ST 2207 TDM

Four Channel Analog
TDM Trainer
ST2207
Learning Material
Ver 1.1
An ISO 9001:2008 company

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd.
94, Electronic Complex, Pardesipura, Indore - 452 010 India,
+ 91-731 4211100, : info@scientech.bz , : www.ScientechWolrd.com
ST2207
Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 2

ST2207
Four Channel Analog TDM Trainers

ST2207
Table of Contents
1. Safety Instructions 4
2. Introduction 5
3. Features 7
4. Technical Specifications 8
5. Theory 9
I. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) 9
II. Analog Time Division Multiplexing 10
III. Introduction To modulation 12
IV. Types of Modulation 15
V. Amplitude Modulation (AM) 16
VI. Sidebands 24
VII. An overview of DSB Transmission 28
VIII. Generation of DSB SC 32
IX. Double sideband (DSB) Demodulator 36
6. Experiments
• Experiment 1 38
To Study Double sideband AM generation.
• Experiment 2 41
Study of 4-channel analog Time Division multiplexing
• Experiment 3 43
To Study 4-channel analog Time Division De-multiplexing and Double
sideband AM reception by envelope detector
7. Switched Faults 45
8. Frequently Asked Questions 46
9. Warranty 51
10. List of Accessories 51

ST2207
Safety Instructions
Read the following safety instructions carefully before operating the instrument. To
avoid any personal injury or damage to the instrument or any product connected to it.
Do not operate the instrument if you suspect any damage within.
The instrument should be serviced by qualified personnel only.
For your safety :

Use proper Mains cord : Use only the mains cord designed for this instrument.
Ensure that the mains cord is suitable for your
country.
Ground the Instrument : This instrument is grounded through the protective
earth conductor of the mains cord. To avoid electric
shock the grounding conductor must be connected to
the earth ground. Before making connections to the
input terminals, ensure that the instrument is properly
grounded.
Observe Terminal Ratings : To avoid fire or shock hazards, observe all ratings and
marks on the instrument.
Use only the proper Fuse : Use the fuse type and rating specified for this
instrument.
Use in proper Atmosphere : Please refer to operating conditions given in the
manual.
1. Do not operate in wet / damp conditions.
2. Do not operate in an explosive atmosphere.
3. Keep the product dust free, clean and dry.

ST2207
Introduction
Four Channel Analog TDM Trainer is communication system where the message
signal modulates using Amplitude Modulation and multiple access is provided using
Time Division Multiplexing. The message information is encoded in the amplitude of
a series of signal pulses and transmitted using Time Division Multiplexing (i.e. in
different time slots).
ST2207 Four Channel Analog TDM Transmitter and Receiver Trainer
demonstrates working of communication system
ST2207 Four Channel Analog TDM Transmitter and Receiver Trainer
comprises of following major blocks:
• Transmitter Section
a Signal Generator Unit.
b Carrier generator.
c Channel Selector Switch.
d Four input channel.
e Balanced modulator
f Balance adjustment potentiometer
• Receiver Section
a Envelope detector.
b Channel Selector Switch.
c Low pass filter

ST2207

ST2207
Features
• Self-contained trainer with built in power supply
• On-board sine wave generator(synchronized)
• On board DSB/DSBSC modulators
• Crystal controlled carrier frequency generator
• Four Analog input time multiplexed channels
• Four Envelope detectors
• On board four 4th order low pass filters
• Input-output & test points provided on board
• 8 Switched faults for fault simulation.
RoHS Compliance
Scientech Products are RoHS Complied.
RoHS Directive concerns with the restrictive use of Hazardous substances (Pb, Cd, Cr,
Hg, Br compounds) in electric and electronic equipments.
Scientech products are “Lead Free” and “Environment Friendly”.
It is mandatory that service engineers use lead free solder wire and use the soldering
irons upto (25 W) that reach a temperature of 450°C at the tip as the melting
temperature of the unleaded solder is higher than the leaded solder.

ST2207
Technical Specifications
Crystal frequency : 1 MHz
On-board Analog signals : 250 HZ, 500HZ, 1 KHz and 2 KHz (Adjustable
amplitude)
Analog Input channels : Four
Multiplexing : Time division multiplexing
Modulation : DSB/DSBSC modulation
On-board control
Signal frequency : 8 KHz, 16 KHz
Test points : 29
Interconnections : 2mm sockets
Power : 230V +/- 10%, 50/60 HZ, 4VA (approx)
Dimensions (mm) : W 325 x H 90 x D 255
Weight : 1.8kg (approx)
Accessories : Manual Set of patch cord, line cord

ST2207
Theory
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):
Multiplexing is the process of combining signals from different information sources
so that they can be transmitted over a common channel. Multiplexing is advantageous
in cases where it is impracticable and uneconomical to provide separate links for the
different information sources. The price that has to be paid to acquire this advantage
is in the form of increased system complexity and bandwidth.
It is a technique of transmitting more than one information on the same channel. As
can be noticed from the figure 1 below the samples consists of short pulses followed
by another pulse after a long time interval. This no-activity time intervals can be used
to include samples from the other channels as well. This means that several
information can be transmitted over a single channel by sending samples from
different information sources at different moments in time. This technique is known
as Time Division Multiplexing.
Time Division Multiplexing of two signals

Figure 1

ST2207
Analog Time Division Multiplexing:

Time division multiplexing is the process of combining the samples from different
information signals, in time domain so that they can be transmitted over the common
channel. The fact utilized in TDM technique is that there are large intervals between
the message samples. The samples from the other sources can be placed within these
time intervals. Thus every sample is separated from other in time domain. The time
division multiplexing system can be simulated by two rotating switches, one at
transmitter and the other at receiver. (See figure 2) The two wipers rotate and
establish electrical contact with one channel at a time.
Principle operation of TDM-AM system

Figure 2
Each signal is sampled over one sampling interval and transmitted one after the other
along a common channel. Thus part of message 1 is transmitted first followed by part
of message 2, message 3 and then again message 1 so on.
The switches connect the transmitter and the receiver to each of the channels in turn
for a specific interval of time. In effect each channel is sampled and the sample is
transmitted
When the switches are in the channel 1 position, channel 1 forms a PAM channel with
an LPF for reconstruction, and so on for channels 2 and 3. The result is that the
amplitudes samples from each channel share the line sequentially, becoming
interleaved to form a complex PAM wave, as shown above.
A major problem in any TDM system is the synchronization of the transmitter and
receiver timing circuits. The transmitter and receiver must switch at the same time and
frequency. Also SW1 must be in the channel 1 position when SW2 is in the channel 1
position, so that the switches must be synchronized in position also.
In a system that uses analogue modulation (AM) the time slots are separated by guard
slots to prevent crosstalk between channels.
This figure 3 shows the waveforms produced during the operation of the AM-TDM
system.

ST2207
Timing waveform of TDM-AM system

Figure 3
It can be anticipated from above process that the receiver switch has to follow two
constraints:
1. It must rotate at the same rate as the transmitter switch.
2. It must start at the same time as the transmitting switch and it must establish
electrical contact with the same channel no. as that of the transmitter. If these
two conditions are met, the receiver is said to be in synchronization with
transmitter. If constraint one is not met, the samples of different sources would
get mixed at the receiver. If constraint two is not met, the information from
source 1 will be received by some other channel which is not intending to
accept the information from that particular channel. To establish
synchronization, the receiver needs to know:
a. Frequency/ rate of operation at transmitter.
b. Sample identification.

ST2207
This increases the transmitter and receiver complexity and cost.
Time Division Multiplex Samples of Three Signals

Figure 4
Digital TDM:
In this technique, digital signals like TTL or CMOS is multiplexed. It is different
from analog multiplexer since no sampling is done instead each input signal is
selected by digital control logic. Output at any time depends on the control bit
governing input data selection.
Introduction To modulation:
A large number of information sources are Analog sources such as speech, images,
and videos. Today, they are transmitted as Analog signal transmission, especially in
audio and video broadcast. The transmission of an Analog signal is either by
modulation of the amplitude, the phase, or the frequency of a sinusoidal carrier.
Modulation is the process of putting information onto a high frequency carrier for
Transmission (frequency translation). Modulation occurs at the transmitting end of the
system.

ST2207
Block diagram of Modulation Process

Figure 5
At the transmitter, modulation process occurs when the transmission takes place at the
high frequency carrier, which has been modified to carry the lower frequency
information. At the receiver, demodulation takes place. Once this information is
received, the lower frequency information must be removed from the high-frequency
carrier.
Block diagram of Modulation and Demodulation processes

Figure 6
Why to modulate the Analog signals:
All audio signals occupy the same frequency band i.e. between 0 and 20 kHz. Before
being broadcast an audio signal (speech or music) must be moved, or frequency
translated to a specific frequency range in order to use the available frequency
spectrum. To do this the audio signal (or modulating signal) modulates a much
higher radio frequency (the carrier frequency). Each audio signal is assigned a carrier
- defining a channel - so that it is possible for the receiver to discriminate between all
the streams of signals coming in.

ST2207
There are 3 main reasons to modulate a signal on to a high frequency carrier:

1. Audio is in the range approx. 30 - 20000 kHz. If an electromagnetic signal with
a frequency of 30 Hz is transmitted it will have a wavelength of (speed of light
/frequency) = 300,000/30 km = 10,000 km. To pick up this signal an aerial of
size approx. 2,500 km will be required - impractical. If this signal is used to
modulate a carrier of 1 MHz the wavelength will be 300,000/1,000,000 km =
300 m, and an aerial of 75 m will suffice. If the carrier is 100 MHz, the
wavelength is 3 m and a 750 cm aerial is sufficient.
2. A large number of radio transmitters are trying to transmit at the same time. It is
necessary for the receiver to pick up only the wanted signal and to reject the
rest. One way to do to this is to assign a carrier with a known frequency to each
transmitter, modulate this carrier with the signal, and then design the receiver to
pick up only that known carrier frequency and reject the rest, using appropriate
filtering methods. Then the original signal is removed from the received carrier.
The same concept is used in carrying a large number of telephone conversations
over a single pair of wires or optical fibre.
3. Using appropriate modulation techniques it is possible at the receiver to remove
a lot of the noise and other distortions which the transmission medium would
impose on the signal.

ST2207
Types of Modulation:
In Analog communication systems, we use the sinusoidal signal as the frequency
carrier. And as the sinusoidal wave can be represented in three parameters; amplitude,
frequency and phase, these parameters may be varied for the purpose of transmitting
information giving respectively the modulation methods:
(a) Amplitude Modulation (AM):
The amplitude of the carrier waveform varies with the information signal
(b) Frequency Modulation (FM):
The frequency of the carrier waveform varies with the information signal
(c) Phase Modulation (PM):
The phase of the carrier waveform varies with the information signal.
Carrier Wave
Modulating Wave
Amplitude Modulated Wave

ST2207
Frequency Modulated Wave

Figure 7
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Amplitude modulation or AM as it is often called is a form of modulation used for
radio transmissions for broadcasting and two way radio communication applications.
Although one of the earliest used forms of modulation it is still in widespread use
today.
The first amplitude modulated signal was transmitted in 1901 by a Canadian engineer
named Reginald Fessenden. He took a continuous spark transmission and placed a
carbon microphone in the antenna lead. The sound waves impacting on the
microphone varied its resistance and in turn this varied the intensity of the
transmission. Although very crude, signals were audible over a distance of a few
hundred meters, although there was a rasping sound caused by the spark.
With the introduction of continuous sine wave signals, transmissions improved
significantly, and AM soon became the standard for voice transmissions. Nowadays,
amplitude modulation, AM is used for audio broadcasting on the long medium and
short wave bands, and for two way radio communication at VHF for aircraft.
However as there now are more efficient and convenient methods of modulating a
signal, its use is declining, although it will still be very many years before it is no
longer used?
What is amplitude modulation?
In order that a radio signal can carry audio or other information for broadcasting or
for two way radio communication, it must be modulated or changed in some way.
Although there are a number of ways in which a radio signal may be modulated, one
of the easier, and one of the first methods to be used was to change its amplitude in
line with variations of the sound.
The basic concept surrounding what is amplitude modulation, AM, is quite
straightforward. The amplitude of the signal is changed in line with the instantaneous
intensity of the sound. In this way the radio frequency signal has a representation of
the sound wave superimposed in it. In view of the way the basic signal "carries" the
sound or modulation, the radio frequency signal is often termed the "carrier".
The method that we are going to use is called amplitude modulation. As the name
suggest, we are going to use the information signal to control the amplitude of the
carrier wave. As the information signal increases in amplitude, the carrier wave is also

ST2207
made to increase in amplitude. Likewise, as the information signal decreases, then the
carrier amplitude decreases.
By looking at Figure 8 below, we can see that the modulated carrier wave does appear
to 'contain' in some way the information as well as the carrier.
We will see later how the receiver is able to extract the information from the
amplitude modulated carrier wave.
To generate AM, it is necessary to multiply two signals together:
1. A RF sine wave, of frequency fc and amplitude Vc, known as the carrier wave,
2. Audio signal (information) that is to be transmitted.
Figure 8

ST2207
Figure 9(a)
Figure 9(b)

ST2207
When a carrier is modulated in any way, further signals are created that carry the
actual modulation information. It is found that when a carrier is amplitude modulated,
further signals are generated above and below the main carrier. To see how this
happens, take the example of a carrier on a frequency of 1 MHz which is modulated
by a steady tone of 1 kHz.
The process of modulating a carrier is exactly the same as mixing two signals
together, and as a result both sum and difference frequencies are produced. Therefore
when a tone of 1 kHz is mixed with a carrier of 1 MHz, a "sum" frequency is
produced at 1 MHz + 1 kHz, and a difference frequency is produced at 1 MHz - 1
kHz, i.e. 1 kHz above and below the carrier.
If the steady state tones are replaced with audio like that encountered with speech of
music, these comprise many different frequencies and an audio spectrum with
frequencies over a band of frequencies is seen. When modulated onto the carrier,
these spectra are seen above and below the carrier.
It can be seen that if the top frequency that is modulated onto the carrier is 6 kHz,
then the top spectra will extend to 6 kHz above and below the signal. In other words
the bandwidth occupied by the AM signal is twice the maximum frequency of the
signal that is used to modulate the carrier, i.e. it is twice the bandwidth of the audio
signal to be carried.

ST2207
Depth of Modulation:
The amount by which the amplitude of the carrier wave increases and decreases
depends on the amplitude of the information signal and is called the 'depth of
modulation'.
The depth of modulation can be quoted as a fraction or as a percentage.
V max − V min
Percentage modulation = x 100%
V max + V min
Here is an example,
Figure 10
In above Figure 10 we can see that the modulated carrier wave varies from a
maximum peak-to-peak value of 10 volts, down to a minimum value of 6 volts.
Inserting this figure 10 in the above formula, we get:
10 − 6
10 + 6
4
= x 100 %
16
= 25% or 0.25
.

The Frequency Spectrum:
Assume a carrier frequency (fc) of 1 MHz and amplitude of, say 5 volts peak-to-peak
The carrier could be shown as,
Figure 11
If we also have a 1 KHz information signal, or modulating frequency (fm), with
amplitude of 2V peak-to-peak it would look like this,
Figure 12
When both signals have passed through the amplitude modulator they are combined to
produce an amplitude modulated wave.
The resultant AM signal has a new frequency spectrum as shown in Figure 13
inserting changes that occurs as a result of the modulation process:
1. The original 1 KHz information frequency has disappeared.
2. The 1 MHz carrier is still present and is unaltered.
ST2207
Figure 13
There are two new components:
1. Carrier frequency (fc) plus the information frequency, called the upper side
frequency (fc + fm).
2. Carrier frequency (fc) minus the information frequency, called the lower side
frequency (fc - fm).
The resulting signal in this example has a maximum frequency of 1001 KHz and a
minimum frequency of 999 KHz and so it occupies a range of 2 KHz. This is called
the bandwidth of the signal. Notice how the bandwidth is twice the highest frequency
contained in the information signal.
Modulation index can determine the behaviour of modulation index:
(a) Under modulation
(b) Ideal modulation
(c) Over modulation

ST2207
Under Modulation :
When m<1 , we call this as under modulation By ensuring the amplitude of s m(t) to
be less than the carrier amplitude, message signal can comfortably be retrieved from
the envelope waveform of s(t).
1 .5
0 .5
-0 .5
-1
-1 .5
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0 4 5
Figure 14
Ideal Modulation:
When 1 = m, this is the best modulation where to ensure successful retrieval of the
original transmitted information at the receiver end. The ideal condition for amplitude
modulation (AM) is when 1 = m also means A c =A m; this will give rise to the
generation of the maximum message signal outputs at the receiver without distortion.
Figure 15

ST2207
Over Modulation:
When m>1 we call this as over modulation. If the amplitude of the modulating signal
is higher than the carrier amplitude, this will cause severe distortion to the modulated
signal.
2 . 5
1 . 5
0 . 5
- 0 . 5
- 1
- 1 . 5
- 2
- 2 . 5
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0 4 5
Figure 16
Sidebands:
If the information signal consisted of range of frequencies, each separate frequency
will create its own upper side frequency and lower side frequency.
As an example, let us imagine that a carrier frequency of 1 MHz is amplitude
modulated by an information signal consisting of frequencies 500Hz, 105 KHz and 2
KHz. As each modulating frequency produces its own upper and lower side frequency
there is a range of frequencies present above and below the carrier frequency. All the
upper side frequencies are grouped together and referred to as the upper sideband
(USB) and all the lower side frequencies form the lower sideband (LSB). This
amplitude modulated wave would have a frequency spectrum as shown in Figure 17.

ST2207
The AM wave is the algebraic sum of the carrier and upper and lower sideband sine
waves. (a) Modulating signal. (b) Lower sideband. (c) Carrier. (d) Upper sideband.
(e) Composite AM wave.
Figure 17

ST2207
Figure 18(a)
Figure 18(b)

ST2207
Spectra of modulation & AM wave

Figure 19
The Power in Sidebands:
The modulated carrier wave that is finally transmitted contains the original carrier and
the sidebands. The carrier wave is unaltered by the modulation process and contains at
least two thirds of the total transmitted power. The remaining power is shared
between the two sidebands.
The power distribution depends on the depth of modulation used and is given by :
Total power = (carrier power) (1+N2)

2
Where N is the depth of modulation. The greater the depth of modulation, the greater
is the power contained within the sidebands. The highest usable depth of modulation
is 100% (above this the distortion becomes excessive).
Since, at least twice as much power is wasted as is used; this form of modulation is
not very efficient when considered on a power basis. The good news is that the
necessary circuits at the transmitter and the receiver are simple and inexpensive to
design and construct.

ST2207
An overview of DSB Transmission

A double sideband transmission was the first method of modulation developed and,
for broadcast stations, is still the most popular. Indeed, for medium and long range
broadcast stations, is still the most popular. Indeed, for medium and long range
broadcast stations it is the only system in use.
The reason for such widespread use is that the receiver design can be very simple and
reliable. None of the characteristics are particularly critical so reception is still
possible even in adverse conditions.
In this context, a broadcast is information transmitted for entertainment or information
and available for use by anyone with a receiver. It never requires a response or
acknowledgement for the receiving station. So in many ways it is similar to a
newspaper or magazine which is published and distributed to anyone who is interested
in reading a copy.
Radio is also used for communications in which the signal is addressed to a receiving
station or a group of stations. Using the written word this would correspond to a
private letter or perhaps business or military information being exchanged. For this
type of communication other systems are used, one of which is investigated in this
chapter. As we will see, there are two serious drawbacks to the DSB AM system.
Double Sideband – Large Carrier (DSB-LC):
Also known as full AM. In Amplitude Modulation, the base band or the information
signal is modulated to the carrier signal to produce the modulated sine wave.
Consider the carrier signal:
The modulating signal (information signal):
Then, the amplitude-modulated can be expressed as
The amplitude term of the AM signal s (t) is:

ST2207
Where notation m in expression above is termed the modulation index. Simply a

measurement for the degree of modulation and bears the relationship of the ratio of
Am to Ac.
Therefore the full AM signal may be written as
The frequency description of the AM signal (i.e. frequency spectrum of AM) – DSB-
LC:
Figure 20

ST2207
From the above analysis, we found that the frequency spectrum of AM waveform
DSB-LC:
• A component of carrier frequency, fc
• An upper sideband (USB), whose highest frequency component is at fc + fm
• A lower sideband (LSB), whose highest frequency component is at fc - fm
• The bandwidth of the modulated waveform is twice the information signal
bandwidth.
• Because of the two sidebands in the frequency spectrum with carrier frequency,
thus it is often called Double Sideband with Large Carrier (DSB-LC)
Double Sideband – Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC):
As noted earlier, where there are two sidebands in the frequency spectrum, USB and
LSB, and it is called as Double-sided band (DSB).
But the carrier component in full AM or DSB-LC does not convey any information, it
may be removed or suppressed during the modulation process to attain a higher power
efficiency, hence Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) Modulation.
Consider the carrier:
The modulating signal (information signal):
Then, the amplitude-modulated can be expressed as

ST2207
The frequency description of the AM signal (i.e. frequency spectrum of AM) – DSB-
SC:
Figure 21
Note: Notice that there is no carrier frequency (band).
From the above analysis, we found that the frequency spectrum of AM waveform –
DSB-SC:
• No component of carrier frequency, fc
• An upper sideband (USB), whose highest frequency component is at fc+fm
• A lower sideband (LSB), whose highest frequency component is at fc-fm
• The bandwidth is twice the modulating signal bandwidth
• Because of the two sidebands in the frequency spectrum without carrier
frequency, thus it is often called Double Sideband with Suppressed Carrier
(DSB-SC)

ST2207
Generation of DSB SC
The transmitter circuits produce the amplitude modulated signals which are used to
carry information over the transmission to the receiver. The main parts of the
transmitter are shown in Figure 22.
In Figure 22 & 23, we can see that the peak-to-peak voltage in the AM waveform
increase and decrease in sympathy with the audio signal.
AM Transmitter System
Figure 22
To emphasize the connection between the information and the final waveform, a line
is sometimes drawn to follow the peaks of the carrier wave as shown in Figure 22.
This shape, enclosed by a dashed line in out diagram, is referred to as an 'envelope', or
a 'modulation envelope'
Figure 23
It is important to appreciate that it is only a guide to emphasize of the AM waveform.

ST2207
Information Signal:
We have a choice of information signals on ST2207. We can use the signal provided
in the audio oscillator or audio signal by connecting microphone to external audio
input and keeping the audio input select switch in ext. position. In test situations it is
more satisfactory to use a simple sinusoidal information signal since its attributes are
known and of constant value. We can then measure various characteristics of the
resultant. AM waveform, such as the modulation depth for example. Such
measurements would be very difficult if we were using a varying signal from an
external source such as a broadcast station.
Carrier Wave:
The carrier wave must meet two main criteria. It should be of a convenient frequency
to transmit over the communication path in use. In a radio link transmissions are
difficult to achieve at frequencies less than 15 KHz and few radio links employ
frequencies above 10GHz. Outside of this range the cost of the equipment increases
rapidly with very few advantages.
Remember that although 15 KHz is within the audio range, we cannot hear the radio
signal because it is an electromagnetic wave and our ears can only detect waves which
are due to changes of pressure.
The second criteria is that the carrier wave should also be a sinusoidal waveform
because a sinusoidal signal contains only a single frequency and when modulated by a
signal frequency, will give rise to just two side frequencies, the upper and the lower
side frequencies. However, if the sine wave were to be a complex wave containing
many different frequencies, each separate frequency component would generate its
own side frequencies. The result is that the overall bandwidth occupied by the
transmission would be very wide and on the radio, would cause interference with the
adjacent stations. In Figure 24, a simple case is illustrated in which the carrier only
contains three frequency components modulated by a single frequency component.
Even so we can see that the over all bandwidth has been considerably increased.
If the carrier contained several frequencies, each would produce its own side
frequencies
Figure 24

ST2207
DSB is Wasteful of Power:

The first problem is to do with the power distribution in a DSB amplitude modulated
wave.
The total power being transmitted is 1000+320+320 = 1640W

Figure 25
How much of the DSB AM wave is really needed?
The whole purpose of the modulation system is to transfer information from one place
to another. How efficiently does it to achieve this?
We are transmitting two sidebands and a carrier. The carrier contains no useful
information at all and yet contains over half the total power. This is clearly a waste.
Even the sidebands can be improved. We can remember that combining the
information signal and the carrier gave rise to an upper and a lower sideband, each of
which contains a copy of the information being transmitted.
There is no necessity to send two copies of the same information so this is a waste of
power and bandwidth.
If we avoid using the carrier frequency shown in Figure 26 we would save ourselves
1KW of the transmitted power.
The total power being transmitted is now reduced to 640W

Figure 26

ST2207
Well, the carrier has done its job-in the modulator. That is where we needed it to
move or translate the audio signals up to radio frequency values which can be radiated
by the antenna. This shifting, or translating of frequencies is the main function of a
modulator.
At the transmitter, the carrier can easily be removed by a band stop filter designed to
eliminate the carrier frequency whilst allowing the two sidebands to be transmitted.
At the receiver, the carrier must be re-inserted to produce the modulation envelope to
enable the detector to extract the information signal.
And here lies the problem.
The carrier has to be re-inserted at exactly the correct frequency to reproduce the
original AM waveform (within a few hertz). If it is not, there are serious problems
with reception.
Take a situation in which the upper and lower side frequencies are spaced 4 KHz
either side of the carrier at:
600 - 4 = 596 KHz & 600 + 4 = 604 KHz.
Now, let's assume that the receiver carrier were to be re-inserted at an incorrect value
of 601 KHz. This would result in a spacing of only 3 KHz between the carrier and the
upper side frequency and 5 KHz between the carrier and the lower side frequency.
What effect would this have?
Remembering our previous exercise in which we created an AM envelop by plotting a
graph, we can see that these incorrect side frequency spacing will give rise to a badly
deformed modulation envelop and hence a distorted output sound which makes
speech sound like 'Donald Duck'.
With this type of transmission, the receiver would be carefully tuned in to the correct
frequency and the station would be received. A few moments later, the reinserted
carrier frequency would drift slowly off tune and 'Donald Duck' would re-appear. We
would have to reach over and retune the radio and settle back to enjoy the next few
seconds of broadcast until the drift starts again.
The frequency control necessary to ensure that the re-inserted carrier stays at exactly
the correct value regardless of changes of temperature; vibration etc. would make the
receiver too complex and expensive for domestic use.
For this reason, DSBSC is very seldom used. Overall, the waste of transmitted power
to send the carrier is less expensive than the additional cost of perhaps several million
high quality receivers.
Such receivers are used for professional (and amateur) communications but are
expensive, between ten and a hundred times the cost of a standard radio receiver.

ST2207
Double sideband (DSB) Demodulator

We are using envelope detector i.e. diode detector to demodulate the modulated
signal.
Diode Detector:
The function of the diode detector is to extract the audio signal from the signal at the
output of the IF amplifiers. It performs this task in a very similar way to a half wave
rectifier converting an AC input to a DC output. Figure 27 shows a simple circuit
diagram of the diode detector.
Figure 27
In Figure 27, the diode conducts every time the input signal applied to its anode is
more positive than the voltage on the top plate of the capacitor.
When the voltage falls below the capacitor voltage, the diode ceases to conduct and
the voltage across the capacitor leaks away until the next time the input signal is able
to switch it on again. See Figure 28.
Figure 28

ST2207
The result is an output which contains three components:

1. The wanted audio information signal.
2. Some ripple at the IF frequency.
3. A positive DC voltage level.
The Audio Amplifier:
At the input to the audio amplifier, a low pass filter is used to remove the IF ripple
and a capacitor blocks the DC voltage level. Figure 29 shows the result of the
information signal passing through the diode detector and audio amplifier.
The input to the diode detector from the last IF amplifier
Output of diode detector includes: a DC level, the audio signal, ripple at IF frequency
Output after filtering

Figure 29
The remaining audio signals are then amplified to provide the final output to the
loudspeaker.
Testing Instruments Needed for Experiment
1. Oscilloscope 20 MHz, Dual Trace, ALT Trigger.
2. Oscilloscope probes X1 – X 10 etc.

ST2207
Experiment 1
Objective: To study Double sideband AM generation
Equipments Required:
1. ST2207 trainer with power supply cord
2. Oscilloscope with connecting probe
3. Patch cords
Connection diagram:
Figure 1.1
Procedure:
This experiment investigates the generation of double sideband amplitude modulated
(AM) waveforms,
1. Turn all potentiometers of analog signal generator unit to clockwise position.
This all are information signal of balanced modulator block.
2. Turn ON the power to the trainer. It is indicated by lighting of the power switch.
3. Observe sine wave of 250 Hz at TP1 and 500 Hz at TP2 on oscilloscope.
4. Observe sine wave of 1 KHz at TP3 and 2 KHz at TP4 on oscilloscope.

ST2207
5. Set analog signal amplitude equal to 4V (Approx.) at TP1, 2, 3 & 4.

6. Observe carrier signal of frequency 1 MHz at TP5.
7. Turn all Balance adj. potentiometers of balance modulator block to clockwise
position.
8. Make connection as shown in figure 1.1.
9. Next, examine the output of the individual balanced modulator block at TP6, 7,
8 & 9 on oscilloscope. Trigger the oscilloscope on the TP6 & 7 signal. Check
that the waveforms as shown in figure 1.2
t. p. 6
Figure 1.2
The output from the balanced modulator block (at TP6, 7, 8 & 9) is a double-
sideband amplitude modulated waveform, which has been formed by amplitude-
modulating the 1 MHz carrier sine wave with the audio-frequency sine wave.
The frequency spectrum of this AM waveform is as shown below in figure 1.3,
where fm is the frequency of the audio modulating signal.
Figure 1.3
10. Now vary the amplitude of all modulating signals, by rotating the
potentiometers of analog signal generator unit. Observe the effect of varying
each potentiometer has on the amplitude modulated waveforms (TP6, 7, 8 & 9).
The amplitude of the modulating signal reduced to zero by rotating the
potentiometers of analog signal generator unit in anticlockwise direction and
observes the signal at TP6, 7, 8 & 9 .It becomes an un-modulated sine wave of
frequency 1 MHz, indicating that only the carrier component now remains.
Return the amplitude pot to its maximum position (clockwise direction).

ST2207
11. Turn balanced modulator block potentiometers. It is this block that we will use
to perform double-side band suppressed carrier amplitude modulation. Turn
potentiometer until the signal at TP6, 7, 8 & 9 is as shown in figure 1.2.
t. p. 6
Figure 1.4
The balance pot varies the amount of the 1 MHz carrier component, which is
passed from the modulator’s output.
By adjusting the pot until the peaks of the waveform (A, B, C and so on) have
the same amplitude, we are removing the carrier component altogether.
We say that the carrier has been ‘balanced out’ (or ‘suppressed’) to leave only
the two sidebands. This is called Double sideband suppressed carrier (DSBSC)
modulation.
Questions:
1. Define Modulation.
2. Define Amplitude Modulation.
3. Write the expression for AM.
4. What is the power saving in DSB SC AM?
5. List disadvantages of DSB SC AM?

ST2207
Experiment 2
Objective: This experiment investigates the four channel analog time division
multiplexed signal.
3. Patch cords
Connection diagram:
Figure 2.1
Procedure:
position.
3. Make connection as shown in figure 2.1.
4. Turn ON the power to the trainer. It is indicated by lighting of the power switch.
5. Observe time division multiplexing output on oscilloscope by connecting TDM
O/P terminal to oscilloscope.

ST2207
6. Trigger the signal to view clean multiplexed signal. This TDM output signal
carries component of all four channels multiplexed in time domain.
7. Observe control signal at TP10 and TP11 on oscilloscope.
8. Now vary the potentiometers of analog signal generator unit and balanced
modulator block. Observe the effect of varying each potentiometer has on the
TDM waveform at TP12. This point clears the concept of time division
multiplexing.
Questions:
1. How synchronization is achieved in TDM?
2. Why synchronization is required in TDM?
3. List types of multiplexing?
4. Give difference between multiplexing and parallel to serial converter?
5. What are the advantages of using balanced modulators?

ST2207
Experiment 3
Objective: To study four channels analog time division demultiplexed signal and
double sideband AM reception by envelope detector.
3. Patch cords
Connection diagram:
Figure 3.1
Procedure:
1. Make connection as shown in Figure 3.1.
2. Connect 2 mm patch cord between TDM O/P and TDM I/P socket.
position.
5. Turn ON power to the trainer. It is indicated by lighting of the power supply.

ST2207
6. Observe all four demultiplexed outputs on TP14, TP15, TP16 and TP17. On
oscilloscope.
7. Now vary the potentiometers of analog signal generator unit and balanced
modulator block. Observe the effect of varying each potentiometer has on the
demultiplexed waveform at TP14, TP15, TP16 and TP17. This point clears the
concept of time division demultiplexing
8. Next examine the output of individual envelope detector block on TP18, TP19,
TP20 and TP21.
The function of diode detector is to extracts the information signal from the
modulated signal. But the output of the diode detector contains the information
signal, a positive DC voltage level and some ripples of high frequency.
A low pass filter followed by the envelope detector on the board is used to
remove the high frequency ripple and a capacitor blocks the DC voltage level
9. Observe outputs of individual low pass filter block on TP22, TP23, TP24 and
TP25 on oscilloscope.
10. Now vary the potentiometers of analog signal generator unit and observe the
effect of varying each potentiometer has on the output waveform at TP22, TP23,
TP24 and TP25.
Questions:
1. What do you mean by envelope detector?
2. What is TDM?
3. How time division de multiplexing is done?
4. What is guard time in TDM?
5. What is the difference between Analog TDM and Digital TDM?

ST2207
Switched Faults
This chapter lists the switched faults on the four channel analog TDM trainer. There
are four fault switches on the module.
Open circuit faults:
1. Fault disables the output from the 1 MHz Crystal oscillator (at TP5), by
disconnection the carrier signal in all balanced modulator block. The result is a
modulator circuit is not properly working in the absence of carrier signal.
2. Fault disconnects the time division multiplexed output (TP12) by disconnection
the TDM input (TP13).Causes the all low pass filter and envelope detector
block’s output affected.
3. Fault disables the output of 250 Hz input balanced modulator block by
removing the carrier signal in modulator circuit
4. Fault disconnects the output at tp20 to the low pas filter block by disconnecting
the diode of envelope detector circuit to the input of filter.

ST2207
Frequency Asked Questions

1. What is frequency range for speech information?
Range for speech information is 300 Hz to 3.4 KHz.
2. What is modulation?
Nsmission (frequency translation). Modulation occurs at the transmitting end of
the system.
3. Why to modulate the analog signals?
Higher radio frequency (the carrier frequency). Each audio signal is assigned a
carrier – defining a channel – so that it is possible for the receiver to
discriminate between all the streams of signals coming in.
4. What are the reasons to modulate the analog signal or low frequency
signal?
Ans: The frequency
Ans: Modulation is the process of putting information onto a high frequency
carrier for
Tra
Ans: All audio signals occupy the same frequency band i.e. between 0 and 20
kHz. Before being broadcast an audio signal (speech or music) must be moved,
or frequency translated to a specific frequency range in order to use the available
frequency spectrum. To do this the audio signal (or modulating signal)
modulates a much
Ans: There are 3 main reasons to modulate a signal on to a high frequency
carrier:
1. Audio is in the range approx. 30 – 20000 kHz. If an electromagnetic signal
with a frequency of 30 Hz is transmitted it will have a wavelength of
(speed of light /frequency) = 300,000/30 km = 10,000 km. To pick up this
signal an aerial of size approx. 2,500 km will be required – impractical. If
this signal is used to modulate a carrier of 1 MHz the wavelength will be
300,000/1,000,000 km = 300 m, and an aerial of 75 m will suffice. If the
carrier is 100 MHz, the wavelength is 3 m and a 750 cm aerial is
sufficient.
2. A large number of radio transmitters are trying to transmit at the same
time. It is necessary for the receiver to pick up only the wanted signal and
to reject the rest. One way to do to this is to assign a carrier with a known
frequency to each transmitter, modulate this carrier with the signal, and
then design the receiver to pick up only that known carrier frequency and
reject the rest, using appropriate filtering methods. Then the original signal
is removed from the received carrier. The same concept is used in carrying
a large number of telephone conversations over a single pair of wires or
optical fiber.

ST2207
3. Using appropriate modulation techniques it is possible at the receiver to

remove a lot
Ans: In analog communication systems, we use the sinusoidal signal as the
frequency carrier. And as the sinusoidal wave can be represented in three
parameters; amplitude, frequency
(a) Amplitude Modulation (AM):
The amplitude of the carrier waveform varies with the information signal
(b) Frequency Modulation (FM):
The frequency of the carrier waveform varies with the information signal
© Phase Modulation (PM):
The phase
Ans: A major problem in AM is its susceptibility to noise superimposed
on the modulated
Ans: The amplitude of the signal is changed in line with the instantaneous
intensity of the signal. In this way the radio frequency signal has a
representation of the sound wave superimposed in it. In view of the way
the basic signal "carries" the sound or modulation, the radio frequency
signal is often termed the "carrier".
As the information signal increases in amplitude, the carrier wave is also
made to increase in amplitude. Likewise, as the information signal
decreases, then the carrier amplitude
Ans: The amount by which the amplitude of the carrier wave increases and
decreases depends on the amplitude of the information signal and is called
the 'depth of modulation'
Ans: The percentage depth of modulation can be quoted as a fraction or as
a percentage.
V max − V min
V max + V min
Ans: There are two new frequency components:
4. Carrier frequency (fc) plus the information frequency, called the upper
side frequency (fc + fm).
5. Carrier frequency (fc) minus the information frequency, called the lower
side frequency
Ans: Modulation index can be classified as follows:
(a) Under modulation
(b) Ideal modulation
(c) Over

ST2207
Ans: Under Modulation

When m<1 , we call this as under modulation By ensuring the amplitude of
s m(t) to be less of the noise and other distortions which the transmission
medium would impose on the signal.
5. How many types of analog Modulation are there?
And phase, these parameters may be varied for the purpose of transmitting
information giving respectively the modulation methods: of the carrier
waveform varies with the information signal.
6. What is the disadvantage of amplitude modulation?
Carrier signal.
7. What is amplitude modulation?
De decreases.
8. What is Depth of Modulation?
9. What is percentage Depth of Modulation?
10. How many frequency components are there in amplitude modulated signal?
a. (fc - fm).
11. Classify modulation index for amplitude modulation?
Modulation
12. Define under, ideal and over modulation?
Than the carrier amplitude, message signal can comfortably be retrieved from
the envelope waveform of s(t).
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

ST2207
Ideal Modulation:
When 1 = m, this is the best modulation where to ensure successful retrieval of the
original transmitted information at the receiver end. The ideal condition for amplitude
modulation (AM) is when 1 = m also means A c =A m; this will give rise to the
generation of the maximum message signal outputs at the receiver without distortion.
Over Modulation:
When m>1 we call this as over modulation. If the amplitude of the modulating signal
is higher than the carrier amplitude, this will cause severe distortion to the modulated
signal.
2 . 5
1 . 5
0 . 5
- 0 . 5
- 1
- 1 . 5
- 2
- 2 . 5
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0 4 5
13. What is the relation ship between the depth of modulation and the power
contained within the sidebands?
Ans: The higher the depth of modulation, the higher is the power contained
within the sidebands.
14. What is TDM?
Ans: Time division multiplexing is the process of combining the samples from
different information signals, in time domain so that they can be transmitted
over the common channel. The fact utilized in TDM technique is that there are
large intervals between the message samples. The samples from the other
sources can be placed within these time intervals. Thus every sample is
separated from other in time domain.

ST2207
15. What are the benefits of using TDM?

Ans: Benefits of TDM are as follows:
TDM is all about cost: fewer wires and simpler receivers are used to transmit
data from multiple sources to multiple destinations.
TDM also uses less bandwidth than Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
signals, unless the bit rate is increased, which will subsequently increase the
necessary bandwidth of the transmission.
An asset of TDM is its flexibility. The scheme allows for variation in the
number of signals being sent along the line, and constantly adjusts the time
intervals to make optimum use of the available bandwidth. The Internet is a
classic example of a communications network in which the volume of traffic can
change drastically from hour to hour.
16. What is modulation?
Ans: Modulation is the process of putting information onto a high frequency
carrier for Transmission (frequency translation). Modulation occurs at the
transmitting end of the system.

ST2207
Warranty
1. We guarantee this product against all manufacturing defects for 24 months from
the date of sale by us or through our dealers. Consumables like dry cell etc. are
not covered under warranty.
2. The guarantee will become void, if
a) The product is not operated as per the instruction given in the Learning
Material
b) The agreed payment terms and other conditions of sale are not followed.
c) The customer resells the instrument to another party.
d) Any attempt is made to service and modify the instrument.
3. The non-working of the product is to be communicated to us immediately giving
full details of the complaints and defects noticed specifically mentioning the
type, serial number of the product and date of purchase etc.
4. The repair work will be carried out, provided the product is dispatched securely
packed and insured. The transportation charges shall be borne by the customer.
List of Accessories
1. Patch cord 16”black .................................................................................2 Nos.
2. Patch cord 16”blue ..................................................................................9 Nos.
3. Mains cord .............................................................................................. 1 No.
4. Learning Material (CD) ............................................................................ 1 No.

ST 2207 TDM

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ST 2207 TDM

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Four Channel Analog

An ISO 9001:2008 company

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 2

Four Channel Analog TDM Trainers

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 3

For your safety :

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 4

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 5

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 6

Scientech Products are RoHS Complied.

Scientech products are “Lead Free” and “Environment Friendly”.

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 7

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 8

Time Division Multiplexing of two signals

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 9

Analog Time Division Multiplexing:

Principle operation of TDM-AM system

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 10

Timing waveform of TDM-AM system

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 11

This increases the transmitter and receiver complexity and cost.

Time Division Multiplex Samples of Three Signals

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 12

Block diagram of Modulation Process

Block diagram of Modulation and Demodulation processes

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 13

There are 3 main reasons to modulate a signal on to a high frequency carrier:

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 14

Amplitude Modulated Wave

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 15

Frequency Modulated Wave

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 16

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 17

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 18

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 19

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 20

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 22

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 23

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 24

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 25

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 26

Spectra of modulation & AM wave

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 27

An overview of DSB Transmission

The modulating signal (information signal):

Then, the amplitude-modulated can be expressed as

The amplitude term of the AM signal s (t) is:

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 28

Where notation m in expression above is termed the modulation index. Simply a

Therefore the full AM signal may be written as

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 29

The modulating signal (information signal):

Then, the amplitude-modulated can be expressed as

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 30

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 31

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 32

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 33

DSB is Wasteful of Power:

The total power being transmitted is 1000+320+320 = 1640W

The total power being transmitted is now reduced to 640W

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 34

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 35

Double sideband (DSB) Demodulator

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 36