1. What is the purpose of a capacitor?

A capacitor is a device that stores charge and energy.

2. Semiconductors are materials used to build electronic devices. Why are semiconductors so
called?

Semiconductors are materials, that under standard conditions have intermediate conductivity,
and it depends on the temperature, the illumination, and the degree of impurity in the
semiconductors.

What kind of materials are used to make a transistor?

Solid semiconductors are used to make a transistor.

3. a) How is an n-type material made and what are its electrical properties?
An n-type material is made by doping a semiconductor with atoms of the 15th group. The
doped semiconductor is said to be negative type.

b) Explain what happens if a silicon crystal has some impurities of arsenic.

When atoms of arsenic are added to silicon crystal, As atoms replace some Si atoms in the
lattice. Four of five electrons of As will share with Si atoms, and the fifth electron will be
easily knocked out. The number of free electrons will increase and the net effect is that the
semiconducting alloy has more free electrons than holes.

c) Why is n-type silicon a better conductor of electricity than pure silicon?

The n-type silicon has more charge carriers (free electrons) than pure silicon, thus its
conductivity is much higher than the intrinsic conductivity of silicon.

d) Arrange the following materials in increasing order of conductivity:

(i) Aluminum metal, (ii) pure Silicon, and (iii) Silicon with a few Arsenic impurities.
In increasing order of conductivity: Pure silicon, silicon with a few arsenic impurities,
aluminum metal.

4. Describe the structure of a pn-junction. Do pn-junctions allow current to pass easily?

When a n-type and a p-type semiconductors are joined together, they form what we call a pn-
junction; a boundary zone between two oppositely doped layers in a single crystal. When
forward biased, pn-junctions allow current to pass easily. No current passes if the pn-junction is
reverse biased.
5. Describe the electrical properties of a pn-junction.
At the boundary zone, electrons migrate from the n-type layer to the p-layer and holes in the
opposite direction. Upon reaching the p-type layer, electrons find themselves surrounded by a
huge number of holes with which they recombine forming negative ions. In a similar manner,
holes migrating from the p-type semiconductor recombine with the free electrons of the n-type
layer, thus exposing the positive ions there.

In what way would you connect a pn junction for a large current to pass through? Explain
how this current flows (in terms of electrons).
For a large current to pass, the p-side of the pn junction should be connected to the positive
pole of the battery, and the n-side to the negative pole of the battery. The +ve pole pushes the
holes towards the junction. The –ve pole does the same with the electrons, the junction becomes
rich in carriers and an electric current flows. The electrons crossing the junction are taken up
by the positive terminal of the generator and circulated to the other pole where they re-enter the
junction maintaining an electric current in it.

6. a) When is a diode said to be (i) forward-biased, and (ii) reverse-biased?

A diode is said to be forward-biased if it is connected in such a way that it allows
conventional current to pass from p to n through it. It is reverse-biased, if it has n at a higher
potential than p.

b) What are the conditions for a silicon diode to be forward-biased?

A silicon diode is forward-biased if it connected such as:
1) with p at a higher potential than n,
2) across a p.d. greater than 0.6 V, below which it does not conduct,
3) in series with a resistor to protect it from overcurrent.

c) Is it possible for a reverse-biased diode to conduct electricity? If yes, how?

The diode has a very large resistance when reverse-biased. Nonetheless, a small current will
pass through the reverse-biased diode when connected to a battery.
7. Draw the symbol of a diode and identify the direction of electron flow when it is forward-
biased.

Draw complete circuits showing (a) a forward-biased and (b) a reverse-biased diode.

What is rectification?

Forward-biased

Reverse-biased
 8. A half-wave rectifier is used in an a.c. circuit. Compare the graphs of the unrectified and the
rectified voltages versus time.

For the rectied voltage, in every cycle only the positve half-cycle of the current actually fows and the

other half cycle never fows.

9. (a) How is a four-diode bridge rectifier constructed?

Illustrate by drawing its circuit diagram.

(b) Sketch the output of a full-wave rectifier whose input is a 6 V sinusoidal alternating
voltage.

(c) Describe in words the output of a full-wave rectifier whose input is a 6 V sinusoidal
alternating voltage.
Since the sense of the current in the lamp is always DC (never CD), the current is direct. Both
cycles of the applied alternating voltage are used. It appears that the negative half-cycle has
been ‘inverted’ to become another positive half-cycle. Hence, the term “full-wave rectification”.
Each path contains two diodes in series and so “swallows up” about 1.2 V of peak voltage. Also,
while the p.d. is less than 1.2 V in either sense, there are “gaps” of no current.

(d) What is the difference between a half-wave rectifier and a four-diode bridge rectifier in
terms of the rectified current?

The rectified current of a half-wave rectifier goes from minimum to maximum once every cycle,
whereas the rectified current of a bridge rectifier goes from minimum to maximum twice every
cycle. Furthermore, in a half-wave rectifier, during each cycle, the current is zero through half
of each cycle.

11. Although the full-wave rectified output is d.c., it is pulsating. What does this mean? What
should be done to this pulsating output if a steady current is required?

The rectified output is pulsating because the voltage goes from zero to maximum to zero at
twice the frequency of the AC being fed into the system.

12. a) How do you connect a diode in a circuit?

In a circuit, a diode is connected in series with a resistor whose resistance is much larger
than that of the conducting diode.
b) If the voltage applied across a resistor-diode combination is 6 V and the resistor has a value of
1 kΩ, what is the current through the diode?
If the voltage applied across the resistor-diode combination is
6 V, then the voltage drop across the diode will be about 0.6 V, leaving about 5.4 V across the
series resistor. Thus, applying
V = RI to the resistor if the series resistor has a value of 1 kΩ, the current through the diode
will be about 5.4 mA.

c) A silicon diode has a maximum current rating of 4 mA and is to be connected in a circuit

where the voltage may reach 7.2 V. Compute a suitable series resistance.
If the voltage applied across the resistor-diode combination is 7.2 V, then the voltage drop
across the diode will be about 0.6 V, leaving about 6.6 V across the series resistor. Thus,
applying V = RI to the resistor if the current rating has a value of 4 mA, the series resistance
should be about 1650 Ω

13. a) What is an ideal diode? Does an ideal diode really exist?

The “ideal” diode has zero resistance when forward biased and infinite resistance when
reverse-biased. Thus, the ideal diode is either a short circuit or an open circuit.
An ideal diode does not really exist. A small current will always pass when reverse-biased,
and the real diode will have a very small, yet non-zero, resistance when forward biased.

b) Sketch the characteristic of a real and an ideal diode.

Real Diode Ideal diode