Crete Cer) CCrEESe Cees DREErro CertrdGuide for the Design of Fire Resistant Barriers and Structures ISBN: 0.9577-638.59 This publication is copyright. No part may be reproduced by amy process except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act £968, © Copyright Building Control Commission 2000 Published and printed in Melbourne, Victoria Copyright / Contact Information Worrington Fire Research (Aust) Pty Lid PO Box 4282 Dandenong South Vietoria 3164 Ph +61 3.9793 0088 Fex +61 39793 0111 waw.wfra.com.au Building Control Commission Level 27, Casselden Place 2 Lonsdale Sirees Melbourne Victoria 3000 Ph Hit 3.9285 6479 Fax +61 3 9285 6432 wow buildee.com.au Disclaimer No warranty of accuracy ot selizhility as to such information is given and no esponsibility for loss arising in any way from or in connection with the use of, cxrors or omissions in any information provided (including responsibility to any person by reason of negligence) is accepted by Warrington Fire Research (Aust) Pty Ltd or the Building Control Commission or their agents or employees. Acknowledgment Dr. LD. Bennetts, formerly of BHP Rescarch, Melbourne Laboratories and currently of Vicloria University of Technotogy for reviewing the document.Guide for the Design of Fire Resistant Barriers and Structures By J.P. England, S.A. Young, M.C. Hui & N. KurbanChapter #:Windows & Glazed Openings the temperature rise ut ary point on the unexposed side of the glazing exceeds 180 K from the initial temperature. Inthe fire resistance test, (he radiant heat flux emilicd by the specimen is ameasured to provide data for an estimate of safe distance for the location of combustible materials from a protected opening, however the radiant heat dlux daia is not used to determine the fire resistance of the window. a4 Fire Engineered Design for Protected Windows O44 General Apart from windows that have been tested in the Standard Fire Resistance Test to obiain the required FRL. the BCA permits windows that ar autornatic or Permanently fixed! in the closed position to be protecied with wall-wetting sprinklers, and dooms that to be equivalent to a window thal has an FRL uf -/60/-. The BCA however dees not provide guidance on the selection of glazing and details of the sprinkle: system, both of which will significantly affect the performance of tho protected windows, This section attempts to fill the geps by providing relevant information. 9.4.2 Performance of unprotected glass products in fire Glass breaks in fires due to thermal stress from differential heating, which could lead to two types of thermal stresses, i.e. inembrane and beading. Membrane stresses are produced by the temperanure variation over the glass surface, and hending stresses are produced by the temperalure variation across the thickness of the glass pane. It has been idcatified that edge protected glass has a much higher probability than cage unprotected glass of breaking in a fire (Skelly ef ai 1991), This is because th frame of the glass will shicld the edges fom exposure to the convective and radiative hoat fax from the fire, causing a relatively high temperature difference between the protected part and the exposed part of the glass. This, in tun, induces a membrane stress on the glass surface, Different types of gluss products exhibit a wide range of properties when exposed (o radiant beat. The results from small-scale tests (Kim and Taber 1989) that wore carticd out at the National Research Comneil of Canada (NRCC) are summarised in Table 9.1 Page 173,Chapier 9:Winciaws & Glaced Openings Table 9.1: Maximum tomperstures of gless at failure (small-scslc tests) Glass type Radiation Failure ‘Temperatures °C) Exposure time Fire exposed | Onexposed (W/m?) side side Plain Float Glass 10 = omin, 160) 140 Plain Float Glass 40. “Ain, 150-175 _| 75-150 Heat strengthened a3 Ne faihare at 20 350 0 in, ‘Toughened 43 | Ne failure at 20 350 30 (Tempered) niin. The test results above indicate that toughened and heat strengthened glass withstand ¢ muctrhigher radiation hoat flux and surface temperature than plain glass without failure, Ina compartment fire, the glass will be largely subjected to convective heat rather than radiant heat in the developing phase of the firc, The experimental work cattied out by Skelly and others Skelly ef ai, 1991) involved edge protected and edge-unprotected plaia glass windows that were mounted at the high level of a small scale enclosure and fully immersed in the upper hot gas layer within the first 10 seconds of the experiments. Tn the experiments, the fires were created by buming figuid hexane contained in aluminium tays of various sizes, ie. 20 em x 300m, 20cm x 20 em, 16 em x 20.em, and 20 cm diameter, and with a depth of hexane from 3 em to 5 om. he experimental results indicated that the edge-protected plain glass windows collapsed in all eases where there was glass breckage, with considerable cracking and numerous bifurcations with the collapses resulting from the cracks joining together, and with the cracks bifurcated at a short distance from the original crack and moved off at sharp angles. 1t wes reported that in the majority of ihe cases, ‘mere than half of the window was removed from the frame. ‘The average temperature difference on the glass at the time of breakage was measured to be 90 °C, with the average centre temperature being 123 °C and the average edge temperature being 33°C. he ecge-unprotected windows on the other hand did nol have catastrophicChapter 9: Windows & Glazed Openings A series af some fifty experiments were carricd out in 1992 (Sileock and Shields, 1993) on a bal scale compartment having a large window designed fo yield a two zone fire environment typical of slowly developing. fires, for both fimited and restricted initial ventilation conditions (partially open docr/clased door conditions), The fire used in the experiments was created from burning wood cribs; the fire load density was 20 - 30 kg/m? of cellulosic fuel, which was claimed to represent a typical fire load found in domestic dwellings, The test results (Sileack and Shields, 1993) indicated that the cracks were initiated in the upper half sheded sections of the glazing elements tested, as expected; the overall pattern of the cracks was found to be similar to that repoticd in (Skelly ef af, 1991); the temperature distribution on the glass panes was not uniform; most glass pancs remained in place for at least 15 minutes after the initial crack formed; and when the glazing failed, it was not always the case that the whole glass pane collapsed. 9.4.2 Perlormance of protected glass products in fire ‘The performance of glass products in fire can be enhanced if the glass products «are appropriately protected, for example by water spray. The concept of protecting glazed openings with water is not new. ‘The first of such studies in Australie appear lo have busn carricd out back in the ainctesn seveatics to investigete the effectiveness of water spray from drenchers ta protect external glass windows that are subjected to radiant heat from fire in an adjacent property (Moulen and Grubits, 1975). That study however did nol include sullicient data to permit the derivation of design criteria for general usage. Ya general, there is 2 potential for the heated glass to break when it is being sprayed with water, and a qualitative description of the phenomenon is given as follows. Prior to the water spray, the temperature on the Lite-exposed side of the ‘lass will be higher than that on the unexposed side. Soon after the water spray is applied on the glass surface, the temperature of the fire-cxposed face of the glass may drop considerably within a relatively short period of time, reversing the temperature difference between the exposed side and the unexposed side. ‘There ate two glass breakage mechanisms afier the water spray has been applied; firetly the quenching effec: of the water spray could induce a temporal as well as spatial thermal shock to the glass, resulting in excessive membrane stress, and secondly the reversed temperamure difference mey exceed the maximum temperature difference that could be sustained by the giass (re‘or to Table 9.1), resulting in excessive bending stress. Ther: arc three critical paramviers hal could affect the perfosmaace of glass Products when protected with water spray, i. (a) the type of glass products being Protected and the support details of the glass, (b) the time of application of the Page 175Chapter 9:Windoves & Glazed Openings water spray, and (¢) the coverage of the water spray-on the surface of the glass These are further examined below. A sories of small-scale tesis were carried out to determine the temperature range at which various types of glass break with the thermal shock ofa water spray. The results as reported in (Kim and Taber, 1989) are summarised in Table 9.2 below: Table 9.2; Maximum iemperstures of glass at failure when subjected to water spray (small-scale tests) Glass type Maxiraum glass temperatures to withstand water spray Co Fire exposed side Cnexpased side Plain _ 80.90 <7 ‘Heat strengthened 150-165 130-150 “Tempered = 200) <170 ‘The resolits in Table 92 above indicate that plain gless is net suitable for protection by water spray unloss it can be assured that the application of the spray will commence ata very early stage and there is constantly a film of water flowing over the surface of the plain glass. On the other hand, heat stvengthened glass and toughened glass have been demonstrated (o be able to withstand a standard fire-temperaturc exposure similar to that arescribed in AS15304 for more than one hour (Richardson and Oleszkiewicr, 1987), provided the glazed assembly is arranged to allow for expansion of the glass, is protected by a dedicated sidewall sprinkler located beneath the top of the glazing, and the water flow rete from the sprinkler exceeds the critical value at which dry spots on the glass surface oceur. The maximum size of the exposed glass considered in (Richardson and Oleszkicwicz, 1987) was dimited to 1.67 m wide x 2.59 m high. Similar results were obtained in another series of fire tests (Kim and Lougheed, 1990) where double-gtazed windows with heat-strengthened and tempered glass panes When protected with a dedicated sidewall sprinkler a! the centre of cach glass pane close to the window head withstood the standard firo-temperature exposure for up to two hours, provided a sufficiently high flow rate from the sprinkler is achieved, The mzxinmum size of the exposed glass considered in (Kim and Lougheed, 1990) was limited to 2.1 m wide x 2.821 high, In buildings, the actuation time of automatic sprinklers in real building fires is expected to be slower than that in fire tests employing a stendard fire-iemperstuce heating regime, as most building fires will have an incipient fire growth phase With a large compartment fire located away from the plazing thal is to be protected, the air remperature could rise sufiiciently rapidly to activate sprinklers before excessive stresses are produced in the heat sengthened and toughened Page 176Chapter @-Windoves & Clazed Openings glass, however a small fire with the flame ditectly adjacent to the glazing can result in excessive localised stress to shaller the glazing before 2 ceiling-mounied sprinkler activates (Kim and Taber, 1989 and Beason, 1986}. In the latter casc, the test regults im (Kim and Taber, 1989) indicate thet only fast response sprinklers” located directly above the fire and close to the glazing will activate fast ‘enough to protect heat strengthened glass, and for toughened glass, fast response sprinklers located within 2 750 mm radius of the small fire would be required to have satisfactory performence. The location of the sprinkler with respoet to the fire is nol the only parameter that ‘would affeet the response time of the sprinkler. In the case of a wide glazed assembly bsing protecied with multiple sprinklers, the activation times of the second and subsequent sprinklers may be adversely affected by the spray fiom the adjacent operated sprinkler. This phenomenon is commonly known as ‘cold soldering of sprinklers’ Fora wide glazed assembly, the spray of single sprinkler will not be able to cover the entire surtace of the assembly and the temperature of the dry glazing will continue to rise. When there is a sigaificant delay ia the activation of subsequentsprinklers, the glazing may shatter due te the thermal shock inducest by the water spray onto the “overheated” glass. Based on the resulls from a series of fire tests (Kim, 1993), it can be suggested that in order to avoid the occurrence of significant delays in the activation of sprinklers protecting a wide glazed assembly, the sprinklers must be spaced at least 2 m apart providing the orientation of these sprinklers is directed toward the glazing rather wo cach other, or a mullion of at least 50 mm deep is employed to prevent the water spray from one sprinkler affecting the others, while the sprinklers ere installed with their deflectors at 12 mm from the glass surface, The extent of water spray coverage on the glass surface is also critical to the performance of the giazing system, as the development of dry spots on the glass surface may eventually result in excessive membrane stress an the glass and couse glass failure. There are several factors that could affect the water spray coverage on the glass surface, these are identified es fellows: (@ Sptay pattern of tho sprinkter (2) Discharge pressure at the sprinkler 2 Fast response sprinklers i¢ defined term in ASAI 1841-1996 and ISO6189-121984, ant is tefered(o those sprinklers that, woen ested inte Sanda (most faveutabie) oienation have & respons time index (RTI) pot move than $0 ms“ and agonespondizg conduetviy falar (C) of aot more thon ©", ora RTH oot more han 3 2" und a erresponding Cfsor af not more than 2.0 "7s, When (ested i the most unfavourable orientation, fis response sprinkles shall have an RTT not exceeding 125 m'*<", with ¢ comespondig C-faetor net excecding 20 mie”, Page 177Chapter 9: Windows & Glesed Openings: (©) Width of gless protected by each sprinkler (d) Location of he sprinkler with respect to the protected glass areca (©) Teatures on the protected glass surface (Orientation of the protected glass surface Factors () to (¢), and to a certain extent (d), arc inter-telated. The general spray pattern of peadeat type sprinklers resembles that of a half hemisphere, and is not suitable for protecting glazed assermblies because there will be large dry arces at the top comers of the assemblies. The general spray pattern of sidewall sprinklers is such that the water spray will travel approximately horizontally for a finite distance afer leaving the sprinkler deflector before dropping off. ‘The maximum horizontal portion of the spray pattern therefore limits the maximum width of glazing that can he protected by a single sidewall sprinkler if dry spots at the upper comers are to be avoided. Generally inereasing the discharge pressure at the sprinkler can enlarge the extent of the horizontal spray, however it appeurs there is an upper limit of discharge pressure above which the spray paticrn will contract rather than enlarge (Fleming, 1991). Also, there is a potential for the sprinkler to start misting when the discharge pressure is too high. With respect to factor (d), apart from Uhe horizontal distance between the sprinkler aad the glass sutface, which will determine if the spray pattern will wet the entire surface of the glass, the vertical distance of the sprinkler from the glazing is also important. This is particularly the case when the top of the glazing assembly is not flush with the cciling, and ceiling-mounted sprinklers, rather than sprinklers, located at the head of the glazing, are employed for aesthetics reasons. In the case of protecting the glazing with ceiling-mounted sprinklers, there are thrce parameters that could affect the sprinkler water spray onto the glazing surface, ie. the window sill depth (the depth of the top frame), the distance of the sprinkler above the top of the fiame, aud the horizontal distance of the sprinler fiom the glazing. The results from full scale fire tests (Kim, 1995) indicate that in principle a eeiling-mounted fast resporse sprinkler located ala maximum of 300 uit zway Irom the glazing surface and at a maximum of 300 mm above the top of the glazing that has a maximum sill depth of 100 mm could provide sufficient protection for a tempered glass window with a maxinmum width of up to 2.6m lor at least 1 hour when subjected to a standard fire-temperature heating regime, however the exact parameters for designing the sprinkler system are required 10 be determined from fire tests on a case by case basis. Factor (¢) relates to the presence of features including intermediate horizontal transoms, dust, grease, and other materials such as posters and signage on the glass surface. Intermediate horizontal transoms will prevent the formutivn of a ‘eontiquous water film on the ertire glass surface snd coutd lead to significantly lenge dry areas on the lower glass panes, potentially resulting in glass failure. The Page (78Chipter 0:-Windows & Glazed Openings presence of dust, greuse, posters etc, on the glass surface could significantly ptomote the bifurcation of the water that runs down on the surface of the glass, creating dry areas and consequently causing glass failure For factor ()), on some occasions, the glazing to be protected may not be in the exactly vertical orientation. Where the boltorn of the glazing slopes toward the sprinklec, the orientation of the glazing will assist in die run down of the water film, however if the bortom of the glazing slopes away from the sprinkler, the water flow will not be able to form a water film on the glass surface, and the extent of wetting of the glass will entirely depend on the trajectories of water droplets discharging from the sprinkler, The test results presented above indicete that a toughened or heat strengthened glazed assembly when protected by an appropriate sprinkler system can maintain its integrily for a significant period of time. ‘This will be useful in applications where the glazed assembly forms part of fie and smoke compartmentation in buildings Jn the situation where the glazed assembly fons part of the extemal envelope ofa building, the glazed assembly nay be required 10 prevent fire spread from adjacent fire source features. Maintenance of the integrity of the glazed assembly is considered to have minimised the probability of fire spread from relatively small and light ‘lying brands, however fire spread frurn adjacent buildings may Mill be possible with neu-piloted ignition by radiant heat flux through the glazing. The heat flux measurements through four different types of single sheet plass, ic. clear plate glass, Georgian wired ylass, grey heat-absorbing glass and tempered glass, reported in (Moulen and Grubits, 1975) indicate that the glazing alone can absorb approximately 35 percent to 45 percent of the tested incident radiant heat lux, regardless of the glass type, and if there is a continuous water film on the glass surface, the radiant heat flux absorbed could be up to 90 percent (0 94 percent of the tested incident radiant heat flux. ‘The radiation transmitted through two sealed double-glazed windows with heat strengthened glass inner and outer panes reported in (Kim and Lougheed, 1990) indicate that the double glazing alone could absorb more than 90 perent of the tested incident radient heat fluy, and if there is a continuous water film on the alass surface, the radiant heat flux absorbed could be up to 99,7 percent of the tested incident radient heat flux. The scenario of an extemal glazing exposing to a fire plume was also studied. ‘The test results (Kim et al, 1998) indicate that with a fire plume within 1 m of the facade that would impose a radiant heat flux of 15 kW/m’, 30 kW/m? and 45 kW/m? at 2.5m, 1.5m and 0.5 m above the glazing respectively, simulating the exposure of an upper window from a flame projecting through a broken window bclow, effective protection can be provided by the water spray from an extemally Page 179Chapier 9: Windows & Glazed Openiags ‘mounted sidewall sprinkler head located at the bead of the tempered glazing and with a discharge pressure of 172 kPa, Where the sprinkler offering the protection to the glazing ‘s located on the unexposed side of the tempered glazing, effective protection to the glazing can only be provided if the internal sprinkler is activeted by a heat detection system mounted exterior to the glazing. For (he scenario of au external glizing exposing to an exterior radiant heat lux, the study (Kim ¢ af, 1998) concluded that a ceiling-moonted internal sprinkler could provide effective protection for a low level of external madiaul exposure (12.5 kW? at the glazing) if the sprinkler is activated by 2 heat detection system mounted exterior fo the glazing. However it would not provide eflective protcetion for a high devel of radiant exposure (25 kW/mé at the glazing). 9.4.3 Prediction of glass breakage In an caciosure fire, the growth and development of the fire may be affected by the amount of oxygen that is available for combustion under certain conditions. Where there are glazed assemblies in the enelosure, the time and mode of breakage of the glass could play a critical role in determining if the fire will proceed to the flashover stage or not. ‘The research literature that have boon reviewed indicate that the breakage of glass (cracking) could be predicted if the temperature difference between the exposed and the unexposed portion of the glass reaches a critical value that is related to the physical and thermal properties of the glass invelved, This can be éescribed by the relationship’ ara G1) Where AT — critical temperature difference between the exposcd andChopier 2: Winches & Glazed Openings Table 9.3: Reported window glass properties and celeulated critical temperature difference at breakage (Pagni and Joshi, 1991) fad’ K} | oxt0 vim | Bao CN | Swain=oye Coy | STIR) | 85-95 20-13.8 [70-74 0.03 - 0.19 30-220 Pagni and Joshi noted that the relutively large range of values is due to the uncertainty in the tensite stress «, at breakage Asa first approximation, the conventional assumption that windows break (ie. the initial cracking) when the hot layer gas temperature reaches 260 to 380 °C is considered to be reasonable (Pagani and Joshi, 1991), Ifa more accursie estimate on the time of glass breakage is required, the stress level on the glass needs to be determined. This requires the teraperature history of the glass be estimated by considering convective and radiative heat transfer from the hot layer ander from the flame of the fire onto the glass, and conductive heat teansfer in the glass. There arc at present no fite engineering tools available (o estimate the time that the broken window will fall cur although it was stated that froma field experience broken windows frequently fall out (Mowrer, 1998). 9.4.4 Design and maintenance of water spray protected glazing system Based on the test data and thcoreiical considerations presented above, the goneral paramcters for the design of water spray proiected wlazing system can be summarised as follows, a schematic is shown in Pigure 9.4. It should however be noted that these parameters are for generat guidance only and may not be the only design parameters, The fire safety enginecr is required to determine the design requirements on a case by case basis. Page 181Chapter 9: Windows & Glazed Openings Ceoling of lazing eT ySirikler Spray, rotective water film forms and rons down glazal element to transfer heat away Ghhzed opening Inclined surtace ‘a discourage storage on pony val Pony wall a" Figure 9.4: Schematic of Glazed Opening Protected with Wall Wetting Sprinklers (a) Glazing Assembly Glazing details: ‘The glass material should be tempered glass or heat strengthened glass. Laminated glazed assemblies using normal plate glass are not suitable to be protected with water spray. Allowance should be made for the expansion of the glass. Installing flexible reals between the head/bottom of the glass and the frame normally provides this. ‘The width of the glass pane should be compatible with the spray pattern of the sprinklers employed so that o dry spots will appear on the glass. ‘The maximum height of the pane should generally nat exceed 3.5m as biluration of water film may occur when the water mn cows distance is more than 3.5m. ‘There should be no intermediate horizontell transoms on each glass pane, as the transoms will prevent water run down ta the tower panes. Grease, dust, or forcign materials should not be present on the glass surface, as these will promote bifireation of the water film run down, Page 182Chapter 9: Windows & Glazed Openings fii) Frame details: Frame should be of alursininm or siech construction, Where multiple sprinklers are provided for protection of a wide glazed assembly, vertical muliions of a sufficient depth to prevent the waler spray from one sprinkler affecting the other adjacent sprinklers should be provided i the sprinklers are spaced less than 2m from cach ether, Linless it oan be assured that there will be no possibility of an occurrence ofa localised fire adjacent to the glazing, the frame should be supported at the floor level by a pony wall of at least 910mm high and af sufficient depth so that the face of the glazing will be at least 50mm away from the face of the pony wall on the corresponding side. (b) Wall wetting sprinkler system details () Sprinkler characteristics Sprinklers should be of sidewall fast reepense type, generally with 68°C or 74°C temperature raling. ‘The minimum discharge pressute and flow at the sprinkler should be such that the spray pattern and the wator film run down will not ercate ry spots on the entire surface of the glass. fil) Sprinkler location ‘The centreline of sprinkler deflectors should be 32mm to 30mm below the lower surface of the top window frame member, and be 12 to 16mm from the gles. (ii) Water supply The water supply reticulation pipework to the wall wetting sprinkler system should be separate from thet (0 the general sprinkler systems for the building. The reason being that if the general sprinkler system fails to operate, the drencher system has am increased chance of operating and snaiataining the fire separation barrier. Each system should be provided with an independent stop valve for meintenance and testing purposes. The stop valve should be monitored and its status should be indicated sither on control panel or in a conspicuous position to annunciate unauthorised closure. Notices and management procedures should be putin place to ensure that the wal) wetting sprinkler system and gereral building sprinkler eystems are not simuttancuusly unavailable. Page 183,Chapter 9:Windows & Glaed Openings The number of operating wall wetting sprinklers should be determined from the following procedure: (a) Establish the maxirmum number of wall wetting sprinklers in a fire compartment. (b) Assume all wall wetting sprinklers in the fire compartment operate sirnullineously. {e) The total water supply requirements should be equal to the sum of thet required for the building general sprinkler system and for the wall welling spriakles in the same fire compartment. fix} Testing facilities Adequate testing facilities including end of Jine test valves, tapping points for pressure gauges and flow measuring devices, and drainage facilities should be permanently provided on the wall wetting sprinkler system pipework at suitable locations to allow for proving the water supply to the wall wetting sprinklers. Sole reliance on the testing facilitics at the sprinkler control valve is not considered to be adequate. (© Maintenance of the wall wetting sprinkler system ‘Rouline inspection and maintenance to AS1851.3 requirements should be carried out, Additional attention should be paid to the location, orientation, and condition (c.g. if the heat sensing element has been painted over) of the sprinkler heads to ensure that they have not been altered after the final commissioning. Any alteration of the room layout that could affect the sprinkler operation should be subject to an assessment by a porsen of company wha is proficient in the design of water spray protected glazing system. (a) Maintenance of the glazing assembly Routine inspection should be carried cut to the glazing assembly to ensure the glazing 's relatively dust and grease free vith no foreign materials such as notices, stickers cte. afiised onto or hanging in front of it and the framing is not subjected to undue stresses, Replecement glazing should be fitted in accordance with the original design: Page 184Chapter B:References 13 References AS 1170.1, “Minimum design loads on structures — Dead and live load and load combinations”, 1989, Standards Australia AS1288-1994, “Glass in buildings — Selection and installation”, 1994, Standards Australia AS 13304-1997, "Methods for fire tests on building materials, components and structures Past 4: Fire-resistance tests of elements of building construction”, 1997, Standards Australia AS/NZS 1530.7-1998, “Methods for fire tests on building materia's, components and structures, Part 7: Smoke coatrol door and shutter assemblies-Ambient and medium temperature leakage test procedure”, 1998, Standards Australia ASINZS 1668.1-1998, “The use of ventilation and airconditioning in buildings — Fire and smoke control in multi-compartment buildings”, 1998, Standards Australia AS]670.1-1995, “Fire detection, warning, control and intercom systems ~ Systera design, installation and commissioning — Fire”, 1995, Standards Australia AS1682.1-1990, ire dampers — specification”, 1990, Standards Australia AS1682.2-1990, “Fire dumper — Installation”, 1990, Standards Australia AS1720.1-1997, “Timber structures— Design Methods”, 1997, Standards Australia AS1720.4-1990, “Timber Structures — Fire-resistance of structural timber”, 1990, Standards Australia A$ 18511.7-1997, “Maintenance of fire protection equipment Part 7 Fire-resistant doorsets”, 1997, Standards Australia AS/NZS 1905.1-1997, “Components for the protection of openings in fire- resistant walls Part 1 Fire-resistont doorsets”, 1997, Standards Australia AS 2688-1984 , “Timber doors", 1984, Standards Australia AS/NZS 3013 — 1995, “Filectrical installations - Classification of the fire and mechanical performance of wiring systems”, 1995, Standards Australia AS 3600-1994, “Concrete Structures”, 1994, Standards Australia Pepe 200Chapter 13-References AS 3700-1998, “Masonry Structures”, 1998, Standards Australia AS 4072.1 — 1992, “Components far the protection of openings in fire-resistant separating clements - Scrvice penetrations and control joints”, 1992, Australia AS 4100-1998, “Steel Structures”, 1998, Standards Australia ASCE, “Structural Fire Protection", 1992, ASCE Manuals and Report on Engineering Practice No. 78, New York ASTM, “ASTM Designation: B603-98 Standard Guide for Room Fire Feperiments”, 1998, American Society for Testing and Materials, Baltimore Aastralasian Fire Authorities Council (AFAC), “Fire Brigade Intervention Model, ‘Version 2.1”, 1997, Australasian Fire Authorities Council, November 1997. Babrauskas, V., “COMPF2 - A Program for Calculating Post-Flashover Fire Temperatures”, 1979, National Burcau of Standards, NBS'TN991, Washington Babreuskas, V., “Fire Modeling Tools for FSH: Are They Good Fnough?", 1996, Journal of Fire Protection Engineering, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 87-96 Baker, DJ., “Inelaste Loval Buckling of Unprotected Steel Columns at Elevated “Temperatures”, 2000, PhD Thesis in Preparation Beason, D., “Fire Endurance of Sptinklered Glass Walls”, 1986, Fire Journal, July 1986, pp. 43.45. Beaver P and Briton M “Research into Cost-Effective Fire Safety Measures for Residential Buildings 1999 Building Control Commission Victoria Bennetts, LD., Lewins, RR, Prog, D.J., Thomas, LR., Dowling, V.P., Remsay, GC., Schafer, BL., Lacey, R., “Fire and Unprotected Steel in Closed Carparks”, 1988, BUP Steel International, Melbourne BSI, “Fire safety enginesring én buildings Part 1. Guide to the application of fire engineering prineiples DD 240:Part 1:1997", 1997, British Standards Institution 181, “Fire safety enginezring in buildings Part 2. 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