Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 34 (2020) 102650

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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jasrep

Differentiating Chuño blanco and Chuño negro in archaeological samples

based on starch metrics and morphological attributes
Mallory A. Melton a, *, Matthew E. Biwer b, Rita Panjarjian a
a
Department of Anthropology, University of California, Humanities and Social Sciences Building 2001, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
b
Department of Anthropology, The Ohio State University, 4060 Smith Laboratory, 174 W. 18th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Identification of diagnostic signatures of food processing practices in the starch grain record has recently
Starch grain research revolutionized our ability to understand foodways, particularly in the Old World. In this paper, we build upon
Food processing extant starch grain research on chuño, a freeze-dried potato product produced in the Andean highlands, to
Detoxification
develop criteria for the identification of chuño types in the archaeological record. We analyzed two hundred
Potato
Human ecology
modern starches from four chuño blanco and chuño negro sources in Peru and Bolivia. Our results reveal differ­
Andean archaeology ences in morphology and statistically significant (p < 0.0001) discrepancies in size metrics between the two
Paleoethnobotany chuño types that can be used to distinguish archaeological starches. This set of criteria has great potential to
inform our understandings of the origins of potato domestication, the development and spread of detoxification
methods, taste preferences and cuisine, social (ayllu) affiliations, and highland to lowland trade networks in the
Andean past.

1. Introduction
The potato (Solanum tuberosum) is arguably the most important
staple food of Andean cuisine. A wide range of potato varieties are
consumed daily by modern Andean households, partly in the form of
chuño, a freeze-dried product made from small bitter potatoes (Mamani,
1981). Chuño is a portable food that can be stored for years. It can only
be produced in the arid altiplano region (>3800 m) where the annual
average temperature fluctuates between 7◦ and 10◦ C, with maximums
above 20◦ C, and winter minimums of − 1◦ to − 16◦ C (May – August;
Vidal and Javier, 1972). Chuño in modern markets is sold in two types:
chuño blanco (or tunta) and chuño negro, which are derived from two
different manufacturing processes. However, the antiquity of these food
processing techniques and significance of these two types in the past are
poorly understood. This research gap is due to a lack of a systematic
method for identifying chuño and its various types in the archaeological
record.
Recent analysis of starch residues on artifacts from the Quilcapampa
site, Sihuas Valley, Peru revealed potato starches with features matching
the diagnostic characteristics of chuño (Biwer and Melton, 2021).
Indeed, modern chuño starch grains examined when evaluating the
possibility of chuño in artifact residues from the site revealed visual
differences in chuño negro and chuño blanco specimens. These noted vi­
sual differences prompted further investigation into whether these two
products can be systematically differentiated in the starch grain record.
The purpose of the current study is to use modern chuño samples
collected from different populations in Peru and Bolivia to develop a
method to identify chuño by type in the archaeological record. The
identification of chuño and the differentiation of chuño types present
opportunities to (1) more precisely detect the range of processing
practices represented in archaeological assemblages; (2) identify the
antiquity of chuño production; and (3) investigate possible social and
economic webs of interaction related to preferences for producing,
distributing, or more intensively using a particular chuño type among
Andean peoples in the past.
2. Background
2.1. Role of Chuño in Andean cuisine
Potatoes were domesticated in southern Peru around 10,000 years
ago (Hardigan et al., 2017; Spooner and Hetterscheid, 2006; Spooner
et al., 2005) and have since played an essential role in human occupa­
tion of the Andean highlands. The difficulty with these higher altitude

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: melton@ucsb.edu (M.A. Melton).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102650
Received 8 July 2020; Received in revised form 16 October 2020; Accepted 21 October 2020
Available online 11 November 2020
2352-409X/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.A. Melton et al.
environments lies in the inability to grow many crops, such as maize,
above the productive quechua (~2,300 to 3,500 masl) zone (see Pulgar
Vidal, 1996). Indeed, in the suni (3,500–4,000 masl) and puna (4,000 to
4,800 masl) regions of the Andes, potatoes are a staple crop often
consumed multiple times on a daily basis. Other native tubers (e.g.,
ulluco [Ullucus tuberosus]), grains (e.g., quinoa [Chenopodium quinoa]
and cañihua [Chenopodium pallidicaule]), and lupines (e.g., tarwi [Lupi­
nus sp.]) are also important, but are regarded as secondary to the potato
(e.g., Murra, 1972). Thus, potatoes provide the bulk of daily subsistence
in a cold and dry high-altitude environment (e.g., Beall, 2000).
There is an immense diversity of potato types with over 4,000 vari­
eties farmed in the Andes (CIP International Potato Center, 2020), each
with a different use (Mamani, 1981). Potato diversity is thus essential to
Andean farmers. Indeed, in some areas, farmers may grow up to 70–100
varieties of potato on a single plot of land (Brush, 1982). The demanding
physical conditions of highland life necessitate unique adaptive choices
to ensure a reliable and continual source of calories throughout the year.
One of these adaptive choices is the preservation of potatoes through the
production of chuño. In the Andes, chuño, or freeze-dried potato, serves
multiple functions. It is calorically dense, providing approximately
300–400 Kcal per 100 g of dry weight, and is a good source of protein,
calcium, iron, and zinc (Burgos et al., 2009; Haan et al., 2019; Woolfe,
1987). Perhaps most importantly, it is light, portable, and has a long
shelf life ensuring a steady supply of food is available throughout the
year due to limited seasonal food availability and/or subsistence
shortfalls.
Chuño is created using a food preservation method of freeze-drying to
remove moisture. Most commonly, small bitter potatoes are used, but
these potatoes can derive from several varieties that are also prepared
fresh instead of being made into chuño. The freeze-drying process ren­
ders these small bitter potatoes edible by removing glycoalkaloids,
which are toxic to humans (Brush et al., 1981:72; Johns, 1996: 82–84).
Chuño production generally begins by leaving potatoes outdoors during
the night where they are subjected to freezing temperatures at altitudes
of over 3,800 masl (Mamani, 1981). In the early morning the potatoes
are stepped on to remove water and slough off the skin, but retain their
shape, after which they thaw and dry during the day. This process is
repeated for four to seven days, after which the potatoes are freeze-
dried. Once the potatoes have been fully processed, they are placed
into storage where they will keep for years to over a decade. Using this
method of food preservation, two general types of chuño are produced:
chuño negro and chuño blanco.
2.2. Chuño negro
Chuño negro is essentially the standard form of freeze-dried potato in
the Andes. It is created using aforementioned processing of repeated
freezing and thawing in order to remove water from the tuber (Mamani,
1981). The characteristic black color of chuño negro comes from expo­
sure to sunlight over a period of several days. Once the freezing, thaw­
ing, and trampling process has removed the water from the potatoes,
they are placed into storage for later consumption.
2.3. Chuño blanco
Chuño blanco, also referred to a tunta, is another variety of chuño.
While the process of repeated freezing, thawing, and trampling is
essentially the same, there are key differences in processing methods
(Werge, 1979). Specifically, small bitter potatoes are laid out at night to
freeze, trampled in the early morning, and then collected in the morning
and stored under blankets to avoid the sunlight; the lack of exposure to
sunlight gives chuño blanco its characteristic appearance due to the
formation a white crust on the outside of the tuber. This process is
repeated 3–5 times until the potatoes are dry, after which they are
washed. The method of potato washing (rehydration) varies regionally,
accomplished by either placing sacks of dried potatoes in a river, lake, or
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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 34 (2020) 102650
stream, or by digging a hole and adding both the dried potatoes and
some water and then covering them with ichu (Stipa ichu) grass. The
potatoes are removed from the water after 2–3 weeks and once again
placed outside. They are repeatedly frozen and then stepped on and left
to dry in the sun under blankets for approximately two weeks, after
which the dried potatoes are ready for storage.
Specific potato preparations also have important social meanings in
the Andes. They provide a basis for organizing labor and community life
around agricultural calendars, represent gender divisions, and demon­
strate human kinship and social connections (Arnold, 1987; Brush,
1992; Corr, 2002; Harrison, 1989; Weismantel, 1988). Of the two gen­
eral types, chuño blanco is considered to be of higher quality and superior
flavor, resulting in higher prices at markets today (Johns, 1996:156;
Mamani 1981). Chuño blanco is used not only in cooking, but also for
ceremonial occasions, religious and secular festivals. In comparison,
chuño negro is for everyday consumption and is considered to be less fine
in terms of quality.
2.4. Previous research on starch grain signatures of Chuño
Damage patterns on starch grains have been recognized as a valuable
source of information on the food preparation practices of ancient
peoples (del Babot, 2003; Henry et al., 2009; Mickleburgh and Pagán-
Jiménez, 2012; Wang et al., 2017; Yang and Perry, 2013). Exposure to
certain physical and thermal factors, such as grinding, baking, and
boiling, have been shown to produce diagnostic morphological signa­
tures on starch grains (Ezell et al., 2006; Henry et al., 2009). However,
the effects of other factors, particularly freeze drying and combinations
of damage sources, are less understood; furthermore, a limited number
of damage studies have been conducted on starches of New World do­
mesticates (Johnson and Marston, 2020; Vinton et al., 2009). As chuño is
produced through a series of freeze-drying, trampling, and/or rehydra­
tion episodes, analysis of these starches has worldwide implications for
understanding how freeze-drying and combinations of freeze-drying and
other damaging practices impact starch morphology. More specifically,
investigation of chuño blanco and chuño negro signatures can better
inform the morphological implications of rehydration in previously
freeze-dried specimens.
María del Pillar Babot (2003) conducted the first published experi­
mental study of chuño blanco and chuño negro starches. She observed two
populations of Andean potatoes, one of each chuño type, examining a
wide range of morphological variables that could be potentially influ­
enced by freeze drying (e.g., contour/surface traits, hilum shape and
size, fissure location and shape, packing of compound grains, vegetal
tissues, etc.). Babot found chuño negro grains to have a similar
morphological signature to air/heat dehydration (e.g., scarcely visible
grains with flat relief), but with more ubiquitous changes. These
morphological changes appeared less frequently in chuño blanco grains,
a difference which Babot attributes to the rehydration step restoring
original morphology in chuño blanco specimens. A few limitations of
Babot’s study are that she examined only one population for each chuño
type, she did not examine a systematic number of grains, and she did not
measure the observed grains. Nevertheless, her paper provides an
excellent foundation for baseline expectations as to which morpholog­
ical attributes are most important to analyze when searching for evi­
dence of chuño.
Claudia Rumold (2010) examined starch from three cultivated Paula
variety potato specimens (native to the Andes), one fresh or unprocessed
raw, one made into chuño blanco, and one made into chuño negro, all
obtained from a market in Puno, Peru as comparative material for her
dissertation results. She noted great variability in starch grain size in
each of the tested populations, with chuño blanco having the largest
grains; Rumold (2010:245) ultimately concluded that “there is no
discernable effect on size from freeze-drying,” suggesting that undeter­
mined factors such as field locations and growing conditions may be
responsible for variation in grain size. She recognizes greater prevalence
M.A. Melton et al.
of fissuring and hila damage (big vacuoles) in both freeze-dried speci­
mens (2010:252), a correlation first recognized by Babot (2003).
Together these scholars have laid a critical foundation for a sys­
tematic comparison of chuño starches by type. Both Babot and Rumold
recognized key differences in morphology between the two types which
can be more thoroughly investigated by comparing a larger sample set of
starches from specimens acquired from several locations in the Peruvian
and Bolivian Andes. Furthermore, statistical analysis of size for a large
sample of starches has the potential to provide robust evidence to build
upon Rumold’s observations. The current study incorporates both of
these steps to pursue a systematic comparison of starch morphology and
size for two chuño blanco and two chuño negro populations.
3. Methods
3.1. Project design
Modern chuño specimens purchased from markets by colleagues
Christine Hastorf, Matt Sitek, and Sonia Zarillo were sampled in this
study. Hastorf provided chuño negro from Bolivia, Sitek provided chuño
blanco from Moquegua, Peru, and Zarillo provided chuño blanco and
negro from Arequipa, Peru. Thus, we sampled two sources for each type
of chuño to get a sense of the influences of market location and producer
on starch grain presentation (Fig. 1). We also adopted a large sample
size, 50 starches from each source (200 starches in total), to account for
the possibility of significant patterning in starch grain size by source or
chuño type without results being influenced by natural variation in the
size of potato starch grains (15–100 µm in length, unaltered).
3.2. Laboratory setting & sterile procedures
Starch grains were collected from modern chuño specimens by
Melton and Panjarjian and evaluated by Melton in the microbotanical
facilities of the Integrative Subsistence Laboratory, University of Cali­
fornia, Santa Barbara (UCSB-ISL). These facilities are solely used for the
analysis of archaeological starch grain and phytolith samples. All
modern plant material is prepared in a separate room.
Sterile procedures are continuously enforced in the UCSB-ISL to
ensure data integrity and prevent modern contamination. Countertops
Fig. 1. Potato populations used in study: chuño blanco from Arequipa, Peru
(top left) and Moquegua, Peru (top right); chuño negro from Arequipa, Peru
(bottom left) and Bolivia (bottom right). Scale bar unit = 1 cm.
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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 34 (2020) 102650
are cleaned with a strong lye solution once every three months and the
lab bench in the fume hood is wiped with an Alconox solution (0.1%)
and distilled water following each use. Gloves used (Fisherbrand Nitrile
Examination Gloves Powder-Free) are confirmed as starch-free by reg­
ular testing. All consumables, including glass Pasteur pipettes, slides,
coverslips, and reusable metal toothpicks, are sterilized before use by
pressure cooking in distilled water for two hours according to standard
procedures (see Crowther et al., 2014) using an InstantPot (IP-DUO).
Microcentrifuge tubes arrive in sterile packaging and tested negative for
starch.
3.3. Data collection
One chuño specimen was randomly selected for analysis from each
representative group. A metal toothpick was then used to gently remove
a small portion (approximately 0.001 g) of the potato, which was
immediately transferred to a microcentrifuge tube. A few drops of
mounting medium (1:1 glycerin to water solution) was added to the tube
and then the contexts were mixed using the same metal toothpick until
all potato starches were in suspension and disbursed as evenly as
possible throughout the mounting medium. A few drops of the mixture
were removed using a glass Pasteur pipette and then transferred to a
glass slide, covered with a glass cover slip, sealed with nail polish, and
left to dry for a few minutes.
Prepared slides were examined and photographed by Melton using a
Brunell SP 400 Metallurgical Microscope (50-600X), with incident/
transmitted, brightfield/darkfield, and polarization capabilities, equip­
ped with an AmScope MU1003 10MP camera. A series of micrographs
were taken at 200X magnification using transmitted polarized and
transmitted non-polarized lighting. These micrographs were used to
conduct metric analyses, while qualitative attributes were evaluated at
the microscope to allow for the starches to be rolled to examine all
exterior faces.
3.4. Qualitative and metric analyses
Qualitative analysis consisted of the visual assessment of the main
diagnostic features of starch grains, including shape, hilum (visibility,
location, openness), lamellae, extinction cross presentation, fissures,
surface topography, pressure facets, border, and margin (see Pagán-
Jiménez, 2015; Pearsall, 2015). We also chose these features because
they are often used in evaluating source of damage to starch (Babot,
2003; Henry et al., 2009) and our consideration will help to refine ex­
pectations of starch presentation as a result of chuño blanco and negro
preparation methods, respectively. All variables were evaluated in
transmitted non-polarized and polarized light.
For each potato specimen tested, fifty starches with excellent visu­
alization and highest focusing accuracy were selected for measurement,
which was conducted in Adobe Illustrator using a consistent scale bar
with 0.1 µm graduations. Length and width were the variables measured
for each selected starch. These variables were chosen because they can
be used to calculate an approximate measure of surface area (length ×
width) for assessing and comparing size of each starch grain. Clustering
of starches was sporadic; nevertheless, only starches with non-
overlapping borders were selected for measurement.
4. Results
4.1. Morphological comparisons
Analysis of the morphological aspects of chuño blanco and chuño
negro starches revealed nuanced differences that can aid in the identi­
fication of each food processing practice. Additionally, comparing
starches produced by these practices revealed similarities that reflect
shared steps in processing. Detailed descriptions of starches affected by
each processing activity are below, followed by discussion of our
M.A. Melton et al.
perceived similarities and differences.
4.1.1. Chuño blanco morphological attributes
Chuño blanco grains are mostly simple, but occasionally compound
with one to two granules attached. Shapes of these grains are atypical for
raw potato starches, representing one morphological aspect likely
modified by preparation activities. They are often more rounded and
irregular in form in comparison to the regularly ovate starches typical of
unaltered Andean potatoes (see Rumold, 2010). Some starches have a
protruded shape along the margin which results in a triangular
appearance (one protrusion) or an undulating margin (many pro­
trusions; Fig. 2, Arrow 1). Alternatively, other starches with irregular
forms are more elongated than expected (see Fig. 2, Arrow 2).
Hila in most examined specimens were visible and open, with a small
opening. These characteristics meet expectations for starch grains from
cultivated potatoes (except for cultivated grains with fissures that pass
through the hilum). Furthermore, all hila are eccentric, indicating that
hilum position is not impacted by chuño blanco preparation activities.
Two types of fissures appear in the assemblage: transverse (very pro­
nounced in appearance and more common) and longitudinal (less
common and present in only 1 of 100 measured starches). The only
longitudinal fissure is ragged in appearance and only extends across
approximately one quarter of the length of the starch.
Lamellae, or concentric rings formed by cylinders and branched
segments of amylopectin (see Bertoft, 2017:3), are visible in nearly all
specimens. Even in bloated (swollen) starches with damaged borders,
the innermost rings of lamellae are still visible. Borders are all single
with no double borders seen, which is typical of cultivated potato
starches. Starch borders are well demarcated in all micrographs, but the
largest starches occasionally have portions of the border (ranging from
about one-eighth to one quarter of the perimeter) that are lighter and
Fig. 2. Chuño blanco starches from (a) Arequipa, Peru and (b) Moquegua, Peru in non-polarized and polarized light. Arrows indicate notable features: (1) triangular
appearance or undulating margin; (2) elongated starches; (3) pressure facets; (4) widened extinction cross; (5) approximately 100-degree bend in extinction cross;
and (6) disfigured extinction cross arms.
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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 34 (2020) 102650
have a more transparent appearance.
Surface topography is unusual in the largest starches, consisting of
greater transparency near the margin of these starches. Occasionally,
raised and depressed areas in the interior (visualized as dark gray and
light gray patches) accompany the greater transparency and lack of
lamellae in these starches. These areas are visible in some starches under
polarized light (Fig. 2, Arrow 3).
Exposure to rotating polarized light typically results in birefringence
(an illuminated appearance) and the appearance of a darkened extinc­
tion cross among cultivated potato starches. In observed chuño blanco
starches, extinction cross arms are typically widened in one direction
(along either the longitudinal or transverse axis) but can also be widened
in various locations instead of exhibiting a unidirectional pattern (Fig. 2,
Arrow 4). Arms remains straight and are neither wavy nor undulating in
nearly all observed specimens. However, one grain in the Moquegua,
Peru assemblage exhibits one arm with an approximately 100-degree
bend (Fig. 2, Arrow 5). A few starches have portions of one or more
arms disfigured in polarized light, likely due to structural damage
incurred during processing (Fig. 2, Arrow 6).
4.1.2. Chuño negro morphological attributes
Chuño negro grains, like those of chuño blanco, are mostly simple but
occasionally compound grains with one to ten or more attached gran­
ules. Grains shapes are round/spherical or elongated ovate. Some
starches have a faded (more transparent) appearance (e.g., Fig. 3), with
characteristics of these so called “faded” starches described in each
section below. These starches are more irregular in shape, with an un­
dulating margin. Margins are undulating in all starches, with various
presentations depending on the number of undulations which directly
affects the overall shape. A few starches have a small number of un­
dulations along the border that result in a squared-off portion or
M.A. Melton et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 34 (2020) 102650

Fig. 3. Chuño negro starches with a faded appearance from (a) Bolivia and (b-d) Arequipa, Peru.

Fig. 4. Chuño negro starches from (a) Bolivia and (b) Arequipa, Peru in non-polarized and polarized light. Arrows indicate notable features: (1) squared-off portion
or triangular projection; (2) x-shaped fissure; (3) pressure facets; (4) undulating shape mirroring bend in extinction cross.

5
M.A. Melton et al.
triangular projection (Fig. 4, Arrow 1).
Hila are visible, eccentric, and slightly open in specimens lacking
fissures as is typical for raw potato starches. Starches that are spherical
in shape have less-eccentric hila than expected, but they are still off-
center enough to not be classified as centric. Faded starches do not
have visible hila. Fissures are rare in the chuño negro assemblage; when
they do appear, they are either x-shaped (1 in 100 measured), transverse
(3 in 100 measured), or longitudinal (1 in 100 measured), extending
across only about one-sixth of the length of the starch (Fig. 4, Arrow 2).
Lamellae range from visible to completely invisible with most spec­
imens having faint lamellae. Faded starches lack any evidence of
lamellae, perhaps due to internal damage. Borders are all single (no
double borders) as is typical in potato starches. However, some borders
are darker than others under non-polarized light; faded starches have
especially faint borders, while the borders of non-faded starches are
easily seen in non-polarized light.
Surface topography in the faded starches is bubbly and uneven, with
depressed and raised areas. Other starches with thicker borders often
have darkened areas that appear in non-polarized light, polarized light,
or both. These areas resemble small shadows or marks on the surface of
the starch (Fig. 4, Arrow 3).
Under polarized light, extinction crosses are visible in all but the
faded starches. Nearly all chuño negro starches (95 percent) have one or
more bent arms with the angle of bend consistent between starches.
Some starches have an undulating shape that mirrors the bend in the
extinction cross (Fig. 4, Arrow 4). One or more extinction cross arms are
occasionally wider approaching the edge, likely due to facets near the
Fig. 5. Diagnostic criteria for determining chuño type.
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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 34 (2020) 102650
border of the starch. Faded starches neither exhibit extinction crosses
nor birefringence when exposed to polarized light.
4.1.3. Diagnostic morphology
Similarities in chuño blanco and chuño negro starch morphology exist,
which we attribute to (1) common exposure to trampling and drying
(albeit under different conditions) and (2) resistance of certain
morphological aspects to damage sources involved in chuño processing.
These similarities include: fissure prevalence and type (occasionally
present; longitudinal, x-shaped, or transverse possibilities, but trans­
verse is the most common; often ragged), unusual shape (irregularly
rounded ovate starches and elongated ovate starches common in both
chuño types), enlarged hila openings, extinction cross arms atypically
wide in any portions, more undulations in margin than expected in a
typical ovate starch, and frequent darkened areas. Those we attribute as
being resistant to chuño processing damage, irrespective of type, include
hilum position (eccentric), single borders, and mostly simple but occa­
sionally compound grains. Clustered and flattened starches, occasionally
present in both assemblages but expectedly more common in the chuño
negro assemblage, are an observed outcome of drying in experimental
trials (Henry et al., 2016).
Differences in chuño blanco and chuño negro morphology offer great
potential to contribute to diagnostic criteria for chuño type identifica­
tion. We found that chuño type could not be ascertained based on one
morphological variable alone (e.g., lamellae visibility, birefringence).
Instead, identification of chuño type is best pursued through evaluating a
candidate potato starch with respect to several potentially diagnostic
M.A. Melton et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 34 (2020) 102650

variables, each with its own set of criteria (Fig. 5). Using stand-alone statistical model posed by the null hypothesis that the sample mean
variables rather than a progressive format or yes/no decision tree al­ distance between the two groups would equal or exceed its observed
lows for the evaluation of fragmentary or highly damaged starches, value (Wassertein et al., 2016:131), that can be considered with respect
which are particularly common in archaeological starch residues. to the α significance threshold. P-value should not be understood as a
Although morphological evaluation provides a reasonable starting point metric for proving an alternative hypothesis (e.g., chuño blanco and
for considering identification of starch to chuño type, size differences chuño negro populations have distinct mean lengths; see Wassertein
between chuño blanco and chuño negro specimens are notable, necessi­ et al., 2016), but instead as one line of evidence with which to further
tating systematic comparison. evaluate the robusticity of patterning that, in our case, we initially
observed qualitatively during analysis of starch morphology.
We conducted two-sample t-tests of length, width, and surface area
4.2. Statistical comparisons
comparing chuño negro and chuño blanco populations. Tests of both
length and width produced probabilities of p < 0.0001, far below the
Size metrics used in this study include length, width, and surface area
commonly accepted threshold of p < 0.05 (Fig. 6). We decided to run an
(length × width). Considering 200 starches (100 of each chuño type, 50
additional t-test of surface area to further evaluate size along both axes;
from each population), we began by calculating basic statistics
this test also produced a probability value of p < 0.0001 (Fig. 7). These
(Table 1). Mean length, width, and surface area values for each study
results provide statistically-significant evidence of size differences be­
population far exceed those reported for raw Andean potatoes and
tween chuño negro and chuño blanco populations that, when considered
twenty North American Solanum cultivars. We also found chuño blanco
in context with observations at the microscope and patterning in basic
starches to have higher mean and median length values and higher mean
statistical measures, support the hypotheses that (1) chuño starches
and median width values in comparison to chuño negro starches. In terms
differ in size according to type and (2) chuño blanco starches typically
of inter-assemblage patterning, the Arequipa chuño blanco starches have
have larger lengths, widths, and surface areas than chuño negro starches.
higher mean length and width values than the Moquegua assemblage.
Chuño negro starches from Arequipa have mean lengths and widths that
5. Discussion
are more consistent with the corresponding assemblage from Bolivia.
Greater variability in length and width values between the two chuño
Outcomes of the current study align well with expectations in
blanco populations (than between the two chuño negro populations) is
changes to starch grain morphology based on processing practices. Both
likely due to the variable extents to which rehydration, a practice that is
types of chuño are subject to initial overnight dehydration with exposure
unique to chuño blanco preparation, alters starch dimensions.
to freezing temperatures, trampling (or treading), and additional
To assess the statistical significance of size differences between chuño
dehydration during the day. Chuño blanco is placed under blankets
blanco and chuño negro starches, we compared starch metrics using
during the additional dehydration step and subject to rehydration
several two-sample t-tests. The two-sample t-test is a hypothesis test
through washing, while chuño negro potatoes are exposed to sunlight
used to compare the means of two populations to evaluate the strength
during additional dehydration and not rehydrated. This paper presents a
of the null hypothesis that the means are the same. Significance, or the
set of criteria that offers opportunities to interpret the diagnostic sig­
maximum probability that the test statistic falls into a region where the
natures of each of these processes on archaeological and modern starch
null hypothesis can be rejected, is commonly accepted in the social and
grains.
biological sciences to be α = 0.05 (Johnson, 2013). Each two-sample t-
The series of dehydration and rehydration episodes involved in chuño
test produces a p-value, or the probability based on the specific

Table 1
Basic Statistics for Chuño Starch Measurements.
Current Study Comparative Assemblages

Measure Chuño Blanco Chuño Blanco All Chuño Chuño Negro Chuño All Chuño Solanum sp. Solanum tuberosum Twenty
(Moquegua, (Arequipa, Blanco (Arequipa, Negro Negro Paula; Andean ssp. Andigenum, Solanum spp.
Peru) Peru) Peru) (Bolivia) cultivara Andean cultivara cultivarsb

Count 50 50 100 50 50 100 50 50 800(40/

cultivar)
Length (µm)
Minimum 19.90 45.00 19.9 26.5 8.30 8.30 12 3 –
Maximum 92.00 106.00 106.00 59.9 71.00 71.00 75 46 –
Median 40.10 81.95 65.05 40.05 41.55 41.20 – – –
Mean 47.744 79.46 63.60 41.75 41.60 41.68 40.5 25 35.1
Standard 20.59 17.12 24.68 8.54 16.04 12.78 – – 1.72
Deviation
Width (µm)
Minimum 17.50 31.00 17.5 9.1 6.50 6.50 – – –
Maximum 64.10 68.00 68.00 35.7 46.30 46.30 – – –
Median 28.15 47.80 40.05 26.00 28.00 26.650 – – –
Mean 33.09 48.15 40.62 26.89 27.22 27.053 – – 25.4
Standard 13.64 9.92 14.07 4.97 8.34 6.85 – – 1.22
Deviation
Surface Area
(µm)
Minimum 358.2 1419.8 358.2 475.93 53.95 53.95 – – –
Maximum 5888 6582.6 6582.6 2000.66 3287.3 3287.3 – – –
Median 1179.68 4077.01 2466.88 1053.9 1149.4 1080.45 – – –
Mean 1845.58 3964.12 2904.85 1145.26 1237.62 1191.44 – – 704
Standard 1604.98 1496.96 1875.49 399.08 760.28 605.86 – – 66.25
Deviation
a
Rumold, 2010.
b
Fajardo et al., 2013.

7
M.A. Melton et al.
Fig. 6. Two-Sample T-Test of length (a) and width (b) for chuño starches.
Fig. 7. Two-Sample T-Test of surface area for chuño starches.
blanco processing likely produced the observed alterations in interior
surface topography in chuño blanco starches (raised and depressed areas,
greater transparency near the margin) as these events can produce
changes in the pseudo-crystalline structure of starch and alter starch
grain shape. Indeed, freeze drying has been shown to uniquely disturb
the surface morphology of potato starches on a molecular level, whereas
starches such as maize are less affected (Zhang et al., 2014). Effects of
rehydration may have been most extreme in the largest chuño blanco
starches, resulting in a breakdown of portions of the border and an in­
crease in surface area as the starch swelled. More intense dehydration at
higher temperatures (due to direct sunlight exposure) in chuño negro
starches uniquely altered their crystalline structure in different ways,
8
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 34 (2020) 102650
producing their faded and bubbled interior appearance, greater trans­
parency, faint borders, and creating a distinctive bend in extinction
crosses (see Henry et al., 2009 for images of starches subjected to
dehydration). Our new finding of a diagnostic bend in the extinction
crosses of nearly all chuño negro starches (95 percent) in multiple pop­
ulations from different countries was surprising, but it also reinforces
the notion that similar processes can produce similar outcomes even in
slightly different potato varieties. Like dehydration/rehydration, phys­
ical damage due to trampling can produce certain changes to starches, in
this case likely affecting shape, cracks along borders, and perhaps the
widening of extinction crosses in many specimens of each chuño type.
Grinding commonly results in widened extinction cross arms and addi­
tional fissures radiating from the center, producing a starburst-like
shape, but the outcome of physical damage might be expected to be
less intense in trampled potatoes because there is less direct pressure or
force applied to the individual starch grains. The effect of physical
damage on the extinction cross may also be lessened by additional
freeze-drying (both chuño types) or rehydration following physical
damage (chuño blanco only).
Foundational research by Babot (2003) and Rumold (2010) is pro­
ductively enhanced by the current study. Babot (2003:74) recognized
that several chuño grains had a flat relief and were “scarcely visible,”
specifically chuño negro grains. We classify these starches as faded
starches, further rounding out the criteria for their identification.
However, we also identified that chuño blanco starches can have greater
transparency along the borders. Thus, we agree with Babot in that both
types appear to become more transparent as a result of processing but
have also found differences by type in the (1) areas that are transparent;
and (2) specific textural changes that contribute to a flatter relief in the
interior. Our study and Babot’s (2003) both recognized the incidence of
fissures and lack of lamellae in chuño starches with our study revealing
that these features are not present in all chuño starches, even those of the
same type. Hilum enlargement, often resulting in a large vacuole, can be
a result of the freeze-drying process but further research needs to be
done to understand the vacuole diameters that are expected from freeze-
drying versus other processes (e.g., grinding, enzymatic damage). We
recognized large vacuoles in both chuño types and observations by Babot
(2003) and Rumold (2010) support our findings. Other possible effects
of the freeze-drying process (e.g., fissuring) are difficult to attribute to
M.A. Melton et al.
freeze-drying alone as physical damage or swelling due to rehydration
(in chuño blanco starches) may also cause internal disruption resulting in
one or more fissures.
Recent studies have used starch grains to identify the early origins of
potato gathering and cultivation in the Andes and elsewhere (see Herzog
et al., 2018; Louderback and Pavlik, 2017; Rumold and Aldenderfer,
2016). Indeed, current research points to the Peruvian and Bolivian
highlands surrounding the Titicaca Basin as the center of origin for
potato domestication (Hardigan et al., 2017; Rumold and Aldenderfer,
2016; Spooner et al., 2005). The identification of chuño types in the
starch record thus provides an opportunity to better understand the
timing of and specific processing steps contributing to potato domesti­
cation. Detoxifying wild potatoes by removing glycoalkaloids would
have been a critical step in early domestication efforts (Johns, 1996;
Johns and Alonso, 1990). The recovery of chuño blanco and/or chuño
negro starches from cooking and processing equipment dating to the
transition from hunting and gathering to cultivation (e.g., groundstone
artifacts and pottery) could serve as evidence for the timing and loca­
tions of potato domestication vis-à-vis early efforts to make potatoes
edible.
The ability to distinguish between chuño blanco and chuño negro
starch grains also has implications for investigating the antiquity and
spread of each of these distinct processing methods that are central to
modern and ancient Andean cuisine. It is presently unclear which va­
riety of chuño was produced first, and how knowledge of these pro­
duction methods spread across the Andean landscape. The ability to
determine whether a potato has been transformed into chuño blanco or
chuño negro allows analysts to identify early locations of the develop­
ment of these distinct practices and investigate how they may have
changed over time. The immense number of potato cultivars, regional
preferences for varieties, and differences in their names and uses today
(Brush, 1982; Brush et al., 1981; Mamani, 1981; Weismantel, 1988)
suggests such diversity in the distribution of chuño and knowledge of its
production methods would have existed in the past. The potential to
identify these preservation/detoxification methods over time and space
can thus contribute to explorations of changes in food processing tech­
niques, cuisine, and taste in the past.
Detection of chuño types in the archaeological record has great po­
tential to aid in investigating the potential cultural, economic, and
ecological significance of different chuño processing strategies within
Andean exchange systems. Anthropologists and archaeologists have
identified vertical relationships in the past and present that contribute to
reciprocal networks of exchange through ayllus, groups of people with a
common identity who share kinship, ritual, language, and production
practices (Aldenderfer and Stanish, 1993; Blom et al., 1998; Hastorf
et al., 2006; Janusek, 2004; Murra, 1972; Stanish, 1992a, 1992b). We
propose that our criteria for identifying chuño types in the starch record
offer another approach to investigating vertical exchange in the Andes.
The identification of chuño in artifact residues from archaeological sites
in the low and middle valley areas of the Andes would reflect trade
connections between highland communities and more distant commu­
nities in other ecological zones and could possibly represent ayllu net­
works. These social and economic ties could be traced spatially and
temporally in the past through the determination of chuño type in
archaeological starches. Perhaps some ayllus preferentially processed
chuño blanco over chuño negro, or possibly preferred one type for certain
dishes over others; these differences can now be detected
archaeologically.
6. Conclusions
Our study has produced data-driven criteria for identifying chuño,
and distinguishing chuño types from starch grains, which can be
recovered from artifacts and samples from archaeological contexts. The
identification of chuño types in archaeological assemblages provides
opportunities for gaining new insights into our understandings of the
9
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 34 (2020) 102650
origins of potato domestication, development and spread of food pro­
cessing techniques, and indigenous foodways of the Andean past. Dif­
ferentiation of chuño blanco and chuño negro in the archaeological record
has great potential to spark new investigations into the cultural and/or
economic significance of different chuño types, helping to parse webs of
interaction and differences between indigenous and imperial cuisines.
Diagnostic signatures of traditional practices can be observed via
detailed analysis of starch grains, helping to reconstruct foodways of the
Andean past.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Mallory A. Melton: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation,
Formal analysis, Investigation, Supervision, Visualization, Project
administration, Funding acquisition, Resources, Data curation, Writing -
original draft, Writing - review & editing. Matthew E. Biwer: Concep­
tualization, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Rita
Panjarjian: Investigation, Visualization.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
Funding: This work was supported by a National Science Foundation
Graduate Student Research Fellowship (Grant # 1650114) and the
Department of Anthropology at the University of California, Santa
Barbara.
We are grateful to two anonymous reviewers who provided
constructive feedback on an earlier version of this manuscript. Ruth
Dickau provided invaluable feedback on study design and graciously
commented on an early draft. We would like to thank Amber VanDer­
warker for her steadfast support and providing the facilities used to
conduct this research. We would also like to thank Matthew LoBiondo
for his help in taking/editing photographs for Fig. 1. Finally, we owe an
immense debt of gratitude to Christine Hastorf, Matt Sitek, and Sonia
Zarrillo for their contributions of modern chuño specimens, without
which this research would not have been possible.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102650.
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