoretical foundation to include behaviourism.

ll. The new model has a number of pedagogical implications. First, the model suggests that
a necessary condition for achieving a high level of proficiency in leaming a second language is
to adopt an L2 orientatian. To achieve an L2 orientation, one needs to expand one's knowledge
base about the target language and enrich L2 linguistic information in lexical structures. One
way to do so is to provide extensive reading practices. Reading can keep the lexical structures
actiyated, heIp the reader to glean both Iexical semantic and syntactic information, and enrich
the L2 component of lexical structures. This implication is supported by research (Krashen &
Co, 1994).

ı 2. Second, for an L2 orientation to take place, one must suppress the Ll orientation. As has
been discussed elsewhere, if explanations instructors or dictionaries provide for certain lexical
items are not simple enough, the learners may have difficulty processing the explanation in L2,
thus hindering an L2 orientation. Therefore, ESL instructors need to simplify the complexity üf
both grammatical struetures and lexical items in providing explanations in instruction.

13. Third, instructors need to take into consideration their students' objectives in learning a
second language and adjust their teaching m-ethods and presentation accordingly. If the students
are leaming a second language for social interactions and survival purposes, instructors need to
pay attention to develop their students' con1municative ability. If their students are college
bound, both BıCS and CALP should be given attention.

14. Fourth, SLA involves physical aspects of learning, and practice is a must to achieve
accuracy and snıoothness. So controlled practice and pattern drills should be included in ESL
classrooms. By contrülling the lexical iteıus and sentence patterns, the instructors prevent
learners from being overwhelmed by the learning task and release theın froın paying attention
both to meaning and forms to giying IDore attention to achieve accuracy İn speech production.

138
 II CAREFUL READING i

1. Why does Krashen' s Monitor Model fails?

2. You are learning English. How can we understand that you are making progress in learning
English?

3. When does a learner of L2 attain the information that is not in his native language?

4. Because of an L2 leamer can not

easily remember some certain infonnation in L2.
S. How can an affective factor influence the acquisition ofL2?

6. Instrnction and explanations in L2 should be clear and simple. Why?

7. How can a teacher make his students focus on accuracy?

139
 ı SELECTIVE LISTENING
1rlHDE AMIEmCAN PEOPILJE ON 1rlHDE JEVE OIF
ı
JINDIEJPENDIENCE
1. If we look at the population froın 1715, we encounter an outstanding augmentation, and
what do you think the reasons to it would be considering what is mentioned in the talk?
(Write all ofthem!)

2. Nanıe the two largest non-English groups!

................................................................and .
3. The remarkable increase in the population not only has its causes but alsa has some
important outcomes. Under the light of the above statement, what did the population
increase make possible for the colonists?

4. What is the territory beyond the Appalachians where a few pioneers by 1776 were livİng
called in the present day?

5. What were the Scotch-Irish settlers who are strongly anti-English opposed to? (Only
one!)

6. Yet another result of fast-growing population is alabor force for expanding agricultural
production.What are the results? (Write any two!)
.:. ... " , . '" .
.
'" '"

:. . , " " " , " '" , " , .

7. Write three kinds of people who could be included in upper class!
Q .
Q .
Q .
8. What are the main differences between the wealthy in America and the \vealthy in
England and Europe? (Write any two!)
..
ii

9. How can the land, which was given to soldİers as award, be perceived as?

10. What are the rights of people who have sonıe property?
.:. . .
.:. ... "

11. In "Primogeniture Systenı",

, ,

the elder son inherits the property. Where is this systenı

.

seen?

12. Give an example to:

a). Freeınan who owned a property
b). The ones below the level "a"

140
II CAREFUL LISTENING
i
1. What is management?

2. Write down two essential qualities of a profession!

.:. . .
.:. . .

3. What is the example given in the lecture for the aspect of management as an art?

4. What made the study of management much more scientific?

5. What are the systems that are used İn classifying the managers? (Write any two'!)

6. Supervisor, foreman, project coordinator, operating manager and office manager are
examples of the which constitute the .

7. What is the criterion used in defining middle managers?

8. Ifwe classify managers according to their performance, the two categories would be as:
.:. . .
.:. . .

9. A managers responsible for just one type of organizational activity is known as

.........................................................................................................

10. What is the feature of a general manager?

............................................................................................................................................

141
IWI&JI7fllNrG 7f((])i?IIce il

DisCllSS the advantages and disadvantages ofbeing the only eJıi/d in t/ı.e family.
Use the points given below or any others you wish.

Advantages
,t;. More undivided attention from parents
~;. No sibling rivalı"y
i' More material benefits (parents buy more presents to the only ehild)

Disadvantages
(:t. Lonelyehildhood
.,. Sharing eannot be learned (a child grovvs selfish)
. ~ A child has to carry parents' burden all alone when they get old
,rf.. A child nıay be grown up spoiled

Abuse of drugs is beconıing an increasil1gly widespread probleın especially in developed

countries.
Write an essay diseussing the possible eauses of this phenomenon. You ean use the below
points or any other you wish.

~f~ Broken fan1ilies, weak fanıily ties, unhappy homes

~f~ Lax rules about drug use
~f~ Influenee of friends
~f~ Weakening of nıoral and religious values

142
PROFICIENCY
MAXIMISER
Viii

143
( SEARCH RE~i~ )
TODDLERHOOD: THE DAWNING OF THE CHII.ıD

During the 1ast phase of infancy, f1'oın approxiınately tifteen ınonths to two and a half
years of age, the child coıısiderably expands his environ111ent through increased movement,
new forn1s of language conıınunication, and understanding of fundanıental relationships.
During this phase the infant achieves greater controlover bodily functions and home
situations, and infantile helplessness decreases. Newly acquired abilities also play a ınajor role
in assisting the development of individual initiative and assertiveness. Awareness of
individuality occurs early in this stage. Fronı about two years of age it is ınarked by expressions
of self-reference. Many features of childhood emerge and gradually overshadow babyhood
characteristics. Toward the end of toddler hood, the infant looks more like a child. His
maturity level and personality organization are still predominantly infantile, but will be
reorganized at soıne tin1e during the year. From this tin1e on, facility and speed in various
nl0tor and play skills will depend chiefly on perceptual maturation and practice. Cognitive
development involves perceptual grovvth, which depends on the adequate functioning of
all th e huınan senses, especially those for evaIuating distance and deptlı.
Perception is a process of cognitive interpretation that includes both the sensory
experience and its ıneaning and value for the individual. The decreasing
structura1 growth İn Iate infancy pern1its the c.hild to make more rapiçl advances
in the organization of new behavior traits and the acquisition of ınany human
abilities and skills, furthered by the society and the culture (Murphy, 1968:
Piaget, 1937/1954).
Interest in partial understanding of pictures and stories now emerge and develop at a
rapid rate. Whenever books are available, the infant ınakes frequent attempts to tunı the
pages and seenıs to enjoy their contents. Many delightful experiences result as he makes
associations bet\veen pictures and previous observations of his toys and television characters.
The iirst spurt of iınaginative growth occurs at this l1ıidphase. The qualities and activities of
living individuals are readily attributed to inanimate representations of reality. Television
prograıns designed for children, in which birds, dogs, and other anİınals assunıe the roles of
people, appeal to infants at this stage and serve as stimuli for imitation, however, how
iınperfect this n1ay be. Through character modeling, the child assimilates language, social
behavior, and other fonns of complex huınan activity as presented through in1erpersonal
C0111111Unication and 111ass 111edia. Most children now have nıany opportuni.ties to learn ınuch
and early (Bandura & Barab, 1971).
The neonate shovıs rudin1en1ary forıl1s of perceptivity but no intellectual behavior for
some time after birth. Indeed~ he lacks the proper nıeans for it, since speech is th e vehicle
par excellence for distinctly cognitive functioning through representation of stimuli. However,
intelligence can occasional1y be assessed at three to six months of age. SeemingIy, the more
intellectually gifted infant tends to develop faster in various aspects of growth; perceptivity
and motility patterns are therefore used in rating intelligence. In mental testing of young
infants, Nancy Bayley (1969) begins with such test items as "responds to sound of bell,"
e.e.quiets vvhen picked up," "responds to sound of rattle and click of light switch," and
"momentary regard of red ring." Age placement for these items is 0.1 münth. At the age of
six to seven months the following test items are used: "looks for fallen spoon," "playful
response to mirror," "retains two ür three cubes offered," "manipulates bell," "interest in
detail," and "vocalizes four different syllables." All İnfant growth is included in Gessell's
Developmental Schedules (1949), based on normative summaries of motor, adaptiye,
language, and personal-social behavior. The resulting developn1ental and intelligence
quotients (DQ and IQ) are useful in estimating an infant's progress in psychon10tor,

144
cognitive, and social growth. it may be added that until the second year of life there is
relatively poor prediction from infant tests to IQ assessments in middle or Iate childhood. At
this earlyage parenta! socioeconomic status alone is the best single predictor. Empirical testing
data on a large infant and child sample do not support simple continuity of general precocity
at one age with general precocity at another age. A constant g factor is probably not tenable
as a model for infant cognitive development (McCall, Hogarty, & Hurburt. 1972).
The toddler discovers the world through his mother and father, but he adds quite abit
of magic as his imagination begins to provide ideas and answers of his own. Though he
imitates his parents, he also imitates nonhuman, even nonliving, objects as he sees them. He
discovers new ways of playing by using fantasy: "Let's pretend" appears in a variety of
situations. Beyond that, he starts imitating absent persons and objects once they have been
"interiorized," to use Piaget's term, and the pattern of activity is worked out in his head
before it is portrayed (Piaget, 1945/1951, p. 65). The infant does not yet know how to
discriminate between ~ffects of his own actions and those of other objects or persons. He
lives in a world with a few permanent objects and \vith only a shadowy awareness ofhimself
as a person. His cognitive behavior organization is preverbal and preIogicaI-not represented
by any symbol system. The use of speech accelerates and symbolic representation begins
toward the end of this phase, and the search for names and identity commences (Piaget,
193711954; Uzgiris, 1973).
Throughout Iate infancy, the child eagerly engages in the process of exploring and
becoming familiar with his or her own environment in most of its aspects and many of its
vicissitudes. Curiosity is readily aroused. Toddlers make repeated efforts to get anywhere
and everywhere, in and out, up and down. They make use of chairs and other household
furniture in order to climb and reach high places in their homes. Drawers, boxes, cans,
and bottles are, whenever possible, opened and their contents examined. Eagemess to
manipulate external objects in every way possible increases as Iate infancy advances: it
helps toddlers recognize the invariance or constancy of people, objects, and relationships
(Piaget, 193711954; Uzgiris, 1973).
The object-grouping activity observed at the beginning of this phase turns into
selective ordering- the toddler classifies and separates small objects on the basis of their
differences. At about two years of age toddlers begin to make simple graphic col1ections
without any verbal instruction or presentation of any pattem. The mere presence of different
smaIl objects is a sufficient stimulus for this discrimination play. Additionally, occasional
opportunities for free play to mess with sand, mud, and even leftover food is a good way
to let toddlers explore textures (Pavenstedt, 1969).
In touching, grasping, pushing, pulling, sucking, throwing, and banging, the infant
stimulates his senses, engages his muscles, and gains much enjoyment, fun, and surprise. He
has a tendency to keep a variety of familiar objects in his possession and use them for old
and newactivities as his ingenuity inspires him. Depending on opportunities, neighborhood
exploration also advances to a significant extent. Toddlers need and profit from this type of
stimulation. As a rule, they try hard to imitate older children's behavior.
Using his power of locomotion, the infant slowly increases his ability to estimate
distance and depth. For example, he readily observes a change of line or color, but he needs
an accumulation of experience in order to relate these details to distance. AIso, he must
learn that in many instances a surfıce continues unchanged even though a color or line has
changed. The many difficulties young children have in perceiving depth on the basis of
minor changes in line, shading, and object interposition are puzzling to adults, since
perception of distance and depth seem so natural to them.
At this stage the infant willingly engages in play with other children if theyare ready
to contribute his share of cooperation. He learns to enjoy infants of his own age,
especially vvhen he has frequent contacts with them. If parents are alert to the likes and

145
dislikes of theİr children, if they know what they can take and tolerate and what helps to
further theİr interest in people and children, they can help young children to unfold their
powers and talents at an earlyage (Murphy, 1968).
Parallel playand independence in play activity are the first signs of a growing
desire for autonomy and greater S'elf-expression in proportion to the infant's own needs
and desires. Engaging in a great variety of exploratory activities shows that the toddler age
is well advanced and his reservo{r of knowledge greatly enriched. The toddler spends a
great deal of time seeking new stiınuli, the significance of which cannot be fully understoQd
untillater (Berlyne, 1966).

146
i~i E
SiiiiiiiiiiiAiiiiiiiiiiiRiiiiiiiiiiiCiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiREiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiAiiiiiiiiiiiiiiDiiiiiiiiiiINiiiiiiiiiiGiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii'11

1r(Q)IDJITDJLJEIRliHI(Q)(Q)JD)

1- What makes the expansion of environmental exploration possible?

a) .
b) .
c) '" .

2- and are parts of perception, which in turn is a part

of .İtself.

3- How can the infant, usual1y gaİn the ability to speak and other human behaviors?

4- In order to behave intellectual}', what does the infant, usual1y need?

5- Desire to maneuver raİses with the advancement of Iate

infancy and assists children to percept ..

6- Which two factors make the infant explore his environment in the Iate infancy?

7- Why do the infants collect Iots of different objects, which, according to them, have similar
features?

8- What are the initial representations of children' s willingness for autonomy and self-
expression?
...........................................................................................................

147
 ON PSYCHOANALYTIC TRAINING FOR RESEARCH
PURPOSES
1 it is widely taken for granted taday that persons engaged in any academic or hospital
research employing psychoanalytic concepts or touching on clinical questions should have
psychoanalytic training. But, because of the high cost of the full psychoanalysis involved, many
research workers are unable to undeıiake such training, however useful it might be to them
professionally. In the practice of giying fellowships that either pays directly for a didactic
analysis as part of a larger program. Here i should like to set forth the view that, although the
needs on which it is based are unquestionably real, this practice is in actually ınuch less
desirable than it appears at first glance.

2 i shall begin by observing that, as currently organized by the American Psychoanalytic

Association, psychoanalytic training gives priority to the candidate's personal analysis rather
than to educational work in senıinars or apprenticeship in dealing with patients; though
standa!ds exist in these latter areas, theyare both more variable locally and more loosely
formulated than the essential criteria of progress in analysis, achievement of insight and
working through of personal problems that are now used as standards for professional advance.
This is especiaııy true for the nanmedical candidate who does not take a control case. i shall try
to establish the fact that, as a consequence of this approach, contemporary analytic training
blurs the distinction betvveen public and private spheres that generaııy characterizes modern
societies; it is on this point that n1Y discussion 'Nill center.

3 By its very nature, psychoanalysis is concerned with ınatters peliaining to private life.
Fronı one standpoint, it is a new \vay of dealing with same very old problen1s. Starting fron1
same ideas about early personality fornıatian and the influence of early family relationships on
the child, it deals, in the treatment of adults, "vith the more intimate facets of public ties with
colleagues and authority figures. Every neurosis, according to Freud, is the outgrovvth of
difficulties in one single sphere of life. In other times and places, the san1e difficulties have been
dealt with by other ıneans: In the priınitive society, the n1agical practitioner may prescribe a
love potian for the person unable to attract the one he would like to attract; and in the Ranıan
Catholic world, the confessianal senres as an outlet for conflicts concerning the faınily and
sexuality. The French anthropologist~ elaude Levi Strauss, has said that the nıagical practitioner
and the psychoanalyst have in comnıon the fact that they atteınpt to cure intrapsychic disorder
by the manipulation of the words or symbols.

4 However he points out, the two part conıpany sharply on another dünension. The
primitive practitioner provides for the patient a myth or aritual having a standardized social
content. The psychoanalyst, in contrast, acts merely as a catalyst while the patient creates his
own individual myth by the recovery and integration of personal ınemories. Thus
psychoanalysis is an appropriate mode of treatment for an individualistic age. Unlike both the
magical practitioner and the priest, who represent particular kinds of social or moralorder, the
psychoanalyst does not nıake decisions of value for his patients and, ideaııy, does not act as an
agent of social control. In this sense, the rapid growth in his prestige and importance, especially
among those contenıporary groups which no longer adhere to any dogmatic religious or moral
tradition, is onlyone aspect of the general trend toward a greated separatian of public and

148
private spheres of the personality. Formal social contrals in the modem world tend to be
restricted to public spheres, such as behavior on the street or on the job; and, especially in the
complex socialorganization of the modern city, such matters as behavior within the family,
sexual morality, and private attitudes on public authority are increasingly viewed as matters of
individual concem.

General Problems in Psychoanalytic Training

5 it is in this context of progressive social differentiation and individualization that

psychoanalysİs has evolved as the major competitor for the healing role. However, the
paradoxical fact of the matter is that psychoanalytic training, just because it İs not based on a
built in separation between public and private spheres runs counter to the same social trend that
has most furthered the diffusion of psychoanalysis. The training analysİs as Thomas Szasz has
pointed out differs from the purely private treatment, the patient can reveal his innermost
thoughts and a feeling without any risk of undesirable consequences in the real world, for
nothing he says in analysis goes beyond the analyst. In the training analysis this is not the case,
for the analyst can communicate with the authority body that determines the candidate's status
in training. Thus the candidate does not possess the guarantee of medical confidence that
applies to every private patient. This means that the authority of the training analyst is very
unusual by the standards of modem societies because it cavers the entire personality rather than
certain specified public segments of it. The result is that matters pertaining to private life may
have consequences in the public sphere and vice versa; in this respect, analytic structure
resembles that of totalitarian societies in which children may be expected to infarın the
authority figures aftheir parents' deviations from idealagical conforınity.

6 The research foundation exemplifies the more comman authority pattem in democracies.
It possesses authority because it can both make grants and reject applications; thus the careers
of persons in research work depend on its actions. However, while it can reject an applicant
either because he is incompetent or, as sametimes happens, because in either instance it is
presumably concerned only with one segment of his total personality, namely his capacities and
motivation for research. Moreover, this segment is a public one in that any person who honestly
does research publishes his work so that it can be evaluated by qualified and interested others.
In mo?t instances, the research foundation simply does not know how the appIicant feels about
his parents or his marriage, or even what images of research foundations he happens to have on
bad days.

7 In contrast, the training analyst does have access to these spheres. This means that
matters other than work capacities or qualifications can play a part in the selection and training
of psychoanalysts. Many institutes, for example, are suspicious of unmarried candidates, and
homosexuality is usually a reason for outright rejection. In actual fact, then, training standards
are such as to reinforce the psychoanalyst's role as representative of a specific moralorder even
though Freud's scientific humanism preached objectivity concerning all forms of human
behavior, and even though the psychoanalyst is ideally not an agent of social control. Both of
the criteria mentioned above are congruent with suburban AmeriGan upper middle-c1ass family
standards, which, while not exactly Puritan in the old-fashioned sense, do put a great dealaf
emphasis on early marriage and child-bearing and in many respects agree with the Latin
peasantry that there is something highly sacred about the relatianship between a mother and her
child. But of course, as social antlıropology has shown a great variety of cultural solutions has
been offered for the universal facts of sexualityand reproduction, and many can be found within
the wider metropolis.

149
8 The reason given by psychoanalytic for using private criteria in training is, of course,
that since the analyst deals professionally with private life, and his own private life is relevant to
his role. However, it is possible to disagree with this view while enıphasizing the necessity of
objectivity to the analyst's professional work. If a homosexual has so little objectivity about his
own problem that he is unable to understand or to deal with the conflicts of his patients, which,
statisticaııy speaking, are most likely to be heterosexual, then he would presumably make a bad
analyst and should not be admitted to training. However such difficulties should show up in
work with patients who can be publiely evaluated -that is, in supervision; and, just as nıany
practicing homosexuals are good writers, teachers, or businessmen, there seems on the face of it
no reason why a homosexual who can elearIy distinguish between his own feelings and those of
others cannot be a good analyst. By modem standards, his private life should stiıı remain his
own business provided that it does not interfere with his public role.

9 The ambiguities inherent in the professional use of personal psychoanalysis have played
a role in psychoanalytic politics from the beginning. In the earIy days, the epithet "umesolved
transference neurosis" was very comnıarrIy hurIed in situations of inteııectual disagreement
between analyst and analysand. This tendency is perhaps less pronounced today because
American community-centered modes of reconciling differences have to a considerable degree
replaced the authoritarian patriarchalism of Freud. Moreover, the difficulties of the training
situation have not gone completely unnoticed by psychoanalysts, who have established a
number of informal rules for dealing with the complications that arise from the social overlap
between the training analyst and the candidate. Thus, in the more orthodox circles at least, there
is an implicit taboo on inviting the two to the same party, on the grounds that their interaction
should be restricted to the analytic sphere, thus establishing some privacy around this. Many
training analysts voluntarily refrain from communicating specific details of the analysand's life
that ınight, if divulged to colleagues, have social repercussions. Most important, neariy all of
the institutes have by now restricted the very great power of the training anaIyst by the
coınmittee systenı, \vhich nıeans that crucial decisions on admission and on promotion or
dismissal are made by colleetive.

10 In spite of these rules and modifications, the fact remains that analytic training involves
a collective controlover private life. I\10reover, while the committee system lessens to S01ne
degree the power of the training analyst, it may in other respects make for greater ambiguity in
the professional use of personal psychoanalysis. A common practice today is for career
decisions to be ınade by a eonınıittee on the basis of global inıpressions communicated by the
training analyst. For exaınple the training analyst may report that the eandidate is either nıaking
satisfaetory progress toward insight or failing to do so, that he is either resolving his probleıns
6r showing uneonseious resistance, and so on; and the committee is guided by this information
in deciding whether or not a candidate should be admitted to seminars, given a control case, and
the like. But because, with the institutionalization of psychoanalysis, a number of its technical
terms have taken on value connotations, this method of arriving at career decisions may, in
effect, increase the arbitrariness of judgment by creating stereotypes of the "good" and the
"bad" candidate. Thus if the training analyst reports "unconscious resistance" he may simply be
saying that he does not like the candidate or that the candidate does not agree with him. The
ultimate source of the judgment stiıı lies in the private sphere because it is based on what the
candidate says on the couch. When global judgments are batted around by the members of a
committee, each of whom may have his own personal or theoretical reasons for trusting or
distrusting the judgment of the training analyst, the degree of arbitrariness can increase sti11
further. it is not impossible for the private personality of the candidate to be turned into the
battlefield for social contlict within the institute; and as Grete Bibring has pointed out the
committee system can be used as a shield for the abdication of personal responsibility.

150

ı>
 11 While most of these difficulties have theİr impact primarily on the candidate, there are
others that are more significant for the training analyst. In all fields of human endeavor, the
thinking undergoes anatural course of change over the years: as a consequence, mapy of the
ideas of the older generation, which were radical in its day, are regarded by the younger
generation as outmoded or just too obvious to be interesting any more. In most fields, however,
the psychological impact of such differences on the older generation is modulated by
conventions of respect which govern what one says in public to authority figures. The graduate
student who feels that his professor is sometimes a bit of an old fogey keeps his view to himself
or divulges it only to h.is peers. But if the psychoanalytic candidate has such thoughts on the
couch, he is supposed to express them because in analysis one says everything that comes into
one's mind. If he does not, he is violating the basic rule; but if he does, he is being disrespectful
to the analysİ. Erickson has said that no organizational nıles can entirely contain the destructive
and creative spirits freed by the combination of the personal, the professional, and the
organizational that goes into psychoanalytic training. Certainly one potential1y destructive
opening lies in the very unusual absence of conventions of respect based on distance. No matter
how conscientiously the training analyst tries to analyze his own reactions, he is likely to be
affected by continual exposure to hostile comments from rising competitors. This, in tum, can
lead to a certain hardening of position, and one might expect a predictably greater conservatism
of ideas and technique among training analyst than among others in the profession. Since
training analysis have the greatest prestige and in a sense act as official guardians of traditions,
this makes for a slower rate of change in psychoanalysis than in other scientific fields.

12 Many of these difficulties are of such a nature that they can Qperate against the values of
increasing competence and knowledge. It is unlikely that they wil1 be corrected by purely
remedial measures, such as the establishment of new types of committees of increased
bureaucratization of procedure, unless the most significant axis of structure- namely, the public
use of private criteria- is modified. The one currently available proposal for accomplishing this
has been advanced by Szasz, who would separate public and private spheres by
institutionalizing strict rules of confidentiality for the didactic analysis, thus restricting
evaluations determining the candidate's status as candidate to the public spheres of seminars
and actual work with patients. Such an arrangement would lessen the role-strain of the training
.analyst, who would then be free to devote his attention solely to the private life of the candidate
without having guard tradition at the same time. it would also greatly decrease the role played
by "g~od" and "bad" candidate stereotypes by strengthening the status of more subtle and
refined types ofperformance judgment- for example, the candidate has understood or failed to
understand the seminars on instinct theory or dream interpretation; he is detailed and sensitiye
or sloppy and boorish in his case presentations; he works well or does not work well with
homosexual, depressed schizophrenic patients, and so on. All of these standards are directly
relevant to the candidate's capacities for becoming a good psychoanalysİ. This cannot be said
with equal of such matters as personal happiness in love, inhibition or emotionality as character
traits or conformity or opposition in·relation to authority figures that lie behind the analyst's
judgments to whether or not the candidate has successfully worked through his problems.

151
 (Q)W JF§YCCIBI(Q)AWAJLYilIICC ilJMAJINIIWG IF(Q)ll<l U§JEAll<lCCIBI
JP1lJIRlJF(Q)§JE§

1. The writer eriticizes the approach of the American Psychoanalytic Association

towards trainees because the Association

2. How many kinds ofhealers does the writer talk about? Name them.

3. Psychoanalysis is more appropriate for modem society than other kinds of

psychological treatments because in psychoanalysis the patient

4. What advantage does the private psychoanalysis patient have that trainees do
not?

5. Why do we see less "unresolved transference neurosis" nowadays?

6. What precaution has been taken ın order to prevent mistakes which the
training analyst ınight ınake?

7. What paradox does the candidate face while undergoing analysis?

8. What new idea will lessen the responsibilities of the training analyst?

152
 II SELECTIVE LISTENING
i

1. Give the names oftypes of disorders in Abnormal Psychology? (Any three!)

.:. . .
.:. . .
.: .

2. What must happen to personality traits in order to be called personality disorder?

3. What are the general characteristics of people who have personality disorders? (Write
any two!)
.: .
.
: .

4. People who have antisocial personalities have or

..............................determines their behavior, that is they don't have ..

5. What are the reasons for the psychopathic personality behavior? (Cite any two!)
.: .
.:. . .

6. Other properties of antisocial personality are, and

7. What kiind ofparents do we expect people with such personalities to have?

8. When were the selected two groups in the experiment of biological factors same? (State
two!)
.: ..
.
:. . .

9. What can be interpreted from the drop in the skin resistence?

10. The hypothesis about sociapaths is that they have inherently an .

11. From the test of mental functioning point of view, who do antisocial personalities lack?
. (Mention any two!)
.:. . .
.:. . .

12. Child preserved from or have

no ability in with the distress of others.

153

....
 i

1. What are the media used to gather information ın the studies of child language
acquisition? (Write any tlu'eel)
.:. . .
.:. . .
.:. . .

2. . , & may be
examples to the child's involuntary responses.

3. When does the children's sucking rate changes?

4. At what age does the babling age occurs?

5. In what t\\70 ways does the deaf children's vocalization change?

.:. . .
• :. • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 •••••••• o. o • • 0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• '" ••••••••••

6. Please cite the definition of holophrastic sentences 1

7. What are the functions that the words in holophrastic stage serves for? (Any two l)
.:. . .
.:. . .

8. What do telegraph stage sentences laek? (Write any two!)

.:. . .
.:. . '" .

154
WI&JJ7FIfN«; 7F({j)JPif 11re
The Internet has become a widespread tecluı%gica/ too/.
What might be possible reasons for this increasing demand for the Internet?
You can use the points below or any other you wish.

•:. Remote control of routine events like shopping, membership to elubs, etc.
•:. Quick access to every kind of information
.:. Saving time
.:. E-n1ail; sending and receiving messages and mails in a short time
.:. People like to spend time with technology

re
1JfYI&JJ7FIfN([if 7F({j)JPif 1

"Books, plays and films should be censored."

Argue for or against the above statement. Use the points below and any others that you wish to
add.
For
• Parents have to protect their children
• Censorship is like law (civilized people may not need it but society as a whole does)
• Tendency to equate "artistic" and "pornographic" - a lot of censored works are not really
works of art
• Absolute freedom = anarchy

Against
• Censorship is undemocratic (controls the way people feel and think)
• Who are the censors? How do they know what is "good"?
• Censorship does not prevent pomography
• Censors do not take artistic considerations into account

155
 PROFICIENCY
MAXIMISER
IX

156
 f SEARCH READING)

THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD

The Coleman Report in 1929 recommended a reading- based approach to foreign language
teaching for use in American schools and colleges. This emphasized teaching the comprehension of
the texts. Teachers taught from books containing short reading passages 'in the foreign language,
preceded by lists of vocabulary. Rapid silent reading was the goal, but in practice teachers often
resorted to discussing the content of the passage in English. Those involved in the teaching of
English as a second language in the United States between the two world wars used either a modified
Direct Method approach, a reading- based approach, or a reading- oral approach. Unlike the approach
that was being developed by British applied linguists during the same period, there was little attempt
to treat language content systematical1y. Sentence patterns and grammar were introduced at the
whim of the textbook writer. There was no standardization of the vocabulary or grammar that was
included. Neither was there a consensus on what grammar, sentence patterns, and vocabulary were
nıost inıportant for beginning, intermediate, or advanced leamers.
But the entry of the United States into World War II had a significant effect on
language teaching in America. To supply the US government with personnel who were fiuent in
German, French, !talian, Cbinese, Japanese, Malay, and other languages, and who could work as
interpreters, code- room assistants, and translators, it was necessary to set up a special language
training program. The government commissioned American universities to deve10p foreign
language programs for military personne!. Thus the Anny Specialized Training Program (ASTP)
was established in 1942. Fifty-five American universities were involved in the program by the
beginning of 1943. .
The objective of the army programs was for students to attain conversational
proficiency in a variety of foreign languages. Since this was not the goal of conventiona!
foreign language courses in the United States, new approaches were necessary. Linguists, such as
Leonard Bloomfield at Yale, had aıready developed training programs as a part of their linguistic
research that were designed to give linguists and anthropologists mastery of American Indian
languages and other languages they were studying. Textbooks did not exist for such languages.
The technique Bloomfield and his colleagues used was sometimes known as the "informant method"
since it used a natiye speaker of the language, the informant -who served as a source of phrases and
vocabulary and who provided sentences for imitation, and a linguist, who supervised the learning
experience. The linguist did not necessarily know the language but was trained in eliciting the basic
structure of the language from the informant. Thus the students and the linguist were able to take
part in guided conversation with the informant, and together they gradually learned how to speak the.
language, as well as to understand much of its basic grammar. Students in such courses studied
ten hours aday, six days a week. There were generally fifteen hours of drill with natiye speakersand
twenty to thirty hours of private study spread over two to three six-week sessions. This was the
system adopted by the army, and in small classes of mature and highly motivated students, excellent
results were often achieved.
The Anny Specialized Training Program lasted only about two years but attracted
considerable attention in the popular press and in the academic community. For the next ten years
the "Army Method" and its suitabiEty for use in regular language programs was discussed. But
the linguists who developed the ASTP were not interested primarily in language teaching. The
"m~thodology" of the Army Method, like the Direct Method, derived from the intensity of contact
with the target language rather than from any well-developed methodological basis. it was a
program innovative mainly in terms of the procedures used and the intensity ofteaching rather than
in terms of its underlying theory. However, it did convince a number of prominent linguists of the
value of an intensiye, oral-based approach to the learning of a foreign language.

157

l
 Linguists and applied linguists during this period were becoming increasingly involved in the
teaching of English as a foreign language. America had now emerged as a major international power.
Tbere was a growing denıand for foreign students entered the United States to study in universities
and many of these sttıdents required training in English before they could begin their studies. These
factors led to the emergence of the American approach to ESL, which by the mid-fifties had become
AudioIİJ;ıgualism.
In 1939 the University of Michigan developed the first English Language Institute in the
United States; it specialized in the training of teachers of English as a foreign language and in
teaching English as a second or foreign language. Charles Fries, director of the institute, was
trained in structural linguistics, and he applied the principles of stmctural linguistics to language
teaching. Fries and his colleagues rejected approaches like those of the Direct Method, in which
leamers are exposed to the language, use it, and gradua!ly absorb its grammatica! patterns. For Fries,
grammar, or "stmcture" was the starting point. The structure of the language was identified with its
basic sentence patterns and gramrnatical structures. The language was taught by systematic attention
to pronunciation and by intensive oral drilling of its basic sentence patterns. Pattem practice was a
basic classroom technique. "lt is these basic pattenıs that constitute the leamerls task. They require
dril1, dril1, and nıore drill, and only enough vocabulaıy to ınake such drills possible".
Michigan was not the only university involved in developing courses and materials for
teaching English. A number of other similar progranıs were established, some of the earliest being at
Georgetown Universityand Aınerican University, Washington DC, and at the University of Texas,
Austin. US linguists were becoming increasingly active, both within the United States and abroad, in
supervising prograıns for the teaching of English. in 1950 the American Council of Leamed
Societies, under contract to the US State Department, was commissioned to develop textbooks for
teaching English to speakers of a wide number of foreign languages. The format the linguists
involved in this project fol1o,ved \-vas known as the "general form": A lesson began with work on
pronunciation, ınorphology, and grammar, followed by dril1s and exercises. The guidelines \vere
published as Structural Notes and Corpus: ABasis for the Preparation of Materials to Teach English
as a Foreign Language. This becanıe an influential docuınent and togetber with the "general fonn"
\vas used as a guide to developing English courses for speakers of ten different languages,
published between ı 953 and ı 956 (Moulton 196 ı).
In many ways the methodology used by US linguists and laııguage teaching experts at this
period sounded sinıilar to the British Oral Approach, although the two traditions developed
independently. The .American approach differed, however, in its strong alliance with Americaıı
structural linguistics and its applied linguistic applications, particularly contrastive aııalysis. Fries set
forth his princip1es in Teaching and Leaming English as a Foreign Language (1945 ), in which tbe
problenıs of leanıing a foreign language v/ere attributed to the conflict of different structural systems
(i.e., differences bet\veen the granunatical and phonological pattenıs of the natiye tongue aııd the
target language). Contrastive analysis of two languages would allow potentia! probleıns of
interference to be predicted and addressed through carefuIly prepared teaching nıaterials. Thus
was bom a major industry in Anıerican applied linguistics -systematic comparisons of English with
other languages, with a vie\v towaı'd solving fundaınenta! problems of foreign language learning.
The approach developed by linguists at Michigan and other universities became known
variously as the Oral Approach, the Aural-Oral Approach and the Structura! Approach. it advocated
aural training first, then pronunciation training, followed by speaking, reading, and writing.
Language was identified with speech, and speech was approached through stmcture. This approach
influenced the way languages were taught in the US throughout the fifties. As an approach to the
teaching of English as a foreign language the new orthodoxy was promoted through the
University of Michiganls journal Language Learning. This was a period when expertise in linguistics
was regarded as a necessaryand sufficient foundation for expertise in language teaching. Not
surprisingly, the Cıassroonı materials produced by Fries and linguists at Ya!e, CorneIl, and elsewhere
evidenced considerable linguistic analysis but very little pedagogy. They were widely used, however,

158
and the appIied linguistic principals on which they were based were thought to incorporate the most
advanced scientific approach to language teaching. If there was any learning theory underlying the
Aural -Oral materials, it was a common-sense application of the idea that practice makes perfect.
There is no explicit reference to then-current learning theory in Fries's work. it was the incOl-poration
of the linguistic principles of the Aural-Oral approach with state-of-the-art psychological leaming
theory in the mid-fifties that led to the method that came to be known as AudiolinguaIism.
The emergence of Audio-lingual Method resulted from the increased attention given to
foreign language teaching in the US toward the end of the 1950s. The need for a radical change
and rethınking of foreign language teaching methodology was prompted by the launching of the
first Russian satellite in 1957. The US Government acknowledged the need for a more intensive
effort to teach foreign languages in order to prevent Americans from becoming isolated from
scientific advances made in other countries. The National Defence Education Act (1958), among
other measures, provided funds for the studyand analysis of modem languages, for the development
of teaching materials, and for the training of teachers. Teachers were encouraged to attend
summer institutes to improve their knowledge of foreign languages and to leam the principles of
linguistics and the new linguistically based teaching methods. Language teaching specialists set
about developing a method that was applicable to conditions in US colleges and university
classrooms. They dew on the earlier experience of the army programs and the Aural-Oral or
Structural Approach developed by Fries and his colleagues, adding insights taken from
behaviorist psychology. This combination of structurallinguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-
oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology led to the Audio-lingual Method.
Audiolingualism (the tenn was coined by Professor Nelson Brooks in 1964) elaimed to have
transfonned language teaching from an art to a science, which would enable learners to achieve
n1astery of a foreign language effectively and efficiently. The method was widely adopted for,
teaching foreign languages in North American colleges and universities. it provided the
methodological foundation for materials for the teaching of 'foreign languages at college and
university level in the United States and Canada, and its principles fonned the basis of such widely
used series as the Lado English Series.
The theory of language underlying Audiolingualism was derived from a view proposed
by American linguists in the 1950s -a view that came to be known as structural linguistics.
Linguistics had emerged as a f10urishing academic discipline in the 1950s, and the structural theory
of language constituted its backbone. Stnıctural linguistics had developed in part as a reaction to
traditional grammar. Traditional approaches to the study of language had linked the study of
language to philosophy and to a mentalist approach to grammar. Grammar was considered a
branch of logic, and the grammatical categories of Indo-European languages were thought to
represent ideal categories in languages. Many nineteenth-century language scholars had viewed
modem European languages as corruptions of elassical grammar, and languages from other parts of
the world were viewed as primİtive and underdeveloped.
The reaction against traditional grammar was prompted by the movement toward
positivism and empiricism, which Darwin's Origin of the Species had helped promote, and by an
increased interest in non European languages on the part of scholars. A more practical interest in
language study emerged. As linguists discovered new sound types and new patterns of linguistic
invention and organization, a new interest in phonetics, phonology, morphology, and syntax
developed. By the 1930s, the scientific approach to the study of language was thought to consist of
collecting examples of what speakers said and analyzing them according to different levels of
structural organization rather than according to categories of Latin grammar. A sophisticated
methodology for collecting and analyzing data developed, which involved transcribing spoken
utterances in a language phonetically and later working out the phonemic, morphological (stems,
prefixes, suffixes, etc, and syntactic phrases, elauses,' sentence types) systems underlying the
grammar of the language. Language was viewed as a system of stnıcturally related elements for the
encoding of meaning, the elements being phonemes, morphemes, words, stmctures, and sentence

159
types. The term struetural referred to these characteristics: (a) Elements in a language were thought
of as being linearly produced in a rule-govemed (structured) way. (b) Language samples could be
exhaustively described at any structurallevel of description (phonetic, phonemic, morphological, etc.)
(c) Linguistic levels were thought of as systems within systems -that is, as being pyramidally
structured; phonenıic systenıs led to ınorphemic systems, and these in tum led to the higher-Ievel
systems of phrases, c1auses, and sentences.
Leaming a language, it was assumed, entails mastering the elements or building blocks of the
language and leanıing the rules by which these elements are combined, from phonerne to
morpheme to word to phrase to sentence. The phonological system defines those sound
elements that contrast meaningfully with one .another in the language (phonemes), their phonetic
realizations in specific envİronments (allophones), and their permissible sequences (phonotactics).
The phonological and grammatical systems of the language constihıte the organization of language
and by implication the units of production and comprehension. The grammatical system consists of a
listıng of grammatical elements and rules for their linear combinatian into words, phrases, and
sentences. Rule-ordered processes involve addition, deletion, and transpasition of elements.
An important tenet of structural linguistics was that the primary medium of language is oral:
Speech is language. Since many languages do not have a written form and we learn to speak
befare we learn to read or write, it was argued that language is "primarily what is spoken and
only secondarily what is written" (Brooks 1964). Therefore, it was assumed that speech had a
priority in language teaching. This was contrary to popular views of the relatianship of the spoken
and written forms of language, sİnce it had been widely assumed that language existed principal1y as
synıbols written on paper, and that spoken language was an imperfect realization of the pure written
version.
This scientific approach to language analysis appeared to offer the foundations for a
scientific approach tq language teaching. In 1961 the American linguist William MouIton, in a
report prepared for the 9 th International Congress of Linguists, proclaimed the linguistic
principles on which language teaching methodology should be based; "Language is speech, not
writing....A language is a set of habits... Teach the language, not about the language....A language
is what its natiye speakers say, not vvhat sameone thinks they ought to say... Languages are
different" (quoted in Rivers 1964: 5). But a method cannot be based simply on a theory of language.
it alsa needs to refer to the psychology of learning and to learning theory.

160
II SEARCH READING i

1. What was the job of linguist in "Informant Method"?

2. In deriving the methodology of the Army Method, played

a less important role than .

3. What was the description of the format used by linguists in the American Council of

Leamed School?

4. Why did Americans need to have Audio-lingual Method?

5. A sophisticated methodology for analyzing and collecting data involved

6. Why was speech assumed to have a priority in language teaching?

161
 CAR.EFUL
RE.A.DING

-=--./
MAINTAINING SELF, BEHAVIOR, AND SOCIAL
ENVIRONMENT
According to interpersonal congruency theory, people actively use techniques for maintaining
their interpersonal environment so as to maximize congruency. These techniques use one or more of the
three forms of congruency. In this way, pressures to change one's self behavior are avoided. These
techniques, or mechanisms, include cognitive restructuring, selectiye evaluation, selective interaction,
and evaIuation of congruent responses.
The interpersonal environment enters into congruency only as it is seen by the individual. In
instances where the actuaI expectations of other persons are not congruent with the person 's seIf concept
or behavior, pressures for change which incongruence would create can be avoided by not seeing the
incongruent state. If you think you are intelligent, but someone points Oııt that you made a stupid
mistake, you may avoid seeing this as incongruent by noting that you were misinformed, fatigued, or
careless. it is sometimes possibIe simply to misperceive how others see oneself. If you think you are
witty, but others don't laugh much at your jokes, you may avoid incongruence by not noticing how they
respond. One mayaıso misimerpret one's own behavior so as to achieve maximum congruency between
behavior and an aspect of one's self concept. If you think you are a pretty good skier, but actualIy ski
down a particular slope rather sloppily, you may simply evaluate your performance as better as it is.
Finally, one may restructure the situation to change the evaluation of one's behavioL Studies have
reported that the correspondence between seIf and the way one thinks others see one is greater than the
actual correspondence the self concept and the views reaIly held by others. If you consider yourself
generous, you are apt to belieye that a friend considers you generous, even though he or she really
believes you are less generoııs than you think you are.
One experimental study iııustrates same of the forms that resirueturing can take. College
siııdents \-"ere presented ",ith fictitious but apparently val id ratings of variety of their traits, same of them
are unfavorable. They were Jed to believe that the ratings canıe from an authoritative source, from a
friend, or from a stranger. There were same shifts towards less favorable self evaluations after seeing
these fictitious sheets (the subjects rated themselves both before and after they saw the sheets). In
addition, when asked to recall them, they distorted the evaluations in a favorable directian. Given the
opportunity, theyalsa dissociated the evaluations from the source by denying that they had actuaHy been
made by the other persons. By enlarged, their reactions were more marked where the evaIuatian was the
greatest and where the ratings were pereeived as coming from an authoritative saul'ce or from a friend
rather than a stranger. This and other studies support the general idea that individuals process
information about the self in a manl'ler that supports congruency.
Restrueturing is frequently involved in achieving the congrueney between self and behavioL
IvIost people view themselves favorably, as good and moral persons. When they perform a questionable
act, or a wrong one, there is incongruence which they reduce by redefining the behavioL One way of
doing this is 10 perceive the situation as one in which a person was not fully responsible or had no
choice. Thus, the behavior is not 'bad' because it was unintentiona1. Finally, people may use congruency
by comparing as a means of restructuring. Individuals having an undesirable trait may exaggerate an
extent to which other people have it, thus minimizing its importance in themselves by comparing
themselves with these other people. After having harmed someone, people may deny responsibility, or
perceive the act as wrong but in accordance with some higher loyalty. There are re-interpretations of
behavior to make them congruent with a favorable self concept.
The avenues for achieving the congruency in experiınental situations are frequently limited and
blocked. In everyday situations, there is a wider variety of resolutions to the dilemma of having behaved
contrary to one's self conception. How an actor maxiınizes congruency wilI depend on the
characteristics of the actor, the act, and the victim, as well as on features of the situation that al Law the
chance to misperceive. Characteristics of the actor include not only the personality traits but alsa
constraints and possibilities inherent in the role expectations and role identities that come into play in a
given situation. Thus, males may claim non-responsibility for behavior by saying they were drunk. For

162
 females, this is less acceptable in certain circIes, but a woman may plead irrationality or illness and fınd
her claims more readily accepted by herself and others than if she were male. In such ways, both men
and women can maintain their usual views of self and behavior.
In the process of selective evaIuation, an individual maximizes congruency or minimizes
incongruence by altering the evaIuation of self, of behavior, or of the other person in positive or negative
direction. Behaviors of people who are unimportant to an individual are not considered incongruous
even though they may be at variance with one's self concept or one's behavior. Thus, persons may
maximize congruency and maintain their useful self and behavior by favorably evaluating those who
behave congruently towards them and by devaluating people who behave incongruently. Similarly,
where one's behavior toward another person is incongruent with one's self concept, one may minimize
incongruence by devaluating the other person (such as a victim to whom one has done harrn). This
devaIuation may take many forms. For example, one may believe the other deserved his or her faith, that
the other's evaIuation of one's self is of no account, or one may minimize the harm by not taking or
feeling the other's view point.
Studies of sorority girls found that those who were liked most by a member were those the
member both perceived as having the most congruent views of her, and who actuaIly did have the most
congruent view. This liking may well have come about through the process of selective evaiuation:
people like others who validate self. In experiments, when individuals were negatively evaluated by
another, they reduced their i iking for that person - discrediting the source of the negative evaIuation and
eliminating the incongruence.
One study involving devaluating victims after harming them is particularly interesting for
congruency theory. Self concepts were changed by giying participants personality evaluations designed
temporarily to enhance or to lower their self-esteem. Some participants were given the choice of
delivering or not delivering a series of electric shocks to a victim, while others were given no choice.
Having choice would increase responsibility for the incongruent behavior and increase the pressure to
resolve incongruence. Where individuals had the choice those with more positive self conception felt
less friendly to the victim after they had administered the shocks. Thus, devaluing the victim is a way of
resolving incongruence, and the positive self concept is not weakened. Those with no choice did not
modify their feelings of friendliness, because they felt no responsibility for their behavior. And those
with low esteem did not change their friendship rating either.
Congruency is also a function of the importance of the aspect of self that is relevant to behavior
or to interaction with another person. If an insignificant aspect of self is at variance with a person 's
perception of his or her behavior or someone else's behavior, incongruence is minimized. Conversely,
incongruence may be minimized by adjusting the vaIues placed on various aspects of self, putting great
stress on perceptions of behavior that fit, and less on those aspects of self that do not fit. For instance, a
gir! in junior high choosing activities realizes that some must be sacrificed so that others may be
pursued. She has equaIly strong and valued conceptions of herself as a scholar .and an athlete, but must
choose between debating and playing basketbalı. She chooses debating. it might be expected that she
will devalue the importance of basketbalı, and perhaps of all sports, and upgrade the importance of
intellectual activity. The actual direction of her conception of herself as an athlete may not change, but
the value to her of this facet of her self concept wiIl shift downward. Conversely, the value of intellectual
activities will become even greater, and the importance of the intellectual facet of her self concept wiII
increase.
Another important means by which one may maintain interpersonal congruency without
changing one's self concept or behavior is through selectively interacting with certain persons and not
with others. One elects to interact with those with whom it is easiest to establish a congruent state.
People who think of themselves as smart will interact frequentIy with other people who respect their
inteııigence and aIlow them to use it (congruency by validation). They will avoid those who are much
smarter than theyare, or so much dumber that they cannot even use their smartness.
In our discussion of role strain, we mentioned studies, which indicated that strain arises when a
role category is incompatible with a person's characteristics. This suggests that one İs likely to avoid
such positions and to seek more compatible role categories. This idea is supported by a study of teachers
who have been in the profession for different lengths of times. Experienced teachers had smailer
discrepancies between the ir self concepts and their perceptions of the teacher role than did inexperienced
teachers. This did not appear to result from change İn self, or in perceptions of the teacher role, but
apparentIy resulted from the tendency of those with larger discrepancies between self and role to become

163

L
 dissatisfied and to drop out of the teaching role. In this way they could avoid pressures to change selfto
fit the role.
A longitudinal study of coııege roommates provides further support for selective interaction.
Views of self, reflected self, and actual views held by one's roommate were obtained in October of one
year and in May of the following year. More initial and subsequent congruency between self and
reflected self was found for those roommates who stated together when given a choice. For the satisfied
roommates, there was also more consensus between one's self rating and the roommate's actual rating.
The possibi1ity that these findings mi'ght be due to difference in sirriilarity· between satisfied and
dissatisfied pairs of roommates was ruled out by a statistical analysis.
Another form of selective interaction uses congruency by validation. Individuals choose to
interact with people whose behavior aııows them to behave in a congruent way. In one study, the needs
of pairs of friends were compared, anq. the needs matched according to congruency requirements. For
example, individuals who saw themselves as high on the need for succorance (emotional support and
help) viewed their close friends as high on the need for nurturance (giving help and support to others).
Individuals mayaıso reduce incongruence by selecting certaİn people as objects of comparison.
·In an experiment, participants were given information leading them to believe they were rated as quite
hostile. Then they were allowed to compare the~selves with one person by looking at that person' s
score. They had the option of choosing that person from one of several groups known to be different in
hostility. For the most part, they chose a person from the most hostile group, thus making themselves
appear less hostile by comparison.
A person also maintains congruency by developing techniques that evoke congruent responses
from other people. Erving Goffman has suggested that in everyday interaction, people. present
themselves and their activities so as to guide and control the impressions they give ofthemselves. These
actions may be deliberately calculated;or the actors may be quite unaware of the effects they produce.
Among the strategies that people use to elicit congruent responses, or to block incongruent ones, are; the
pre-apology, which prevents the questioning of one's accuracy or expertise ("Offthe top ofmy head, I'd
say... "); and a phrase which confirms a preferred identity, as in name dropping or experience dropping
('"Back at Harvard ... ").
The concept of congruency may be applied to feelings as well as to cognitive elements. A state
of affective congruency exists when a person (P) believes that another (O) feels toward him as P feels
toward himself, either in regard to himself as a whole or in regard to some aspect of self. Especially
relevant here is the positive or negative quality of the feeling - is it approval or disapproval, love or hate,
admiration or contempt? In another form of affective congruency, P has comparable feelings toward an
aspect of self and his or her corresponding behavior. Affective congruency is maintained by the same
mechanisms as those previousıY described for cognitive congruency. People may misperceive how
others feel about theın; they may selectively associate with, and selectively evaluate other persons; they
may attempt to evoke congruent feel ings from other persons.
Experiments have demonstrated that people like positively evaluated, and also that they like
others who like them. People also use protective mechanisms to defend themselves from a person who
evaIuates them uİıfavorably. For example, in various studies, persons were not believed, were disliked
and discredited; their evaiuation was distorted in a favorable direction, or they were avoided. These are
familiar mechanisms, aıready discussed, which restore congruency.
But it is seldom clear whether these behaviors result from a desire for self-enhancement or from
the principle of affective congruency. If we assume that most people have positive feelings about
themselves, then affective congruency would require that they prefer positive evaluations from other
persons. But we also know that people prefer to be evaluated favorably by others- they need to be
respected and liked. So the experimental results obtained with positive evaluations - or reactions to
negative ones - would be consistent with affective congruency but also with the idea or principle that
people have a need to be admired and liked.
Theoretically, a critical test of these two principles could be conducted by dealing with people
who, at least temporally, have unfavorable views of themselves. For such people, the principle of
affective congruency predicts that they should like people who agree with their negative evaIuation. But
the idea that all people have a need to be respected and liked would predict that even these people would
prefer and like people who evaluate them positively, not negatively. A number of investigators,
inCıuding the authors, have attempted to create crucial experiments to test this preposition. Results have
been mixed, with some support and some contradictions.

164

-
 One of the difficLllt problems is that congruency processes themselves work against doing such
experiments. Attempts by experimenters to create a temporary condition among participants in which
they have unfavorable views of some aspect of their self or behavior are resisted by invoking all that
congruency processes we have talked abouİ. Moreover, even the manipulations designed to convince
participants that other persons evaluate them negatively can be fouled.

165
 JMIAJ1NJrAllNJINeG §1EILJFs; IB3JEIHIAV1ICCD]Rls; AN]]) §([Dce~
JEmrIIJR(Q)NThllJEN1T
1. You think you are very intelligenL You took very high grade İn mathematics exam but
there are also same high grades like yours. You assess your success better than the
reality.
According to which type of cognitive restructuring do you make your assessment?

2. What features should men and wonıen have to prolong their usual view of self and
behavior?

3. According to experiments on sorority girls what is the reaction of people against others
who have discordant ideas them?

4. In the exan1ple of sacrifice of a girl in junior high, according to what criteria she chooses
debating instead of playing basketball?

5. Why did the inexperienced teachers have larger conflict between self concept and their
perceptions of the teacher role?

6. How can the anıbiguity about the source of restoring congruency behaviors be solved?

7. Why do the participants who are evaIuated negatively have an indination to distort or
devaluate the incongruent evaIuatian in the experiment?
............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................

8. John believes that he is unsuccessful student but his friends do not share this aspect of
himself. So that others have of hiın may be
... .. . .. . .. . . .. ... aspect of himself but incongruent with related

166
i SELECTIVE LISTENING
i

1. A language contains and .

2. The grammar of a language includes:

a. The sound system, .
b. The ways in which sounds and meanings are related, .

3. If you consider that the sounds and meanings are· in an arbitrary relationship, how do
you define "language"?

4. "Behavior" corresponds to "Linguistic Performance", while "Knowledge" corresponds

to .

5. Which type of language's definition is "the unconscious linguistic knowledge or

capacity of its speakers"?

6. Which type of Grammars help people leam a foreign langueı.ge or dialect of their own
language?

Bonus Question: What is the name of the type of language that hasn't been asked?

7. When linguists investigate more about the languages of the world in terms of their
differences, what do they discover?

8. Which aspect of human languages does a speaker's ability to combine the basic
linguistic units to form an infinite set of "vvell-formed" grammatical sentences never
before produced or heard, show?
...... ~ ol ..

9. Which example is given in the talk to the fact that ability to imitate the sounds of human
language is not a sufficient basis for learning language?

10. As an objection to the divine origin of language, what do the Greeks believe?

ı 1. The cooperation of certain people may in time pfovide some answers to this intriguing
problem (origin of language). What are those certain people? (Write any two!)
o .
o .

167
I[CAREFUL LISTENıNG LI
UceYceJLllJ~CGr Aİ'~IID UCCJLAMLA1fllCCDW
1. Give the definition of recyeling mentioned in the talk!

2. What are the three types ofrecycling and what are their purposes?
.:. . , purpose .
..:. . , purpose .
•:. . , purpose .

3. State three of the advantages of recyeling given in the talk!

·
••• .
•+.
+ ................•.................................................•.•..............•.......•.........•.......................

·
•+. .

4. What is the example given in the talk illustrating all the advantages of recyeling?

5. Two types of domestic waste are and .

6. What was the percentage ofwaste paper coming froın domestic reuse in 1976?

7. What İs the title and publication of Than1as's baok?

8. How much did the homernarket for paper fall between 1970 and 1976?

9. What are the problems invalved in improving recyc.ling ratios? (Write any two!)
·
••• .
•••
+ .

•••+ .

168
 _. _"", . :.. .. _._00_-
_~ ~

TJ1YJJll[JlIfJf!({; re
7l((})IPif il

uTlıefamilies migrated to foreign countries, such as Germany, France and USA, areface to
face with several problems. "
Discuss the above statement by taking the points given below into consideration:
• Culture shock: alienation
• Language barrier
• Engaged in second class jobs
• Threat of assimilation
• Being perceivedas source of money
• Pennanent fear of ethnic antagonİsm

Write an essay discussing the following subject:

Why do families in developed countries havefewer children?
Use the guidelines given below or any others you wish.
• Low infant mortality rate
• More working women
• Economic reasons
• More people aware of birth control
• Having children İs considered burden on family

169
 PROFICIENCY
MAXIMISER
X

170
r f
.1'
SEARCH READING ~.
!
r TRANS·PL·ANTING PRIORITIE,S.
The story behind the recent series of human heart transplants is an important one - not
because of any surgical or medical "breakthroughs" that made the transplants possible, but
because the story reveals that British health policy is stiıı trapped in the blind alley of
"treatment" medicine and has not yet paid sufficient attention to prevention. Heart
transplantation has had a stormy history. In January 1964 James Hardy of the University
Hospital, Mississippi, became the first surgeon to transplant a heart (from a chimpanzee) into a
human beingo The recipient died within an hour. In December 1967, The South African surgeon
Christian Barnard transplanted a human heart into a patient.
What followed this operation can only be described as an epidemic of transplant fever:
within a year 64 teams of surgeons in 22 countries had transplanted 100 hearts. However the
results of these operations were not encouraging. This lack of success, together with the
macabre rushing of "brain dead" bodies to the transplant hospital probably accounted for the
operation falIing into disrepute and the number of transplants performed fell dramatically.
In 1973 a group of experts engaged in relevant research throughout Britain who had
been asked to advise the Department of Health and Social Security (DHSS) recommended that
no special resources should be made available for clinical work on heart transplants but that the
department should establish a standing group (the Transplant Advisory Panel) to advise on
matters such as the timing, location and support or further developments. Those
recommendations were tantamount to in embargo on the technique which was seen as an
experiment.
Heart transplants and the supporting scientific work did, however, continue in other
countries - most notably at Stanford University in Califomia. A paper in 1979 (British Medical
Journal, 13 January, p93) described the results of the series of operations at Stanford, performed
under the directian ofProfessor Norman Shumway. This work has led to a resurgence offaith in
heart transplants. .
The Stanford team performs about 25 heart transplants a year - a number, Shumway
says, limited by the shortage of suitable donor hearts rather than the scarcity of suitable
recipients. The Stanford team transplanted hearts into 50 patients between January 1968 and
August 1978. Of these,.62 were stilI alive in January 1979. The proportion of patients who
survived for at least one year after the operation had risen from 22 percent in 1968 to about 70
percent in 1978. This impressive progress seems to be due to a number of factors, perhaps the
most important of which are vast1y improved care after the operation and the careful selection
of which patients receive hearts.
The Stanford team stresses the importance of the research it carried out - both before it
embarked on the transplants and in parallel with the operations. For example, the team can now
recognize that a recipient is rejecting adonar heart much sooner after an operation than it could
when the series of transplants started. This is done by removing and testing a fragment of tissue
from the heart. This has allawed a much more precise use of immunosuppressive drugs that
"damp down" the recipient's defenses against the foreign heart. But these drugs alsa reduce the
patienf s resistance to infection. Only 10 percent of the Stanford patients who died after a
transplant direct process rejected their new hearts. A third of the Stanford patients, who died
after a transplant, died from infections; at least partly to the large quantities of
immunosuppressive drugs they received. -
The second reason for the relative success of the Stanford transplants is that the team
selected recipients very carefully. Shumway says that of the 20 or so patients referred to him

171

L
 every month, he accepts only two or three as suitable for a transplant. the Stanford team selects
patients on several criteria. First, the patient must suffering fro~ advanced heard disease that
cannot be remedied by any other treatnıent. Secondly, patients must not be suffering from any
other disease that would hinder recovery. The team considers a "will to live" to be very
important and does not operate on the very young or old.
Two other factors have led to a resurgehce of heart transplants. First, recognizing that a
donor is "brain dead" has been lawfully ınade elear. Second, techniques of preserving the heart
have been improved.
The result of these trends was that the British Transplant Advisory Panel issued new
guidelines for heart transplants in February 1977. The panel said that surgeons should perform
transplants only as part of a planned series of operations. There should be no "isolated"
transplants. The panel left it to Area Health Authorities to decide whether to finance transplant
centers. After a hesİtant start, with only three transplants in 1979 (at the Papworth Hospital near
Cambridge), the rush started. There were six heart transplants in February 1980 alone. Surgeons
at two centers - the Papworth Hospital and the Harefield Hospital in Middlesex - have
performed 11 transplants so far this year. Three of the heart transplant patients have died. This
rush of heart transplants put considerable pressure on the government to state publiely its policy
on heart transplants. Finaııy Patrick Jenkin, the secretary of State for Social Services, gave a
statement to the House of Commons on 13 March supporting the program of transplants at the
Papworth Hospital and giving a EI00,000 "special allocation" to the Area Health Authority
responsible for Papworth to improve facilities fqr transplant operations at the hospitaL. Such a
grant is unusual and coming, as it does, at a time when the government is reducing planned
public expenditure in health and other social services, raises crucial questions about the
priorities within Britain's National Health Service (NHS). it is also galling to the many
elinicians who have been desperately trying to save money to protect routine but important
operations (British Medical Journal, 29 March, p 944).
In theory, The NHS has, in recent years, tried to peg spending on hospital facilities for
treating patients with "acute" disease and has tried to shift its en1phasis to spending on the
"neglected sectors of care" (rather than treatment) - such as care for the old, the mentally iıı and
the handicapped. But this kind of service lacks prestige and is typically kept out of the
mainstream of nıedicine and ·particularly out of the teaching hospitals. Little wonder that these
services are usuaııy among the first to suffer when the government makes cuts. Today, the slow
growth that has taken place in community services and care for the chronically sick and
disabled seems to be being reversed, for example, through cuts İn home help servİces.
The current epidemic of heart transplants is likely to hasten this reversal in two ways.
First, it is likely to increase the influence of the media and second, the influence of the
charitable foundations on government health policy.
In 1977, as we have seen, the Transplant Advisory Panel recommended that there could
be only a limited number of heart transplants as a part of a new program in centers that had
certain facilities and which could carry at the transplants without harming existing heart surgery
(such as valve replacements). Jenkin added that any program of heart plants should not harm
other kinds of surgery either and should not be paid for by the NHS.
Six transplants in a month, hardly seems to be a "limited" program. Neither can recent
reports that waiting lists at the Papworth Hospital for non-transplant cardiac surgery are
lengthening because of the hospital' s transplant program reassure the public that heart
transplants are not harming other services - despite officials' rejections of these al1egations. Yet
despite these reservations, despite cuts in the NHS, and despite his insistence that the NHS
should not pay for transplants, Jenkin has now given 100,000 pounds for iınproveınents to the
operating theatres and intensive care facilities at Papworth.

172
 What has happened to the intention that other services should not suffer and that
transplants should be in planned, limited programs? The publicity generated by this year' s spate
of transplants and the pressure of the medical charities have had their effects.
The second way that heart transplants might harın the NHS is by increasing the political
influence of private and charitable sources of money. Publicity for private donations coincides
with a growing opinion in government that private health care is a solution to the NHS' s current .
problems. The Health Minister has said "Every pound spent on private medicine is apound
freed for the NHS".
However, even within the narrow constraints of the NHS and its priorities, the heart
transplant program raises serious questions, but is seen against the background of the too1 of
disease and the inadequacy of curative measures for reclucing this tool' s heart transplant from
even more fundamental questions.

173

L
i~iSEi'i i i i Ai i i i. i R~i i i i i Hi i fti i i i iREIi i i i i i i -L \D~;IN~Gü'i i i i i i i" "~:i i i i i i i i:~~~~iiiiiıiiiiiiiiiJ
1r}]L!0Jf~J§WILANllJlN (G JPIRillCD)IRill1TllJE§
1. The authors suggest two reasons why heart transplant operations 10st theİr initial

popularity for a time. What are those reasons?

·
••• " .

••• • LL' •••••• ii •••• ,., t . , ••••• , • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • , •••• 1 •••••••• , •••••••••• , ••••••••••••••••• , ••••• , •••••••••••• , ••••••• , •• i.

2. Why does the Stanford University group perform only 25 operations a year?

3. In what ',vay may dnıgs given to patients after a heart transp1ant actually cause their

death?

4. The success of the Stanford team contributed to the great increase in the number of heart

transplant operations. What other developments also contributed to this increase?

·
~+.
.

•+.
• ••••••••••••••••••••••• i ••••• i ••••••••• i •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• i i •••••• '" i ••••••••••• ii

5. In the artiele, the authors contrast heart transplant operations with less prestigious areas

of health care. Name two (2) such areas.

6. The Secretary of State for Social Service awarded a sum of money to improve facilities

for transplant operations at Papworth Hospita!. What was the money spent on?

174
 TA8TE PERC'EP'TION

Four primary taste qualities are generally considered to exist for adults: sweet, sour, salt
and bitler. The sense of taste is mediated by group of cells (taste buds) located primariIyon
small raised areas (papillae) on the upper surface of the tongue. Other areas sensitiye to taste
include the palate at the top of the throat, the epiglortis at the back of the throat, and even the
mucous membranes of the cheeks and the floor of the mouth. In order to be an effective taste
stimulus, a substance must be soluble in water or an equivalent medium such as saliva. While in
solution with water, a substance can then come into contact with the taste receptors. Taste,
however, is not the only sensatian to which the oral cavity is sensitiye. AIso present are pain,
pressure, and temperature receptors that provide information on the texture and consistency of
substances placed there.
Anatomical research has shown that taste buds have a more extensive distribution in
neonates and children than in adults, suggesting that the sense of taste may be well developed
even before birth. Based on microscopic morphological examination of tongue specimens from
fetuses of six weeks gestational age to near term, Bradley and Stearn concluded that taste buds
were mature enough to function at about 13 to 15 weeks of gestation. A more pessimistic note
was voiced by Spears and Hohle who argued that it is unlikely that adequate stimulation of taste
receptors would occur in utero since amniotic fluid is essentially unchanging during pregnancy.
A large body of recent evidence, however, has clearly shown that amniotic fluid İs a very
complex, constantly changing chemical environment. The mouth of the fetus ppens at
approximately 9.5 weeks of gestation, with tongue movements and swal1owing,.observed
somewhat later. Thus there is every reason to suspect that adequate stimulation of taste buds
could take place in the fetus. This view is further supported by the observation that the addition
of saccharin to the amniotic fluid of fetuses near term results in increased swallowing.
it has been suggested that taste buds in different parts of the upper digestive tract may
have different functions. Recendy evidence has been provided that indicates the epiglottis is
chemosensitive in the newborn monkey, calf, lamb and pig. Various solutions including water,
cow's milk, and glucose, interrupted breathing when introduced into the larynx of neonatal
. animals, while a saltwater solution did not. These investigators suggest that the taste buds on the
laryngeal surface of the epiglortis may function as specialized receptors mediating protective
laryngeal reflexes. If this is the case, theepiglottal taste buds are involved in a functional role
different from that of oral taste b u d s . · ,
The findings of Johnson and Salisbury provide further support for the existence of
specialized taste receptors in the human neonate for the prevention of inhalation of fluids when
swallowing. Their studies concerned effects of different feeding solutions on patterns of
sucking, swallowing, and breathing. They found that when cow' s milk or water was ingested
the fluids were not inhaled; however, when saltwater was introduced, the infant's breathing was
poody suppressed. In a separate experiment four-day-old neonates fed breast milk were
observed to have undisturbed patterns of breathing d,uring ingestion, while neonates fed
artificial milk exhibited disturbed breathing, often markedly so, during ingestian. No
disturbance was observed in the sucking patterns during either feeding situation. While
inhalation of fluid into the lungs should be quite minimal for infants fed natural milk or water,
Johnson and Salisbury suggest that inhalation may occur when neonates are fed artificial fluids
containing critical concentrations of salt. Moreover they conclude that taste is an important
component of the reflex defense mechanism of the upper airway during ingestion.
Research on taste perception in infants up to the 1950s, as reviewed by Peiper and
Lipsirt, focused on whether young infants can detect and discriminate various taste stimuli or
not. Equivocal findings emerged from these studies due, at least in part, to a lack of

175
standardization of stimuli, apparatus, and methods. As noted by Lipsitt, interpretation is further
complicated by the fact that any kind of stimulation of the oral cavity and lips can evoke
sucking behavior. Some aspect of suckıng or nıouthing behavior was observed in a majority of
these studies and was considered to reflect neonatal reaction to taste properties of the stimuli.
Unfortunately it remained unclear whether the infants were actually differentiating the four taste
qualities. Generally the evidence from early studies suggested that neonates react positive to
sweet stimuli and negatively to sour, salt and bitter stimuli.
In order to observe the effects of differing taste qualities on the intake of the fluids by
infants, recent studies have involved measurements of both sucking behavior and amount of
fluid ingested. it has been demonstrated that infants from birth to four days of age ingest more
sweetened fluid than water and that consumption increases with increasing sugar concentration.
In addition Desor found that neonates wilI respond differentially to various types of sugar, with
fructose and sucrose being more effectiye in increasing ingestion than lactose or glucose.
Similar patterns of preferences have emerged from intake measurements of infants 5 to II and
20 to 28 weeks of age. Comparable sugar preferences have been reported for adults as welL.
Nisbett and Gunvitz, who controlIed for possible confounding effects of viscosity and texture,
found birth weight-related preferences in neonates when measuring ingestion sweetened and
unsweetened formula. Neonates of heavy birth weight consumed a significantly greater amount
of sweetened formula, but only slightly more unsweetened formula, than infants of medium or
light birth weight.
In asimilar vein, Engen, Lipsitt, and Robinson observed neonates from birth to four
days of age and reported a significant correlation between birth weight and rate of sucking for a
sugar solution. By measuring the total number of sucks per minute, they demonstrated that
heavy infants sucked a sweet solution at faster rates than did light infants. Birthweight was
found to affect the total number of sucks per minute for all fluids to some extent, although its
greatest effect was' on the intake of sweet fluid. Final1y, though heavy mothers tended to give
birth to heavy infants, it was found that the weight of the infant, not the weight of the mother,
was related to greater responsiveness to sweet stimulation. These findings are consistent with
Nisbett and Gurwitz's data on ingestion, except that Nisbett and Gurwitz's experiment also
revealed that female neonates consumed significantly more sweetened formula than males.
As a result of increased understanding of the underlying organization of sucking in
general, the measurements of total intake and sucking frequency discussed before have been
supplanted by more detailed observations of sucking behavior. The sucking rhythmofthe infant
typicalIy consists of a sequence of response bursts separated by resting periods or pauses.
Various aspects of the underlying fine structure of the sucking response may be observed in a
given period of testing. These include the number of bursts, the average number of sucks within
a burst, and the average duration of pause. StilI finer analysis may focus on the temporal
separation of sucks within a burst. Although this last measure is sometimes described in the
literature as the "rate" of sucking, it actualIy is a measure of within-burst rate onlyand should
not be confused with the absolute frequency of response observed over longer periods involving
both bursts and pauses. Clarity in the literature might best be achieved if rate were used for
frequency per unit time (inclusive of pauses) and within-burst rate were referred to as pace of
sucking (exclusive of pauses.)
A longitudinal study by Lipsitt, ReilIy, Butcher, and Greenwood has demonstrated
stability in measures of the total number of sucks, burst lengths, and pauses durations for
undisturbed nonnutritive sucking by neonates between the second and third days of life. When
sucking delivered a 15 percent sucrose solution, the duration of sucking bursts increased, and
the number and duration of pauses decreased. Furthermore sucking pace was slower and heart
rate faster during sucking for sucrose solution than during nonnutritive sucking.
Nutritive sucking rhythm has also been shown to be sensitiye to differences in the
sucrose concentration of the fluids being ingested. Crook compared changes in the response

176
 rhythms of separate groups of infants two to five days old who sucked either for water or 5
percent, 10 percent or 15 percent sucrose solutions. Longer bursts and shorter pauses were
observed for the greater sucrose concentrations. The within-burst structure of the response was
also affected: The fastest pace of response was for water and the 5 percent sucrose solution,
while the pace slowed significandy for the greater sucrose concentrations. These results were
replicated by Crook and Lipsitt using a within-subjects comparison of infants two to three days
old who sucked for 5 percent or 15 percent sucrose solutions. In addition to sucking rhythm the
heart rate of the infants was monitored. An inverse relationship was found such that increasing
the sweetness of the fluid resulted in both a decrease of sucking pace and an increase in heart
rate. This heart rate pattern is consistent with the results of Lipsitt et aL. who compared sucking
for a single sweet solution with nonnutritive sucking.
it may be concluded from these studies that sweeter fluids increase the total amount of
sucking within a given period and sweeter fluids tend to maintain slower within-burst
responses. If total intake of fluid reflects taste preference, why does the infant respond more
slowly to something it presumably prefers? In all cases the infants received only small and fixed
amöunts of fluid per suck so that as sucking pace slovved and less effort was exerted heart rate
wöuld also be expected to slow. This apparently paradoxical relationship between sucking and
heart rate may be due in part to the influence of swallowing on the organization of sucking.
Burke, comparing intake of 5 percent and 10 percent sucrose solutions, demonstrated that the
frequency of swallowing in neonates two to four days old increased significant1y as a function
of increasing concentration of sucrose given per suck. it is also possible that slower responding
involves more vigorous sucking. Support for this explanation is provided by Nowlis and Kessen
who found that anterior tongue movements of neonates increased in amplitude as concentration
of glucose and sucrose increased. it has been suggested that these findings indicate that sweet
solutions have positive hedonic properties for neonates and that the various effects of sweet
stimulation upon sucking and heart rate may reflect a form of "savoring".
There is little recent information available concerning the effects of taste qualities other
than sweetness upon sucking rhythm and fluid ingestion. Maller and Desor fed neonates
solutions of salt, urea, and citric acid in weak to moderate concentrations and observed no
significant difference in intake compared to water despite the fact that the concentrations were
well above adult taste thresholds. In addition to the findings of Johnson, and Salisbury,
discussed previously in terms of taste bud function, indicate that the gross sucking patterns of
neonates remain undisturbed during ingestion of saltwater solutions.
Changes in sucking rhythm and total ingestion have been measured most often under
experimental eonditions in which taste stimuli are contingent upon individual sucks by the
infant. More recently Crook has employed an altematiye method in which a minute "pulse" of
fluid was presented intraorally two to three-day-old infants during the pauses in their
nonnutritive sucking rhythm. Following the delivery of sucrose solution, the next burst of
sucking was found to be initiated sooner and to be of longer length than bursts recorded during
unstimulated, randomly interspersed control trials. Burst length also increased as the
concentration of the sucrose in the solution was increased to a moderate level. Concentrations
beyond this level resulted in shortening of the bursts. In contrast to these results for sugar
solutions, introduction of any level of salt into the solution resulted in shortening of the bursts.
The latency of response, or the time between onset of stimulation and the next suck, was
consistendy observed to be very short (often within a second of stimulation) for all fluid stimuli
investigated compared to control trial latencies. it has been suggested by Crook that response
latency is independent of taste stimulation, dependent instead on the tactile properties of the
stimulus. Taste properties of the fluid stimulus are then reflected in burst length. Finally Crook
has suggested that these results reflect hedonic processes and provide support for the conclusion
that even at birth the sweet taste is hedonically positive and the salt taste hedonically negative.

177
 Lateral tongue moveınents have also been used to assess taste perception. Weiffenbach
and Thach have described such ITıovements in three-day-old neonates presented with sınall
quantities of sugar solutions. Using the tendency of the response to habituate, the investigators
demonstrated differential responses by neonates to eoneentrations of glucose plus water as
compared to water alone. Each tongue mavement observed was diserete and reflexive in nature,
suggesting its potential as a measure for taste discrimination. The sensitivity measure remains
uneertain, however, since relatively high concentrations of suerose were necessary to elicit
differential responding.
Stimulation of the tongue with minute quantities of fluid has provided anather
measurable response. Upon administering smaIl quantities of sweet, sour, and bitler solutions to
infants, Steiner observed changes in facial expressions which differed markedly from those
induced by distilled water. Sweet stimulation led to a retraction of the mouth angles (resembling
a smile) and relaxation of the face, followed typical1y by lieking of the upper lip and a burst of
sucking mavements. Sour stimulation induced protrusian or pursing of the lips, while bitler
stimulation led to depressian of the mouth angles or arching of the mouth opening. In contrast
distilled water induced a quick swallow without any facial expressian. These motor reactions
were readily elicited from newborns tested within the first hours after birth, prior to exposure to.
any nutrients or feeding, as well as from neonates three to seven days of age. The sour stimulus
was alsa administered to premature infants who displayed the same lip-pursing reaction
observed in the full-term infants. The same changes in facial expressions induced by the three
taste stimuli were observed in anencephalic and hydroanencephalic neonates. Autopsies later
performed on these developmentally malformed neonates revealed only the brainstem intact,
thus indicating that the reflex-like reaction did not require cortieal participation. Although these
gustofacial reflexes are of considerable interest, the taste solutions used by Steiner were strong,
and the question remains vvhether the measure is sufficiently sensitiye for studies of taste
discriınination. FinaUy methodological problems are involved in using facial expressions as an
index of taste responsivity since, as Crook noted, expressions are difficu1t to scale.
In suınmary receni evidence is consistent in showing that new-bom infants, both term
and preterm, are sensitiye to taste. Both measures of solution intake and sucking patterns have
shown that nıild to moderately sweet solutions are preferred over saline solutions and distilled
water, with this preference exhibited particularly strongly among heavy birth weight infants. In
contrast to sweet solutions reaction to sour and bitler stimuli are negative, at least as assessed
through changes in facial expressions. In view of these results it seems safe to condude with
Crook and Steiner that the hedonist.ic aspects oftasting arc present at birth; savaring one's food
is apparently one of life's earliest pleasures.

178
 CiiiiiiiiiiiiiAiiiiiiiiiiiiiREiiiiiiiiiiiiiFiiiiiiiiiiiiiUiiiiiiiiiiiiiLiiiiiiiiiiiiiREiiiiiiiiiiiiiAiiiiiiiiiiiiiDiiiiiiiiiiiiiINiiiiiiiiiiiiiGiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii111
1iliii;;;;;1

IIA§1TJE JlDJEIR?JCIEJlD1TIICO)]M
1. According to findings of Johnson and Salisbury, when did infants inhale fluid into the
lungs?

2. Studies up to 1950s were unable to say whether the infants actually differentiate
between the four taste qualities, but they revealed that infants could differentiate
................................ from ~ .

3. According to the data obtained from Nisbett and Gurwitz's study which one of the
following is more likely to prefer sweetened formula than others?
a) light boy
b) light gid
c) heavy gid
d) heavy boy

4. Match the definitions with the terms below:

a) The average number of sucks within a burst
b) The average duration of pause in sucking
c) Temporal separation of sucks within a burst

Pace of sucking: Rate of sucking: ..

5. According to the findings of Crook and Lipsitt, concentration of sugar solution

administered to neonates is directly proportional with \ whereas it
is indirectly proportional with .

6. Who discovered the fact that neonates cannot distinguish between distilled water and
varying concentrations of sour and salt solutions?

7. Which one of the following is % concentration dependent burst length graph of sugar
solutions?
a) b) c) cl)
length length length
length

0/0 %

8. What does the fact that both neonates and prematures react similady to the
administration of different tastes reveal?

179
 =

J
1. What does the migration from. one country to other shows as in the case of the migrants
coming to the Republic of South Africa?

2. In the people have to migrate to eam

money to pay for necessities and for their taxes.

3. What are the results of deve10ping health facilities in rural areas?

.+.
+ ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• '" •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

•++
+ •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

4. According to the process postulated by the scientists, people migrate successively, to

........................from and from there to .

5. If\ve classify the migrants according to their staying in the city;

.:+ The ones whose aim is to buy relatively cheap goods like ablanket are called

.:. The ones whose aim is money for greater needs like bride-price are called

6. For those who are successful in the city, what is one of the reasons for not returning to
village?

7. While city ıneans less security for poor migrants, theyare unwilling to return to village
without .

8. In 'which countries do the opportunities offered to the migrants of today are different
from those of a few decades ago?

9. What does the rate ofmigration mean?

180
II CAREFUL LISTENING i
§CCDCCIIAlL JFJl«CCDCCJE§§JE§ AN]]) 1fIBIJEIIJl« JIR1IJFCCDIR?1fANCCJE JIN
CCCCDN§lI.JM[JF1fJICCDN

ı. What are the features of groups?

.:. . , .
.:. . .

2. Groups have three different types. These are:

.:. . .
.:. . '"

.:. . , .

3. The first type group is exemplified and ..

4. What are given for second type of groups as examples? (Write any two!)
.:. . .
.:. . .

5. .. .İs more apparent than .

6. What does the individual use groups as?

7. What is the definition of role?

8. What is the two-step hypothesis tested by Katz?

9. Where did he analyze the flow ofinfluence? (Write any three!)

.:. . , .
.:. . .
.:. . .

10 was often a young and unmarried woman, was a

woman of high status and considered gregariousness.

11. Role integration is more obvious at whereas role

segregation is pronounced at .

12. Among blacks is dominant, while .is most

noticeable among white couples.

181
In today' s world, the follo·wing have acquired more -importance when compared to the past.
Choose some of them and discuss the changes.

•:. Ties with friends, colleagues rather than relatives

.:. Traveling (on business and pleasure)
.:. Money, financial status
.:. Use ofmachines (at home and work)
.:. Interest in and concem for other people and parts of the world (economic~

political and humanitarian)

Jff}}PJl7!JlI1({; T(jJ;JfJ}]«;~

Write an essay discussing the reasons for the violence in schools.

Make use of the points given below as well as your own.

•:. Lack of guidance service

.:. Indifferenee of faınily
.:. Detrimental effects of n1ass nıedia

.:. Lax rules in educational system

.:. Gangs, bribe-takers, smugglers, etc.

182
ANSWERKEY

183
C1?§view ~m 1

·..,../A.··
B· · 'LI' C'K' 'G".","'0'··L·D,··!
'.-

1. It can 6e utiCizedas afue{for lieating andCigliting andas {u6ricant.

2. Oi{
3. CR§mains of 6i{Cions oftiny pCants ancfanimaCs.
4. (PetroC cfiese{ oiC aviatıon fueCs) {u6n'cating oiCs} lieaV) oiCs} aspliaCt} petrocliemicaCs} syntlieticfi6ers}
syntlieticfoodproducts.
5. rrliere was not enougli gasoCinefor tlieir cars or enouglifue{ to lieat tlieir liome.
6. On CaruI; at sea
7. }Ln oiC-Ceaft miglit not liave tlie same disastrous ecoCogica{ consequences as a Ceaftfrom off-sliore
drimng.
8. it may gusli out.
9. CR§fineries
10. CFrovidefue{for eCectricity generators} power transport} lieat liouses} c{otlie us, anafeed us.
11. :Non-renewa6Ce} it wi{{pr06a6Cy run out.

rb,fJ~WU ~fE,fJ/i)JJ~ i
LANGUAGEDEVELOPMENT
1. One word(usua{Cy a ver6 or noun) a 'wlioCe tliouglit.
2. CliiUren wfıo generaCizes grammatica{ruCes more often} or wlio is very repetitive in speecfı.
3. i miglit say everytfıing in tfıe present tense or stop spealU'ng.
4. {lfF{ower" is more Cif?!.Cy to 6e used'. {lC{ove" is more concrete.
5. Imitation of newand Carger worefs witfı minimaf compreliension tliat Cead to a pr06Cem oj again}
moving 6acft to a more concrete Ceııe[
Wfıen useain imomatic e;ı;pression anaprover6s.
6. rrlie memorization of voca6uCary anastudy of synt~

II ~rb!tJJrlfE U~~~ I
. READINES:S FOR LEARNIN'G
1. fJ1ie aifJerences among cliiWren / tlie various strengtfı andweaftness of eacli cliiU
2. 9rlaturation, e;qıerience} reCevance ofmateriaCs anametlioas} anaemotiona{sta6iCity.
3. }Lt tlie secondgraae} reamng materia~ ant!a co {Cege fresliman, aritlimetie
4. }l6iCities / interests ana e;qıerienees/ personaatyfaetors
5. (j)ifJerences in tlie aifficuCty ana fijncfs ofmateriaCs
6. a). fJ1ieir immeaiate usefu{ness
6). fJ1ieir preparationfor new Cearning
7. fJ1ie no gradeaselioo{
8. CYoutli} scliooCing

184
 SOC'_.hb;/·:
ı/",r 's·r···-A·T····U··S
i . · · . , · .. l.: ",ı:.

1. i nfancyı c/iiU!/iaad; aaurt/iaad; aU!age

2. 'Twa age penarfs
3. e/iinese ana qreeRJ
4. q>/iysiaragicaranasaciar
5. e/iiU/iaaa ta aaurt/iaaa
6. It is very variaErefram ane indiviauarta anat/ier
1. .Jlrgentina
8. 1(nawrerfge anri'e;q;enence
9. Wit/i t/ieir acfiievements wfiire fiving

185
1?.çview ~am 2 .flnswer 1(ey

,; -'-'C"'O"N'
E '. ..; ı ·'·"··I-C·' S'
. ~. . ,.,:: "'O",'M" . ı., ..'{.;'
"s·C·"""A·R·····C"·· :tT'Y'
~ ~., ,ı.: : .A:'·ND·
. -;.,'
~ .; --::-.; ',. S''0''C' I··A.'L·· ·O·····R:···.tGA·N,'[··'L7:7A .;;
:;./ 'T';"HE" ,<.,: ::. ~ .' • ...I:' .' /
i
~:: :; ..
l
.,' ~ .,
·T-·'···[···:O··-·N··

1. rı7ie increase; an increase

2. (Economize, avoiawaste, appCy socia[effort
3. a).prod'uce tlie gooas anaservices society neeas
6). wor/tin tlie nglit pCace
4. J{e wouUcommit tfıe most liom6Ce sacnCege
5. Its sorution to prod'uction <tl aistri6ution is a static one
6. It fias an infıerent iffeet ofs[owing d'own economic cfiange
7. It a[[ows society to insure its own pra·visioning witli a minimum of resdurce.

PUBERTAL DEVELOPMENT
1. J{eigfıtened- emotionaCity / increase in emotiona[aifferentiation
2. .Jl. state of emotiana[uneasiness or aistur6anees occurs, sucfı as: lieaaacfıes anastomac/i ac/ies
3. Strong Cı"k§s and"aisfif?.çs e:x:presseain most teenage groups cause tliat aeea.
4. Late cliiUfıooa is a fıeaüfıy age, mark.Ja 6y gooaaajustment to /iome, scfıoo[ anapeers, 6ut it changes
ara.stica[fy after major pu6erta[ cfıanges erupt
5. Smolijng cause [oss of appethe, eating ress, tfıat may prevent tfıe fu[[ nutntion requiredjor growth.
6. i ncreases ofcontro[pCay a comprementary rore.

ı\UTOM'OBILES

1. }l fıorse-araıvnıvagon appraacliea
2. rı7ie invention of tfıe steam. engine in the eigliteent/i century
3. a). In 1836
6). It imposealiigli ta.:x:ps on 'veliicres operated'6y steam power
4. a). rrlie StanCey
6). ıI1ie 5w o61:Ce
c). rı7ie W/iite
5. (By tlie eJ\P[osion ofgunpoıuaer
6. I[[uminating gas, an e[ectnc spar/t
7. a). 5Walijng it figliter
6). Increasing it speea
8. Prance, (EngCand; ana the 'UniteaStates
9. In 1895, to manufacturc cars und'erpatent
10. One coCar w/iicfı is 6facR.ı. great quantities ı at a [ow pn'ce

186
11. Stee[ Gocfies
12. J{eaters, racfios, cigarette Bgfıters

C'OMMUNfCATION
1. 7lie imitation of natura[soundS
2. 7lie speaR,!r efian't fıave to Ge present in oraer to communicate.
7lie k.nowCecfge of one generation couÜ[ 6e accumuCated or recorded and passed on to tfıe nex:!
generation.
3. flncient tEgyptian fıierogCypfıics (spe[f)
Cfıinese ideograpfıy
4. erlie use of sym60[to represent sounds
5. %weCs
6. erfıe aCpfıa6et
1. In Cfıina
CB [ocR} of wood
jlround 1 Otfı century
8. jl metfıodof send'ing messages 6y using sfıort and[ong signaCs tfıat is aots and dasfıes.
9. In 1896
:No necessity of using wires andca6Ces
10. In 1929

187
CR§view ~am 3 jInswer 1(ey

: .~ A;
E J
. y" C'HI'
. RL'"
• '"
· . L:DH'"0"·,O
: •• -
. · ·;h
'u
••••... , ._ ! ....: : ; ,)

1. rrlie growtfi ofimagination

2. a) Jlnswer sucfi questions adequatelj and' in tfiis ıvay form correct concepts, attitudes and'
eJ\Pectations 6) (Because tfie cfiiCtf needs an accumuration of worksz6Ce k..,nowCecfge 6efore 6eginning
forma[ education
3. desira6Ce 6efiavior/ wfienever fier cfiiUengages in any aemant 6efiavior/6efiavior
4. Jl persona[jucfgment of wortfi, ment, desira6iEity and'significance
5. rrlimugfi 06seroation of situations and' actions sucfi as tfie presence of across, a sfiort prayer 6efore
meaCs) or any reEigious ceremony.
6. (Because tfie cfii[cf's 6eCiefi, attitudes and' traits are often significantlj arterea Gy association witfi
neigfi60rfiooacfiiCrfren and'otfierpersons.

i e,fJ~!Ef1iJ/b ~(ff,fJ!tNlM9 i
LANGUAGE 'TEAC.HINGME'T-HODOLOGY~ THE NATURAL APPltOACH
1.Pai[ure in understanding and'incorrect ex:,ecution oftfie command'
2. very [ow/ singCe ıvord responses
a) rrlie answerg7:'{)en may 6e incorreet
6) 'Ilie utteran.ce is pronounceaincorrectry
c) rrlie utterance is syntactica[lj incompCete or morpfioCogica[lj i[[-formea
3. more errors/provicfing more comprefiensi6Ce input
4. rrlie opportunity to see in print wfıat stuaents a[reacfy fiave comprefiendeain tfie sp0k..!n ranguage.
5. Speak..!rs ao notfee[ comforta6Ce using and'autfientic accent in tfie seconaranguage.
6. a) stuaents wi[[esta6[isfi ({6aa" fia6its if instructors ao not empfiasize tfie correct pronunciation
6) Stuaents must acfiieve native Ci/?,g pronunciation skj[Cs to 6e successfu[

1. lJlie )LIge of c:RJ;ason anatfie Jlge of(EnEiglitenment.

2. rto orcfer and'organize) institutions or trad"itions
3. Jmmanue[1.(ant, in 1784
4. 18 tfı century) tfie ~naissance
5. rtranscend'ent, immanent
6. Lack.ş unity, fragmentary
7. lJlie matfiematica[pfiysics and'rationa[ism.
8. Jsaac Newton and'Jofin Lock..!
9. lJlieoCogy; Jlstronomy) pfiysics and' matfıematics
10. rrlie decomposition of sunEigfit into tfie co[or of tfie spectrum.

188
II t:AJ&s!f!l!Vg, U~~N@ II
·MACR:O"E'C()N'OMI'C'S
1. 7Fıe nationareconomy as a wnoCe
2. {(Wnat causes infca tion? "
{(Wnat causes unemp{oyment?"
('J(ow can a nationareconomy grow?"
3. 7Fıe. capacity ofanatian 's tota{resources to proauce goodS anaservices
4. 1. qrowtn ofCa60urforce;
2. Investments in new projects;
3. jlavances in tecnno{ogy.
5. jl{{tne money tnat peopCe anagovernments spenaon goodS anaservices
6. east - pusn infca tion
7. ::Momentum infca tion
8. Pa{Cs 6e{ow
9. (]Jeriveaaemana
10. cra e:x:panatne tota{aemanafor goodS and"services
11. 1. Lacftofeaucation;
2. Lacftofspecific s!ij{Cs;
3. J06 aiscrimination againstfor eJ(ampCe, 6CacRf ofwomen;
4. ::Minimum wage Caws.
12. Vr6an aecay, sociarunrest) anacrimes
13. It means now.many peopCe Ceavefor tne city anafor now {ong

189
1?§view p;;(am 4 Ansu'er 1(ey

THE 19'74 Acr

1. qetting goods or servicesforuJhich they facltthe means tornaf?! immetfiate payment infu[{
2. Corporate 60dy
3. rrFıree-siaea agreements
4. a). Sencf the agreement to the prospeetive ae6tor
6). (/)0 not hanaovergooaor payover money
5. It must 6e an agreement maae in writing anait must state certain Itey particufars.
6. a) three-party ae6tor-crecfitor-suppCier .
6) When the cash price is at Ceast [ 100 ana not more than :f 30,000.
7. if his tota{payments so far e:x:..ceeefare halfofthe tota{price.
8. Wfıat he compfains ofanarequests that aetion 6e taf?!n to ao this.
9. rrFıis articfe can onCy intficate the outCine ofa compCicateaset of ruCes.

YOURBABY IS LEARNING 'TO TALK!!,!

1. ChiUren must 6e supportea in tlieir speecfi ae've{opment from the 'very 6eginning 6y tfieir
reinforcement.
2. a). Chi{cf's sounds signify;
6). ChiUf's pre-Cinguistic souncfs graaua{Cy progress to imitative sounas;
c). qo through an interestingface of sounaproauction.
3. t'front voweCs ana 6acltcol1sonants
4. 1). ~i17forcing tfiem in their mispronıınciation
2). ~suCt in riaicu[e for the )'oungster fater on
5. rJ/ie parents are cOfl'vinceatfiat thei7' cfii{cf's ineorrigi6fe (iar is aegeııerate.

'THE !GREENHOUS'E EFF1EtCT

1. rro pass through, 6)1 trapping

2. rrFıe eartfı is getting warmer
3. Car60n c!io:x:..iae (C02)
4. Coa( oi{anagas
5. rBeeause trees a6sor6 car60n c!io:x:..ic!e
6. jlerosoCs, refrigerator, pfastie, anafoam materiaCs
7. a). 1-2%, at 0-2%
6). (/)omestic cattCe, power pfants and' vefıicfes

190
 8. a). 'l1ie pofar ice caps wi[[6egin to mert}
6). Weatlier clianges wi[[affect agncurture anafooa proauction
9. (](aising energy pnces} 6y 6ecoming more energy efficient ane! conve rt (cliange) to natura[energy
10. CBuy ((ozoneJriena[y" aerosors
11. p[oocfs anaeco[ogica[aamage

. II rei4J&2fS?U U$~~ II
EDUCATIONALADMINISTRATION

1. rrfıeprocess ofworRjng witli otliers to accomp[isli organizationa[goars

2. }lcfministrative 6eliavior refers to tlie norma[6elia'()iors associateawitli one iS jo6
3. mefining o6jectives} eva[uating peiformance} anaproviding organizationarresources
4. 'l1ie responsi6ılity for maintaining ,curtura[ patterns} goa[ attainment} e::(jerna[ aaaptation ana
interna[aaaptation.
5. Sclioofs adjustment to its eJ(tema[environment
6. Interna[aaaptation
7. Pfanning ı organizing} reading anacontro[fing

191
~view~amj'

i ~ ..,,-,::,ı.ITa,'ıtA'
'T-·'--·}ffi···
: ...,' rI.:U lVIı " 1
t'P''''AC''rT'" Q'·"N'i
N; TM' ı!;; . 1 ! ' ;'C~"L'
l' ~
., .:
'[,"'MA'
!. . .. '-r-'E-'
: i .....: ._1

1. rr'o suggest the strategiesfor ameCiorating the worst aistur6ances.

2. (Bya mi[kY fıaze in the sRy/tfıey cast a mirRy fıaze in tfıe sRy.
3. Oceans and'pCants
4. rrtie conversion offorests tofarmCana.
5. (Because tfıere are so many evo[ving varia6Ces.
6. a) rr'emperature
6) f}'[uctuatiol1s in tlie car60n cycCe
7. CropCanLs are Cigfıter co[oreathan aarpJorest anatfıusrefCect more sOUır raaiation.
8. }lir and' cfıemica[ trappeain ice cores, tfıe 7viatfı of tlie nngs, cora[gro'wtli, anatlie sediment aeposits.
9. Long eifetimes of C02 anaotlier greenfıouse gases and'cCimate 's sCow response.

·L A~'N''GU'AG"E AND':
.; o •• ~. ~! i '} .,.,:' GRA·
• , ,: . M'M·"AR·'
'. :.. / "J
l • ~ o' •.: '.. j' :

1. rrtie pr06Cem is to get from nis sampfe to tlie cliaraeteristic oftlie wliofe.
2. When tlie sampCe is not representative
3. It points out aeficiencies anasuggests ways ofremoving tliem.
4. rrtiis aesenption uıouU constitute a prediction of sentences 'wliicli cou[a reasona6Cy 6e e:x:pectea to
oecur, given tlie proper stimu[us
5. rrtie occurrence ofa sentence in a carefu[f-v eCicited-corpus
6. rrtie sentence in question miglit seem quite naturaC
7. rrtie tas/t of grammar is to aescn'6e tlie grammatica( sentences, sensua( or non-sensia( cCearCy
aistinguisliing tliem from non-grammatica(sentences.
8. a). J{on-gra.rmnatica[
6). :J{on-sensuar
c). Vntrutrıfu[
cf). rta600ea

" L:L'E-: nıa' 'y

A
/ . . •_,: ...... H;:J~; •

1. Sneezesfrom 6reatliing aust

2. (j)eatli from Gee stings
3. rr'o fight off tlie invacfing su6stance
4. a). }lntigens tfıat cause a[Cergies

192
 6). e!ust} po[Cens} fooefs} animar sf?jn or fur; insect venoms} cosmetı:cs} soap} e!rugs} fıeat} co[cf,
sunagfıt} ane! tfıe emotions
5. }lstfıma} po[Cen
6. Causing tfıe reCease of tfıe cfıemica[ fıistamine from ce[[tissues
7. P[uie!to Cea/ttfırougfı ce[[wa[fs
8. In tfıe interna[ organs} tfıe intestines} 6woe!vessefs} ane! 6reatfıing passages.
9. <13y taf?jng antifıistamines:.
10. }l sma[[amount ofan eJ(tract of tfıe a[Cergen

WHAT IS CUL-TURE'?
1. PorpeopCe: reacfing, [istening to cf'assica[music or cfining in fıigfıfy eate restaurants
Porsocio[ogists: tfıe tota[üfesty ce ofa person
2. 06jects maefe or usee! 6y peopCe, e;CampCes: canoes} airpf'anes, sR.yscrapers
3. rrfze 6eaeft, va[ues, nonns, ane! f'anguage.
4. rrfze conceptions peopCe nave a60ut wfıat is wrong and' wfıat is true
5. c.R...uCes of action tfıat guiefe peopCe's 6efıavior
6. Po[!&vays, not requiree!ones, norms, n"gfıt and'wrong, f'aws} coe!iflee! 6y govemment
7. Wn"tten word'.

193
 YI nswer 1(ey

HONG K:ONG BLUES

1. (Big traders} inte{CectuaCs and'eaucatedpeopCe

2. :J{ationa{q>eopCe}s Congress in (Beijing
3. }l. shop at Chinese sovereignty and'as a shameCess attempt to skjm offthe cream ojJ{ong1(onlls
taCent.
4. a) the weather is g{oomy
6) J06 opportunities are 6etter eCsewhere
~) ~cism in (Britain is very intense
5. a) rent conference ha{Cs
6) hire Cega{experts
6. 200
7. }l.ccorcfing to immigration faws} the a6Ce and' tfıe educatedare morefa'C Jora6Ce tnan the infinn and
i{uterate.
8. rrfiey 06sessiveCy pfay go[lor tennis.
a) rrfie corporate profiCe
6) ~ecutive decisive makjng
c) .7l{{ocaüon of resoı.~rces

LANGUA'GE AND DIS,AOVANTAGES

1. No. }l.cconfing to finguists} no 'uariety ofa fanguage is infierentCy 6etter tfıan any otfıer. rrfieJ! are a{{
equa{eJCcept pitfgins.
2. Certain socia{pattern produce,s certain unguistic pattern; wfıife in turn reproduce tfıe sociarpatterns
andso on.
3. 'Ilie discontinuit} 6etıveen tfıc sym60fic orcfers of tfıe scfıoo{and tfıose to wfıicfı he has 6een sociaCized
tfırougfı hisfamiCy
4. ImpCicit
5. 'Ilireatening tfıe cfıircr
6. 5'vlem6ers of the worRjng crass most frequent{y use restricted code} whicfı fimits the inte{{ectua{
fıorizons ofits spea!?.§r

ECONOMICS

1. Vnemp{oyment} infration; poverty} cfiscrimination} and'ecowgica{decay

194
 2. tfo proauce gooas anaservicesfor present anafuture consumption
3. La60r or a particufar sRj((
4. a). }1.pproacfieafrom·a specia(stanapoint;
6). witfi specia( toors.
5. a). Cfioices regarcfing tfie use of resources;
6). tfie forces tfiat aetermine tfie cfioices
6. a). Laıvsı customsı anapracticesı
6). CR,§fationsfiips to its 6usinessfirmsı fiousefioUs ı anagovemment
7. 13efiavior of incfiviaua(firmsı inaustriesı ana fıouse fioUs ..
8. tffie rate of unemp(oymentı tfie cfianging Ceve( of pricesı tfie nation iS tota( output of gooas ana
servicesı ana tfie ways in wfıicfi govemment raises anaspend's money
9. tffie construction of tfıeories ana tfie formufatian ofpoCicie.s
10. J{ow cfianges in tfie price affect tfie quantities purcfiasea
Iltffieory ı Ilfaw ana'principCe
ll II
11. 11
1

i «:/iJf$~ U/$~~ II
POPULATION GROWTH ANDINDUSTRY
1. tfecfıno(ogy ana cu Ctureı economic anapoCitica(
2. tffie stucfy ofpopufation statistics
3. 13ecause many unaeraeve(opeacountries aa not figep recoras
4. cDue to infant aeatfi or starvation. }1. very fiigfi d'eatfi-rate anaa fiiBfi 6irtfi-rate
5. }1.frica ana}1.sia
6. :A1.od'em mecficine
7. CEastem CEurope anain Inaia
8. cDue to tfie popufation aecCine
9. tffiere is a very (ow Ceve( of procfucti-vityı enerBY sources are primitive ı ana tfie stanaara of tfıe Hoing
is very (ow .
10. tffie miaaCe stage
11. }1. aecEine in fertiEity
12. 1). tffie aeatfi-rate coufif6egin to me again
2). ,tffiere coufif6e a aecCine infertiCity

195
C1?§view ®Cam 7 ;zLnswer 1(ey

NO"RMA'L DEVIANT'"S'
i, ;'.'.
'" J..: o', ~,
.
.); _'
): i
;.;'
ı
-..1
i'
._. ~

1. Stigma
2. In some institution sucli as ajai~ liospita~ or orplianage
3. }l aecay of mora(responsi6iCityJ tri6a(stigmasJ pliysica( liaıuficap
4. (Because tlie tenn ((native minorities" imp(ies corporatefeatures tliat are not a(waysfound'
5. a). jl compone.nt tliat can 6e und'erstooa witfıout liaving to posit cu(tura( pr psycfıoCogica ( aeviation
6). }l component tliat cannot.
6. Interpersona( responses 6etween mem6ers of tfıe aeviant grouping eZ tlie wüfer society
7. }latfing to our /tnowCeage and' und'erstaıufing of refations 6etween me~ta( patients eZ tlie e:{!ra-
fıospita( worU

eAJ!ftgOJlb !ft(gAJ~ i
TEACHIN'G E8L TO ADULT LEARNERS
1. It faiCs to offer significant insigfıt a60ut aauCt PSL Ceaming and'instrnction.
2. }l graaua( sfıijt from an Ll orientation to an CEng(isfı onentation
3. Wfıen a concept aesignatea 6y a Cey;j.con / pfırase 6eing Ceamea in tfıe L2 a(read'y e:xjsts in tfıe
Ceamerls Ll Cinguistic system
4. Ll orientation
5. it inf(uences tfıe way one interacts witfı fıis / fıer environment; tfıere6y aecreasing / increasing tfie
opportunities to 6e ey;poseato Cinguistic input.
6. rto avoia tfıe Ceamersfrom aifficu(ty processing tfıe eYJ7Canation anainstrnction tliat fıind'enng an L2
onentation
7. (By inc(utfing practice anapattem an(Cs in PSL cfassroom

T'''''U';E'
.1 J : ;.:1.
A.'Ii\'I'tV.RI'~
/. ll'il~; ,"CA!
,1
N', .p
,11..; ! . . !V·O·
~ ..., : LE:
p'
.... '0"',N:; T:·H···.'-E;-fItIV";
,1: ,.:1. J: l1:J :.J:·F;·· ('
E' ~O· pp". E:·'...-.:·N''·D····
::N" jD'. :l:1J;
: : ..... ~ .1.J .; vN;lru= 'C·'·E-'
I
;.i ~ J. o"!';

1. }l fıigli 6irtfı rate and'continueaimmigration

2. rrFı.e Scotcfı-lrisfı and'tlie çennans
3. rto spreaaawayfrom tfıe coasta(area anapusfı 6ac/tinto tfıe intenor
4. 1\ftntucRy anartennessee
5. a). Opposeato oppressive institutions in tfıe coConies;
6). rto paying ta:ces to support tfıe esta6(isfıea}lngCican Cliurcli in tfıe soutfıem coConies;
c). (Paying yearCy quitrents to fanaeapropnetors or tfıe !?JngJ ana;
dj. rrFı.ey aemanaea6etter representation in tfıe coConia(Cegisfatures.
6. Sfıip-6uiUing J (um6eringJ fisfıingJ and'for sucli liigfıfy sRj(rea crafts as si(ver-ma!?Jng and'fumiture
manufactunng

196
 7. rrFıe Carge Candowners, tfie richer merchants of the coasta[ cities, the roya[ or proprietary g(Jı1emors,
the Ceading cCergymen, andweaCthy Cawyers
8. rrFıe monied groups never had titCes of n06iuty, and it was possi6Ce in every generation for poorer
peopCe who acquiredweaCth to move into upper-cCass circCes
9. }ls a 60nusfor serving in the revo[utionary anny
10. rrFıey coulifvote andcontro[Cedthe Cower houses ofthe coConia[CegisCatures.
11. i n southem coConies
12. a). rr'enant fanners, fann workJrs, dock,workJrs, jishennen, and'saiCors
6). i ndenturedservants and:Jfegro sCaves.

II ceAJ~gaJ!b UI§~[L:!J@ ii
WHAT ISMANAGEMENT'?
1. rrFıe piocess of optimizing human, materia[ and financia[ contri6utions for the aChievement of
organizationargoalS.
2. CDecision mak,Jng andstatus accomp[ished
3. Vnderstand'ing su60rd'inates
4. rrFıe refinement ofcase, fielif rtl Ca60ratory research projects
5. Jrierarchy, peifonnance / ro re
6. Pirst Cine managers, first Ceve[
7. rrFıeir reCationships in the organization
8. Line and'staff
9. Punctiona[managers
10. Jre is responsi6Ce for a[[ the activities ofa corporation

197
{j\çview ~am 8

TOODLE.RHOOD
1. a). Increasea mavement
6). :J{ewforrns of fanguage communication
c). Vnaerstancfing offu.-naamenta{ reCationsfiip
2. Sensory eJ(J?en"ence anaits meaning anava{uefor tfie ind'iviaua' cognitive deve{opment
3. 'l1irougfi cfiaracter moaeCing
4. q>erceptivity anamotiCity pattem
5. tEtterna{06jects, tfie invanance or constancy ofpeopCe, 06ject e:l rerationsfiip
6. Curiosity anaeagemess to manipufate e:x:..tema{06jects
7. (Because tfieir ingenuity inspires tfıem
8. q>ara{Ce{pfay e:l inaepencCence in pCay acti'()ity

rb;fJ~&F(jJ!b ~~;fJ/i)JI~ i
:ON PSY'CHOANALYTICTRAINING FOR RES:E~ARCH PURPOSES
1. <JJiey give priority to tfıe canefiaateJs personarana{ysis ratfier tfian to eaucationa{work.)n seminars.
2. a) ?r1agica{practitioner 6) psycfioana{yst c) priest
3. Creates fiis own inefi'()iaua{mytfi 6y tfie recovery anaintegratian ofpersonarmemories
4. 'l1ie patient can revea{ fiis innermost tfiougfitsJfeeCings ıvitfiout any ris~ ofunaesira6Ce consequences.
5. }lmerican community centerea moaes of reconciCing aifferences fiave to a consiaera6Ce aegree repfacea
tfie autfıoritarian patriarcfıa{ism ofCf'reucf.
6. Crucia{aecisions on aamission anaon promotion or aismissa{are maae 6y co{Cective
7. Ijr a canefiaate aoes not express fiis tfiougfits to fıis coucfi tfien fie is viofating tfie 6asic ruCe; if fie aoes,
fie is 6eing aisrespectfu{ to tfie ana{yst
8. Separate pu6Cic ana private spfieres 6y institutionaCizing strict ruCes of confiaentiaEity for tfie
eEaactic ana{ysis.

ABN:QRMAL PSYCHOLOGY
1. ::A1.enta{aisoraers, anxjety aisoraers, mooaaisoraers, anapersonaEity aisoraers
2. Wfien personaCity traits 6ecome so inj{e;(j6Ce ana mafaaaptiııe
3. a). rı1iey aa notfee{ upset or an;(jous
6). rrfiey are not motivateato cfiange tfieir 6efiavior
c). erney aa not (ose contact witfi reaCity or aispfay marR..!aaisorganization C?f 6efiavior
4. LittCe sense ofresponsi6iEity, moraCityJ or concemfor otfiers. rrFieir own neeas, a conscience
5. a). ?r1em6ersfiip in a deEinquent gang or a crimina{su6cuCture
6). 'l1ie neeafor attention anastatus
c).Loss contact ıvitfı reaCity

198
 dJ. jln a6ifity to controCimpuCses
6. jl great faciCity for Eyingı a need'for tliriCCs and'e:(citement witli fittCe concemfor possi6Ce injuryı and'
an ina6ifity to arter 6eliavior.
7. CJ>arents wlio promd'ed'no d'iscipCine or moraCtraining
8. a). (j)uring period's of rest
6). In response to autfitory or visuaCstimuCation
9. jl sliarp increase in an:(jety
10. jln und'er reactive autonomic nervous system
11. a). rrlie a6iCity to pCan
6). 7'0 cliange strategies
c). 7'0 inlii6it impuCsive actions
12. Prustration or d'istress ı empliasize

LANGUAGE ACQUISITIONOF BABIES

1. {j)iaries k§pt 6y parents ı tlie use of tape recortfings ı vid'eotapes ı and'controCCed'experiments
2. J-{unger, tliirst ı d'iscomfort ı tlie d'esire to 6e cud'd'Ced; or tliefeeCing ofweCC-6eing
3. Wlien stimuCi (visuaC or autfitory) presented'to tliem are varied'
4. VsuaCEy around'tlie si.:(tli montli
5. Vnsystematic ı non-repetitı've ı and'rand'om
6. rrlie one word'sentences
7. a). rrliey are Cink§d'witli a cliiCas own action or d'esire for actı'on
6). Vsed' to con'{)ey emotion
c). Serve a namingjunction
8. 1). rrlie 60und'morpliemes
2). ::Most non-CeJ(fcaCcategories
3). SmaCC "function wortfs sucli as: toı tlieı can, is
11

199
~view~am9
·.Jlnswer 1(ey

AUDl(lLINGU,AL ME'TH'OD
1. To eficit tlie 6asic structure of tlie fanguage from tlie i11;formant
2. We[[ d'eve[opeametlioao[ogica[6asis / tlie intensity ofcontact witli tlie target fanguage.
3. jl fesson 6egan witli wor/(on pronunciation} morplio[ogy} and"grammarjo[[owea 6y ari[rs ana
e::(fJrcises.
4. In on[er to prevent .Jlmen'cansfrom 6ecoming isofate,{from scientific aavances maae in otlier
countries.
5. Transcri6ing spo/(çn utterances in a fanguage plionetica[fy.
6, (Because many fanguages aa not na've a writtenfonn anawe l"earn to spea/(6efore uJe l"eam to reaa
anawrite.

MAINTAINING SELF:, BEHAVIOR, ,AND SQCIAL ENVIRONMENT

1. 9l1. isinterpretation ojone}s seIJconce. ıt
2. :Not onfy tfıe personaCity traits 6ut atso constraints 4 possi6iCities infıerent in tfıe rofe e:x:pectations 4
rofe id'entities tfıat come into pfay in a given situation
3. r[fıey reaucea tfıeir ERjng for tfıat person aiscremting tfıe source of tfıe negative eı;a[uation et
estimating tfıe incongrueney
4. r[fıe va[ue of inte[l"ectua.factivities 'tuıl[ 6ecome even greater ana importance of tlie inte[l"ectua[facet
wi[[increase
5. (Because of tfıe tenaeney to 6ecome efi 'isatisfieaand'to arap out of tfıe teacfıing rol"e
6. (By vaCiaation; 6y sel"ecting certain peopfe as o6jeets of compamon 4 6y devefaping tecfıniques that
evalis congruent responsesfrom otfıerpeopfe
7. (Because tfıese are the mecfıanisms to restore congntenıy
8. pasitirve view; congruent 'witfı; negative aspect

LANGUAGE
1. Sentences anaword's
2. a). r[fıe pfıono[ogy
6). '1lie semantics
3. jl system tnat refates soundS witfı meanings
4. Linguistic competence
5. r[fıe aescriptive grammar

200
6. 'Teaefiing grammar
Bonus question: a preseriptive grammar
7. rrfıese d'ifferenees are limited'
8. Creative aspeet
9. (('Ta[Ring)) 6ird's e;CampCe
10. jln ancient ((CegisCator)) gave tfie true names to ar[tfiings
11. a). Linguists
6). CEvo[utionary 6io[ogists
c). :J{euro[ogists

'. ··C···'
:R· ·E···· " i·7C····
. 'L"·I··N:-:G'
'" .. " ' . R-E-:
A' N··-n·- .,' 'C·<·"L'"h:
d
1-1\'
. ,I' 'T·:1.-:-0·
.A 'M'
. ... 1
· 'N:"
. ı·' "

1. 1fie reuse of materiaCs

2. a). (])ireet recyeling ı to prod'uee simiCargoocl's;
6). i ncfireet recyelingı to prod'uee d'ifferent or inferiorgoocl's;
c). (]\çusing manufaetured'items) to prevent waste.
3. 1). It can promd'e efieapergoocl's;
2). 'To prevent d'isposa[pr06Cems
3). Conserving resourees
4. 'Tfie reeovery and'reuse ofwaste paper
5. Waste from tfie eoa[or wood'and'paper
6. 10%
7. (('Tfie Cfiain ofepaper)) pu6[isfied'in 1977
8. 22% (from 77% in 1970 to 53% in 1976)
9. a).epfiysiea[limitations
6). 'Tfie fiig fi eost ofeo[Ceeting waste
c). Organizationa[pr06Cems

201
c.R.§view ~am 10 ;zInswer 1(ey

TRANSPLANTING PRIORITIES
1. a). Lac!tofsuccess
6). 9r1.aca6re rusliing of ({6rain deaa' 60dies to tlie transpCant fiospita{
2. (Because ümited 6y tfıe sliortage of suita6Ce donor liearts
3. ([)rugs reduce tlie patient's resistance to infeetion tfiat CeadS to tfıeir deatli
4. a). CRscognizing tnat a donor is ({6rain dead"lias 6een CawjuICy.made cwar
6). <fecliniques ofpreserving tıie fıeart fıave 6een improved
5. Carefor the oU; tlie menta[fy i{~ anathe handicappecf
6. (For impro'vements to the operating tfıeatres andintensive carefaciCities at Papıvorth

TA'STE PERCEP'TION
1. Wlien neonates arefed artiftciaCj{uidS containing critica{concentrations ofsart
2. Sweet stimuCı: from sour, sart and6itter stimuCi
3. c) fieavy gir{
4. Pace ofsucRjng: C (j(ate ofsuclUng: }1.
5. J{eartrate; sucRjng pace
6. CJila{{er and(])esor
7. CB graph
8. rrlie refCe:x:.,-Ci/i,§ reaction (fid not require cortica{participation

~lffCitJlry~ U.$~!M@ i
MlGRATIONS TO THE CITIES

1. It ShOWS tliat distance is not a significantfactor.

2. rrrıe Ceast economicailj devetopedareas
3. a). rJ(apieffy rising rura{popufation
6). lncrease wndsliortage
4. (P-rovincia{ town, from vi{wge, to tfıe city
5. a). Seasona{ migrants
6). crarget wor~rs
6. J{o equivaCent j06 in the vi{Cage / tlieir oıvn clii{cfren ıvi{{ 6e esta6{islieain the city
7. 1.Jisi6Ce ;ign ofsucces;

202
 8. In countries wfiicfı are tfıemse{ves rapidCy deve{oping
9. It means fıow many peopfe feave for tfie city andfor fiow (ong

SO'CIALPROC:E:SSES ANDTHEIR IMPORTANCE INC'ONSUMPTION

1. 9r1.em6ersfiip interaction over time and sfıating an ideoCogy
2. a). Ponna{
6). i nforma{
c). CR.§ference
3. Vnion, university and fegis[ative units
4. Jl circfe offriend and of fıis cEque anda teen-age Bana
5. rrFie stiucture ofafonna{group, tfiat ofan informa{group
6. Jl poirit ofreference in determining fiis judgments, 6eEefi and 6efiavior
7. Jln e:x:pectedpattem of 6efıaviors
8. Information f{ows from mass mediata feadersand tfien to tfiefess active parts ofpopu[ation
9. Poodsfiopping, fasfıion, pu6Ec affairs andmovies
10. 9r1.O'()ie feader, pu6Ec affairs feader
11. 9r1.iddfe-c[ass feve' upper andCower sociafc[ass fevers
ı 2. wife, joint decision maRjng

203
REFERENCES

ii Deese, James and Ellin K. Deese. How to Study (3 rd ed). New '''{ork: :NleGraw-Hill,
Ine. 1979.
ii Ekmekçi, F. Özden. Ways ofAttaining Study Skills. Literatür Yayıncılık. İstanbuL.
1994.
ii Ekmekçi, F. Özden. Researeh Writing: A Guide for Writing Theses} Dissertations}
and Artieles. Çukurova Üniversitesi Basımevi. 1991.
ii Evans, Virginia. Sueeessful Writing (Upper-Intermediate). Express Publishing.
2000.
/i Hensel, Paul R. Common Student Writing Problem,~" Florida State University. 2002.
iii Johnson, Sue. The 4 T}s: Teaeher/You, Text, Talk, Test - A Systeınatie Approaeh to
Learning Sueeess. Califomia Polyteehnie State University, San Luis Obispo. 2002
ii IYEller, George S. Craeking the TOEFL. Prineeton Review Publishing, L.L.C. New
York. 2000.
ILI Öztürk, Cesur. Bui!ding Skills for Profieieney (i h ed). Hacettepe-Taş K.itapçılık Ltd.
Şti. Ankara. 2003.
ii Pauk, Walter. How to Study in College (2 nd ed). Boston: Houghton Mifilin Co.1974.
iili Raygor, Alton L. and David Wark. Systems For Study. New York: MeGraw- Hill,
Ine. 1970.
ii Ruetten, Mary K. and Regina L. Smalley. Refining Composifion Skills: Rhetorie and
Grammar for ESL Students. (2 nd ed). Maemillan Publishing Company. New York.
1986.
iii Sezer, Ayhan. Prepare for the TOEFL. Hacettepe-Taş Kitapçılık Ltd. Şti. Ankara.
1998.
ili Tuncay, lIidayet. Profieieney in Listening and Reading Comprehension. Hacettepe-
Taş Kitapçılık Ltd. Şti. Ankara. 1998. pp.430-449.

Joumals, Magazines, and Newspapers

Newsweek Teaehing English Forum
Tinıes The Turkish Daily News
The times USA TODAY
The Daily Telegraph

204
Websites
• http://sas.calpoly.edu/asc/ssl.html
• http://www.arc.sbc.edu/notes.html
• http://www.ulg.ac.be/facphl/uer/d-german/remed/check.html
Common Grammar Mistakes
• http://www.bartleby.com/141 i struuk3 .html
William Stmnk, Jr.; Words and Expressions Commonly Misused. 1918.
• http://www.testmagic.com/Knowledge_Base/listslessays/most_common_mistakes.html
Most Comman Sludent lvfistakes in Essays

205

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