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Laser microfabrication of conical microtargets for laser driven particle

acceleration

Article  in  Journal of Laser Applications · February 2021

DOI: 10.2351/7.0000039

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Laser microfabrication of conical
microtargets for laser driven particle
acceleration
Cite as: J. Laser Appl. 33, 012054 (2021); https://doi.org/10.2351/7.0000039
Submitted: 19 March 2020 . Accepted: 21 January 2021 . Published Online: 11 February 2021

Bogdan-Ştefăniţă Călin, Cosmin Dobrea, Ion Tiseanu, and Marian Zamfirescu

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J. Laser Appl. 33, 012054 (2021); https://doi.org/10.2351/7.0000039 33, 012054

© 2021 Author(s).
 Journal of ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/jla
Laser Applications

Laser microfabrication of conical microtargets for

laser driven particle acceleration
Cite as: J. Laser Appl. 33, 012054 (2021); doi: 10.2351/7.0000039
Submitted: 19 March 2020 · Accepted: 21 January 2021 · View Online Export Citation CrossMark
Published Online: 11 February 2021

Bogdan-Ştefăniţă Călin,1,a) Cosmin Dobrea,2 Ion Tiseanu,2 and Marian Zamfirescu1

AFFILIATIONS
1
Center for Advanced Laser Technologies—National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics, Măgurele 077125, Romania
2
Plasma Physics and Nuclear Fusion—National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics, Măgurele 077125, Romania

a)
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; electronic mail: bogdan.calin@inflpr.ro

ABSTRACT
This research is aimed at developing micrometer-level cone-shaped targets used in ultraintense laser-driven particle acceleration and
improving the fabrication process and quality of results. We developed a design software that is based on a single-pass spiral-like writing of
3D structures to improve the quality of the results and lower the fabrication time. Additive manufacturing based on two-photon polymeriza-
tion represents the chosen fabrication method. Targets have been investigated using electron microscopy and x-ray microtomography. In
this paper, several types of cone-shaped targets have been fabricated using two-photon polymerization additive manufacturing. Structures
have been fabricated with IP-L 780 photoresist, developed by Nanoscribe. Symmetric targets show best structural results, for both straight
and parabolic walls, while asymmetric targets can show deformation, due to inhomogeneous voxel overlap. The spiral-like design lowers the
fabrication time to a third of the time required for the fabrication of the same structures using the layer-by-layer design. The spiral-like
design also shows a better overall quality of the fabricated targets. Two-photon polymerization additive manufacturing is an inexpensive
and fast solution for fabricating complex 3D structures at the micrometer scale. Cone-shaped targets with parabolic walls can lower the
costs and improve results for laser-driven particle acceleration. Materials are limited to appropriate transparent photoresists, when not
considering complementary fabrication methods.

Key words: particle acceleration, tomography, microfabrication, laser materials processing, 3D printing, programming languages

Published under license by Laser Institute of America. https://doi.org/10.2351/7.0000039

I. INTRODUCTION systems,5 and others. In this paper, we introduce a new application of

Additive manufacturing (AM) represents one of the major
emergent technologies developed in recent years. It opens the path
to new applications that vary from rocket injectors1 to 3D printed
tissues and organs. AM encompasses a large variety of methods
and materials for 3D printing in various forms, among which we
can mention laser melting deposition, selective laser sintering,
material extrusion, and others.2 These technologies are used for
applications that require resolution as low as tens of micrometers.
Better resolutions are possible with laser direct writing methods
involving multiphoton absorption. One of the most encountered
multiphoton laser direct writing technologies is two-photon poly-
merization (2PP). This approach uses tightly focused ultrashort laser
pulses to obtain structures with lateral features as low as 0.1 μm. Such
resolutions allow for development of new applications such as micro-
optics,3 scaffolds for tissue engineering,4 microelectromechanical
high-resolution AM in the field of laser-driven particle acceleration.
The application is defined by fabrication of 3D printed cone-shaped
microtargets.
Cone-shaped targets have been used for the first time in the
HiPER project6 to obtain strongly focused laser radiation for
nuclear fusion applications. They have been obtained using micro-
mechanical processing methods. The concept was quickly brought
into laser-driven particle acceleration through numerical simulation
of similar geometries, albeit scaled down to the micrometer level.7.
Our fabrication method allows for constructing similar targets
with resolutions that satisfy the requirements imposed by such
applications.
Laser-driven particle acceleration opens the path to compact
“table-top” accelerators with many healthcare related applications,
among which proton therapy is the most prevalent.8 When

J. Laser Appl. 33, 012054 (2021); doi: 10.2351/7.0000039 33, 012054-1

Published under license by Laser Institute of America
 Journal of
Laser Applications
ultraintense laser pulses interact with a target, accelerated
energetic particles such as ions, electrons, protons, or coherent elec-
tromagnetic radiations (XUV, x rays) are produced. Among the
established methods in laser-driven particle acceleration are target
normal sheath acceleration9 and radiation pressure acceleration
(RPA).10
In both cases, the energy of the accelerated particles depends on
the laser intensity at the surface of the target. Theoretical and experi-
mental studies have demonstrated the importance of 3D laser micro-
targets in the aforementioned research field. Three-dimensional laser
targets can increase the absorption of the ultraintense electromagnetic
field, compared to a flat target. This results in the acceleration of parti-
cles to higher energies and better directionality, for a given laser inten-
sity. The importance of 3D targets is evidenced through particle-in-cell
(PIC) simulations11 where several geometries such as cone targets,12
nanotubes, 13 or conical nanolayered targets14 are proposed.
Research on laser-based proton acceleration revealed energies of
up to 85 MeV.15 For medical applications, proton energy needs to go
up to several hundreds of MeV, depending on the required tissue
penetration depth. A solution can be represented by increasing the
incident laser intensity. However, this translates to rapidly increasing
proton beam costs. A cost efficient alternative solution is to provide
better laser absorption through improved target engineering. A
proper 3D design could offer the means of reaching more energetic
particles compared to using the same laser intensities and flat targets.
In this paper, we propose high-resolution laser-based AM as a
method of 3D targets for laser-driven particle acceleration. We
present and discuss the design, fabrication, and characterization of
3D targets intended for particle acceleration through RPA. The
proposed 3D microstructures are designed to increase the laser
fluence by means of reflection and near-field intensification effects.
Design is realized using a specialized software that we developed
for this class of targets using Python and Qt Designer. The software
takes the geometry and fabrication method into consideration in
order to optimize the time efficiency of both the fabrication and
design processes. Fabrication is realized using high precision 3D
photopolymerization-based AM. Resulting microstructures were
FIG. 1. Experimental setup and working principle for 2PP additive manufacturing.
J. Laser Appl. 33, 012054 (2021); doi: 10.2351/7.0000039
Published under license by Laser Institute of America
ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/jla
characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micro-
graphs and μ-computer tomography (μ-CT).
II. FABRICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION METHODS
A. Micrometer-scale additive manufacturing based on
two-photon polymerization
In polymerization-based additive manufacturing, light is
used to initiate a chemical reaction that results in a polymer.
This reaction can be photopolymeric, photodecomposing, and
photocross-linking. The photoresist we used for fabrication is a
liquid solution based on photopolymeric reaction. It is mainly
composed of photoinitiators (PIs) and monomer. Tetrahydrofuran
may be added to the solution to lower its viscosity, although this
affects the polymerization threshold, as well as mechanical proper-
ties. This solution is commonly referred to as “prepolymer.” The
polymerization process can be split into three steps: initiation,
propagation, and termination.16 Irradiating the PI with photons of
a specific wavelength, we obtain free radicals.17 Free radicals attach
to a monomer molecule, resulting in a different molecule with
active terminations. The propagation step is determined by the
process commonly known as “chain polymerization.” In this
process, monomer molecules attach to other molecules that have
active terminations. This results in a larger molecule, while still
retaining an active termination. The termination step is accom-
plished whenever an active termination attaches to another active
termination, be it a free radical or the active termination from a dif-
ferent polymeric chain. The polymerization process is described in
more detail in Ref. 16.
Photopolymerization can be used with laser direct writing for
additive manufacturing, as is the case of stereolithography.
Two-photon absorption is employed in order to achieve optical
processing beyond the diffraction limit, as well as in a precisely
defined volume (voxel, i.e., “volume pixel”). The working principle
is shown in Fig. 1. Laser-based additive manufacturing that uses
two-photon absorption is commonly referred to as 2PP. For 2PP
processing, there are three important laser parameters that must be
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Laser Applications

considered. The first parameter is the central wavelength, which parameters results in good quality, reproducible microtargets.
must be appropriate for specific materials, i.e., the irradiated mate- Under these conditions, the voxel has an approximate diameter of
rial must be transparent for the fundamental, while showing strong 2 μm and height of 4 μm. Cone-shaped microtargets can be
absorption for the second harmonic. The second parameter is the obtained using higher laser powers and writing speeds, but doing
pulse duration, i.e., for two-photon absorption to occur, we require so increases the probability of photoresist microexplosions, which
high electric field intensities. In the case of additive manufacturing, renders the target unusable. We obtained no microexplosion using
low to no thermal effects are often desired for processing, which the parameters mentioned above.
suggests the use of ultrashort pulses. The third important parame-
ter is the beam profile. A Gaussian beam profile allows for process- B. μ-CT for 3D sample characterization
ing below the diffraction limit by having only the peak of the
X-ray microtomography (μ-CT) is a fully 3D, high-resolution
intensity distribution above a threshold value for 2PP to occur
nondestructive analysis method. The sample is irradiated with x
(Fig. 1). Ultrashort laser processing using 2PP has been extensively
rays at very large number of equidistant incidence angles.
studied in a laboratory environment.16
Radiographic images are projected on a detector placed opposite of
We used Nanoscribe Photonic Professional® for fabrication.
the x-ray source. After data acquisition, the 3D volume is recon-
This installation is a laser direct writing system specialized in 3D
structed by numerical processing of the acquired images using spe-
processing of photosensitive materials using 2PP. The irradiation
cific algorithms. The μ-CT system, we used for target analysis is
source is an ultrafast erbium-doped fiber laser system. It has a fre-
equipped with a transmission type x-ray source operable in micro-
quency of 80 MHz, pulse duration of 120 fs, central wavelength of
focus and nanofocus modes. Main parameters of the nanofocus
780 ± 10 nm, and a laser average power of up to 120 mW.
tube are its maximum power of ∼1 to 30 W, depending on the irra-
Positioning is realized with a system of stages that combines a
diation head, and the operating high voltage between 10 and
motorized XY stage for coarse positioning and a piezo stage for
225 kV. The x-ray detector consists of an amorphous silicon flat
fine positioning. The schematic of the experimental setup is pre-
panel, with a pitch size of ∼75 μm (1944 × 1536 pixels) and digital
sented in Fig. 1.
output of 14 bits. Sample positioning is obtained through a set of
The setup bears similarity with an upside-down stereolithogra-
motorized micrometric translation and rotation stages with fine
phy system. However, in the case of 2PP, we do not need to fabri-
adjustment steps of fraction of μm or second of arc, respectively.
cate the structure layer by layer. Structures are written using the
For an accurate tomography analysis of the conical microtar-
aforementioned laser source. Structures were fabricated using IP-L
gets, three main challenges have to be overcome: (i) x-ray focus
780 photoresist, produced and distributed by Nanoscribe. This is a
spot stability (drift) during measurement, (ii) very low absorption
high-resolution liquid photoresist with low shrinkage that requires
contrast of the polymer material, and (iii) the strong tomography
no prebake or postbake. The development step is done through
artifacts that might be induced by x-ray scattering of the low Z sub-
immersion in a solvent (propylene-glycol-methyl-ether-acetate) for
strate of the sample. The countermeasures employed for reducing
15 min. Laser focusing is done with a 63×/N.A. 0.5 microscope
the influence of these factors are in order. The focal spot drift was
objective. Laser processing parameters have been previously deter-
identified as the main contributor to the positional instability of 2D
mined, for IP-L 780 and the 63× objective.
projections. The thermic effect was mitigated by carefully controlled
The photoresist can be processed using average laser powers
temperature of the source head and micrometric manipulator com-
between 25 and 40 mW (specifically for the 63× objective). Below
ponents. Additionally, the repeatable nature of the focal spot drift
25 mW, the degree of polymerization is inconsistent, while above
was exploited by corrections applied to the 2D projections. The
40 mW, irradiation often results in microexplosions, regardless of
absorption contrast was increased in the acceptable level by metallic
laser writing speed. 2PP printing is usually analyzed in terms of
plating of the samples with a thickness of ∼1 μm of silver.
energy dose, i.e., number of laser pulses per unit volume.
Finally, the x-ray scattering of the sample substrate was drasti-
Therefore, writing speed is always coupled with laser power, i.e.,
cally reduced by rising the cone microtarget on a 3D relatively
higher writing speeds require higher laser power.
sparse nanoprinted pedestal with a height equivalent with that of
Laser writing speed strongly depends on the geometry of the
the target.
structure, for 2PP systems with stationary laser beam and moving
sample. For cone-shaped targets, in particular, laser writing speed
can reach 80 μm/s. However, the shape of the target suffers defor- III. DESIGN SOFTWARE FOR OPTIMIZED TARGET
mations as a result of inertial movements (or oscillations, in this PRINTING
case). This happens on account of the height and shape of the We have determined four main types of geometries: symmetri-
target, i.e., the “tip” of the cone is connected to the substrate, and cal (with respect to the Z axis) and inclined, each of them having
the “base” of the cone is bending freely under the action of stage either straight or parabolic walls (Fig. 4). PIC simulations show
and fluid movements. This determines an insufficient overlap of that symmetric targets with straight walls [Figs. 5(a) and 5(b)] are
neighboring voxels, and, therefore, results in a flexible structure reported to increase the energy of a proton beam, in the context of
that can deform and collapse due to several reasons: positioning ultraintense laser-driven particle acceleration.18 Recent simulations
stage movement, solvent surface tension, fluid movement, and indicate that the focused laser intensity can be enhanced more than
sample manipulation. As such, we used a 30 mW laser power, ten times using cone-shaped microtargets.19 Parabolic walls seem
focused with the aforementioned 63×/N.A. 0.5 microscope objec- to provide a stronger focusing of incident pulses, based on PIC
tive, and a constant writing speed of 50 μm/s. Using these simulations.11 Inclined targets are designed with the purpose of

J. Laser Appl. 33, 012054 (2021); doi: 10.2351/7.0000039 33, 012054-3

Published under license by Laser Institute of America
 Journal of
Laser Applications
minimizing preventable damage to the laser system and the optical
beam transport due to various possible phenomena such as para-
sitic reflections and ablation debris. Moreover, the inclined design
can also improve the coupling between the incident laser pulse and
the metallic plasma of the target, resulting in better energy
efficiency.20
The laser processing workstation accepts a list of appropriately
ordered Cartesian coordinates in order to define the 3D structure. In
order to optimize and automate the design and fabrication processes
for quasiconical targets, a specialized CAD software was developed.
This software was realized using Python 3.6 along with the SciPy
pack and Qt 4. The software calculates micrometer-scale 3D conical
targets using iterative processes and generates ready-to-use design
files for Nanoscribe Photonic Professional. These files also contain
machine parameters such as writing velocity, laser power, coordinate
offsets, and additional commands. The user interface along with an
example target design is presented in Fig. 2.
Fabricating a conical target in a layer-by-layer fashion can
produce unwanted structural artifacts. These artifacts can appear as
small bulges at points where laser first started processing the mate-
rial. This phenomenon is attributed to the fact that the size of the
voxel has a strong dependence on the incident laser beam power.
Moreover, if each layer starts at the same position with respect to
the XY-plane, this effect is cumulative and will result in an
unwanted line going over the structure. In order to avoid this, we
optimized the laser writing path so that the structure is defined as
one continuous line. Therefore, each point that defines the struc-
ture has an incremental value on the Z axis. As such, the whole
structure is written in a spiral-like fashion. This way, there is no
need for the laser to pass through the same point more than one
FIG. 2. GENTORPY—CAD software graphical user interface and an example target design.
J. Laser Appl. 33, 012054 (2021); doi: 10.2351/7.0000039
Published under license by Laser Institute of America
ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/jla
time. This not only prevents the formation of structural defects but
also improves the fabrication time efficiency. Time efficiency is
increased because the whole structure is fabricated in one sweep,
rather than stopping and repositioning the sample for each layer.
Exceptions from this rule are only the initiation and termination of
the structure. Structure design is started and terminated with the
printing of a closed path. The starting path ensures a homogeneous
adherence to the substrate, while the termination path smoothens
out the edges of the target. Similar laser processing techniques have
been previously used for different applications, such as cladding
waveguides in Nd:YAG by laser direct writing21 and topological
surfaces for cells differentiation,22 the latter application using the
same photoresist, focusing optics, and algorithm to fabricate the
microstructures.
Calculating the geometry revolves around parametric equa-
tions for an ellipse. In a Cartesian system of coordinates, each point
of an ellipse is calculated using the following equations:
x pos ¼ cx þ rx *cos(w),
(1)
y pos ¼ cy þ ry *sin(w),
where xpos and ypos are the coordinates of a point on the ellipse, ci
are coordinates of the center of the ellipse for each axial direction,
ri are the radii for each axial direction, and w is the angle. Two of
the above input parameters, ci and w, are subjected to linear incre-
ments, while ri can have linear or nonlinear increments.
Incremental values are assigned per each point that defines the 3D
object and are independent. Z axis increments are linear.
Height increments, δz, are linear and determine the overlap of
neighboring lines. These increments are determined by dividing the
33, 012054-4
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height of the structure by the total number of points that define the
structure. This increment is indirectly calculated, as the user inputs
the total height and the height difference between neighboring lines,
both of which are of importance for the fabrication process.
The angle increment, δw, determines the shape of the XY-plane
cross section. For example, if δw = π/3, then the cross section will
have six sides. If radii are equal in both X and Y directions, then the
cross section will be hexagonal. In order to fabricate structures with
an elliptic cross section, we consider the sizes of the voxel and the
radii for both the top and the base of the structure. We have experi-
mentally determined that for a cross section diameter of 100 μm or
smaller, an increment of δw = 3° is sufficient for the fabrication to
result in fully rounded cross sections, with respect to XY axes. This
increment is directly controlled by the user.
Radial increments represent one of the two main parameters
that determine the vertical cross section. By vertical cross section,
we mean the cross section determined by any plane perpendicular
to XY-plane. We use this term because the 3D object can be
designed to be asymmetrical. Radial increments are used to deter-
mine the shape of the walls (straight or parabolic). Radii are inde-
pendent for each axis in the XY-plane, and each of them can have
different increments. For both straight and parabolic walls, radial
increments are indirectly determined, as the user inputs only the
radii of the top and base of the structure.
Center increments are linear and determine the symmetry of
the structure. These increments are not directly controlled by the
user. They are determined by the center positions at the bottom
and top of the structure (user input). If the centers coincide, the
structure will be symmetrical and the increment, δc = 0. Center
increments are determined in a way similar to height increments.
For targets with straight walls, both symmetric and inclined, incre-
ments are determined as shown in the following equation:
di;top  di;base ci;top  ci;base zi;top  zi;base
δri ¼ ; δci ¼ ; δz ¼
2  N pts N pts N pts
where δri are the radial increments, δci are the center increments,
δz is the height increment, di,top and di,base are the diameters at the
top and base of the structure, ci,top and ci,base are the centers of the
ellipses at the top and base of the structure, zi,top and zi,base are the
coordinates on the Z axis of the end point and the starting point,
i = x, y, represent each direction of the XY-plane, and Npts repre-
sents the total number of points that define the structure. Each of
the increments and their influence on the structure are schemati-
cally indicated in Fig. 3.
As mentioned above, we are interested in fabricating symmet-
rical cone-shaped targets, as well as inclined and/or with parabolic
walls (vertical cross section). These geometries are presented in
Fig. 4. In order to achieve parabolic walls, we modified only the
radii, r, with variable incremental values. As it can be deduced
from the equations above [Eqs. (1) and (2)], the target is defined
by a list of points determined through an iterative process, i.e.,
coordinates are determined for each point, one after another. In
order to determine the radii increments for parabolic walls, we
define a second degree polynomial with positive nonzero terms for
J. Laser Appl. 33, 012054 (2021); doi: 10.2351/7.0000039
Published under license by Laser Institute of America
ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/jla
z and z2 as follows:
r ¼ z 2 þ exp(ξ)  z: (3)
The first term, z2, determines the parabolic shape. The second
term, ξ, is the user input that determines the curvature of the walls.
This function is then scaled so that the base and top radii do not
differ from the user input. Only the shape of the walls changes as ξ
is modified. This scalability process renders a parameter for z2
unnecessary. If ξ = 0, the software interprets the input as designing
a target with straight walls. Target walls have an asymptotic ten-
dency to become straight as ξ increases. The purpose of the expo-
nential function is to reduce relevant values so that ξ ∈ (0, 10). This
method of calculating parameters ensures that the shape of the
walls does not change if either the height increment, δz, or the
angle increment, δw (i.e., number of sides), are changed, i.e.,
parameters are independent.
Structure fabrication is started and terminated with the print-
ing of a closed loop. In other words, a set of points, for which
w ∈ (0°, 360°), all have the same height (substrate surface for the
starting loop and the Z position of the last point of the structure
for the termination loop). The starting loop ensures a homoge-
neous adherence to the substrate, while the termination loop
smoothens out the edges of the target.
Design must account for fabrication parameters. The overlap
of neighboring voxels determines the structural integrity of the
object. The polymer has lower mechanical strength during and
shortly after the development phase. If the voxel overlap is insuffi-
cient, the geometry is affected by fluid movements and surface
tension of the evaporating solvent. If the energy dose (number of
laser pulses per unit) is well above the polymerization threshold,
the irradiation results in microexplosions and bubble formation,
which can affect the final structure geometry. A microexplosion
results in a random polymer structure with various spatial features
as well as microbubbles. These submicrometer features result in
; (2) near-field optical enhancement,23 which far exceeds the polymeri-
zation threshold, therefore leading to other chained microexplo-
sions. This process extends the volume of the affected material.
This also happens for multiple passes through the same volume.
Both the photoresist and the resulting polymer are transparent.
However, the polymer has a refractive index higher than the photo-
resist. Therefore, the incident laser beam can be focused by the
polymer, if the laser beam passes through it. In order to avoid
microexplosions due to near-field optical enhancement or focusing,
the design must take into account processing parameters such as
laser power, velocity, and voxel overlap.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
All fabricated targets are designed to have circular cross sec-
tions with respect to the XY-plane, throughout the whole structure.
We defined the angular increment as the angle difference for con-
secutive points that define the spiral-like structure, with respect to
the center of the circular cross section (cross section in the
XY-plane, see Fig. 4). The angular increment is 3° for each of the
fabricated target, which results in completely rounded shapes. An
angular increment of 3° means a full circle is defined by 120 points.
33, 012054-5
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FIG. 3. Orthographic representation of the design principles for conical targets; δw = angle increment, δr = radii increments, Δc = top and base center difference,
δz = height increment, and Δz = height difference between neighboring lines.
The height increment for consecutive points, δz, is defined so that
voxel centers of neighboring lines are at height difference of 1 μm.
The height difference after completing a full circle is 1 μm, which
means the height increment, δz, is 1/120 μm for consecutive points.
Initial investigations are realized using SEM. Results are pre-
sented in Fig. 5. The diameter of the base is 10 μm and the diame-
ter of the top is 100 μm for each structure. A symmetric target with
straight walls is presented in Figs. 5(a) and 5(b) (30° angle side
view). In Figs. 5(c) and 5(d), there is a symmetric target with
J. Laser Appl. 33, 012054 (2021); doi: 10.2351/7.0000039
Published under license by Laser Institute of America
ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/jla
parabolic walls, presented in a similar manner. Adding a center
increment for each point of the structure results in the inclined
target presented in Figs. 5(e) and 5(f ). Symmetrical geometries
show stronger structural integrity, while inclined geometries are
prone to slight deformations. In the case of symmetrical structures,
the overlap of neighboring voxels is the same all around the struc-
ture, for a given height. For inclined structures, however, the
overlap is lower for points farther from the starting center. As such,
areas where the overlap is lower have a smaller mechanical strength
33, 012054-6
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Laser Applications

FIG. 4. Design of fabricated targets: (a) symmetric target with straight walls, (b) symmetric with parabolic walls, and (c) asymmetric with parabolic walls.

and suffers deformations during the development process algorithm24 with parallel implementation in order to optimize the
[Figs. 5(e) and 5(f )]. processing time. It was developed as a collection of FORTRAN libraries
Sample analysis by μ-CT is done using cone-beam 3D scanning. accessed using a LABVIEW graphical user interface. Necessary software
The 3D reconstruction software is based on a modified Feldkamp interconnections were written using C programming language.

FIG. 5. SEM imaging of conical targets: symmetric targets with straight walls (a) top view, (b) 30° angle, symmetric targets with parabolic walls; (c) top view, (d) 30°
angle, inclined target with parabolic walls; (e) top view, (f ) 30° angle.

J. Laser Appl. 33, 012054 (2021); doi: 10.2351/7.0000039 33, 012054-7

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FIG. 6. μ-CT direct image acquisition: (a) front view, (b) lateral view, (c) top view, and 3D reconstruction of the sample; (d) top view, (e) isometric view, and (f ) cross
section.
Direct image acquisition of a symmetric target with straight
walls is presented in Figs. 6(a) (front), 6(b) (side), and 6(c) (top),
along with measurements of the top and bottom diameters, and
sidewall thickness. Sample reconstruction is shown in Figs. 6(a)
(top), 6(b) (isometric), and 6(c) (cross-sectional view). The wall of
the target is slightly bent in the μ-CT analysis [Fig. 6(b)], although
it is shown to be straight in the SEM micrograph. As mentioned
previously, this method of analysis required thin metallic films with
thicknesses of ∼1 μm. The bend shown in the projected images and
3D reconstruction is possibly a result of sample manipulation or
the deposition stage of the metallic film.
V. CONCLUSIONS
We have successfully designed and fabricated cone-shaped
microtargets intended for laser-driven particle acceleration. The
design algorithm involves a single-pass spiral-like writing of 3D
structures in order to improve time efficiency and quality of result-
ing structures. Structures using our design are fabricated roughly
three times faster when compared to the commonly encountered
J. Laser Appl. 33, 012054 (2021); doi: 10.2351/7.0000039
Published under license by Laser Institute of America
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layer-by-layer design, for the same writing speed. Resulting struc-
tures have been investigated using SEM and μ-CT. These AM fabri-
cated microstructures open the way to efficient laser-driven hadron
acceleration for healthcare related applications.
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