Chapter 09 - 1

Aircraft Structures
CHAPER 9.
Virtual Work Principle
Prof. SangJoon Shin
Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab.

9.1 Introduction
Mechanical work : Scalar product of the force by the displacement through which it
acts → scalar quantity → simpler to manipulate → very attractive
Newton’s equilibrium condition : The sum of all force (regardless of externally

applied loads, internal forces, and reaction forces)
must vanish
Analytical mechanics : powerful tools for complex problems

• Scalar quantities, simpler analysis procedure
• Reaction forces can often be eliminated if the work involved
vanishes.
• Systematic development of procedure for approximate
solutions (ex : finite element method)
Why still need Newton’s formulation? : to determine both magnitude and direction
of all forces acting within a structure, to
estimate failure condition
Principle of virtual work (PVW) Newton’s law

equivalent
2 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

9.2 Equilibrium and work fundamentals
9.2.1 Static equilibrium conditions
Newton’s 1st law : every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that
state of motion unless an external force is applied to it
• A particle at rest tends to remain at rest unless the sum of the externally
applied force does not vanish.
• A particle is at rest if and only if the sum of the externally applied forces
vanishes.
• A particle is in static equilibrium if and only if the sum of the externally

applied forces vanishes.
• A particle is in static equilibrium iff ∑F = 0 (9.1)
(1) The vector sum of all forces acting on a particle must be zero.
(2) The vector polygon must be closed.
(3) The component of the vector sum resolved in any coord. system must
vanish.
∑
F = F1 i1 + F2 i2 + F3 i3 → F=
1 F=
2 F=
3 0
Newton’s 3rd law : If particle A exerts a force on particle B, particle B

simultaneously exerts on particle A a force of identical
magnitude and opposite direction.
• Two interacting particles exert on each other forces of equal magnitude,

opposite direction, and sharing a common line of action.
Euler’s 1st law
system consisting of N particles
Particle i subjected to an external force F i , N − 1

interaction forces f ij , j = 1, 2... , N , j ≠ i
Newton’s 1st law

N
Fi + ∑
=j 1, j ≠ i
f ij =
0 (9.2)

Interaction forces : for rigid body, it will ensure the body shape remain unchanged
elastic body, stress resulting from deformation planetary
system, gravitational pull
Summation of N eqns. for N particles

N N N
∑ Fi + ∑
=i 1 =i 1
∑
=j 1, j ≠ i
f ij =
0
By Newton’s 3rd law,

N N
∑ ∑
=i 1 =j 1, j ≠ i
f ij = 0 (9.3)
Then,
N
∑F
i =1
i =0 (9.4)
Euler’s 1st law for a system of particles

necessary condition for a system of particles to be in static equilibrium but not a
sufficient condition

Euler’s 2nd law

• Taking a vector product of
N N N
∑F +∑ ∑
=i 1
i
=i 1 =j 1, j ≠ i
f ij =
0
by r i , then summing over all particles

N N N
∑r
=i 1
i × Fi + ∑
=i 1
∑
=j 1, j ≠ i
r i × f ij =
0
then,
N N
i i
=i 1 =i 1
∑r × F= ∑ M= i 0 (9.6)
• Euler’s 1st and 2nd law both necessary condition for the system of particles
to be in static equilibrium, but not a sufficient condition.

9.2.2 Concept of mechanical work
 Definition
• The work done by a force is the scalar product of the force by the
displacement of its point of application.
1. force, displacement, collinear : F = Fu , d = du , W = Fd

+ : if the same direction / - : if the opposite direction
2. not collinear : W = Fd cos θ , θ angle between u and v

π
3. Perpendicular : cos
= = 0 , W =0
θ cos
2
rf rf
• “incremental work” : dW= F ⋅ d r , total work :=
W ∫ri
=
dW ∫
ri
F ⋅dr (9.7)
• F = F1 e1 + F2 e 2 + F3 e3 , d r = dr1 e1 + dr2 e 2 + dr3 e3 , dW =F ⋅ d r =F1dr1 + F2 dr2 + F3 dr3
• d r = dru , =
F F u + F⊥ v → dW = ( F u + F v ) ⋅ dru =
 ⊥ F dr

9.2.2 Concept of mechanical work
• ( )
superposition : F= F1 + F2 , dW =F ⋅ d r = F1 + F2 ⋅ d r =F 1 ⋅ d r + F 2 ⋅ d r =dW1 + dW2
• Why is work a quantity of interest for the static analysis?

→ Concept of “virtual work” that would be done by a force if it were to
displace its point of application by a fictitious amount.

9.3 Principle of virtual work
 PVW
• “arbitrary virtual displacement”, “arbitrary test virtual displacement”

“arbitrary fictitious virtual displacement”
• arbitrary : Displacement can be chosen arbitrarily without any

restrictions imposed on their magnitude or orientations.
• virtual, test, fictitious : Do not affect the forces acting on the particle.

9.3.1 PVW for a single particle
particle in static equilibrium under a set of externally

applied loads, fictitious displacement of s
virtual work done
W  ∑ F=
=  ⋅ s 0 (9.8)
Assume that one of the externally applied forces, F 1 , is

an elastic spring force. If for a real, arbitrary
displacement, d , the spring force will change to become
F 1 ', the sum of eventually applied forces,
∑F 1 ' → ∑F '≠ 0
For a virtual or fictitious displacement, do not affect the loads applied to the particle,
it remains in static equilibrium,=
∑ 
W  F=  ⋅ s 0 holds.
W  ∑ F=
If =  ⋅ s 0 is satisfied for all arbitrary virtual displacement, then ∑ F = 0,
and the particle is in static equilibrium.

Principle 3 (PVW for a particle) : A particle is in static equilibrium if and only if the
virtual work done by the externally applied forces
vanishes for all arbitrary virtual displacement.
Example 9.1 Equilibrium of a particle
F 1 = 1i1 F 2 = −3i1 =
s s1 i1 + s2 i 2
Virtual work is
W =− ( )(
1i1 3i 2 ⋅ s1 i1 + s2 i 2 = ) (
−2i1 ⋅ s1 i1 + s2 i 2 = )
−2 s1 ≠ 0
Because the virtual work done by the externally
applied forces does not vanish for all virtual
displacement, the principle of virtual work, Principle
3, implied that the particle is not in static
equilibrium.

Example 9.2 Equilibrium of a particle connected to an

elastic spring
( )( )
W = mgi1 − kui1 ⋅ s1 i1 + s2 i 2 = [ mg − ku ] s1
[ mg − ku ] s1 =
0
But, s1 = 0 is not valid because, as implied by the

principle of virtual work, s1 is arbitrary.
In conclusion, the vanishing of the virtual work for all
arbitrary virtual displacement implies that mg − ku = 0,
and the equilibrium configuration of the system is found
as u = mg / k .

Consider the work done by the elastic force, − kui1 ⋅ dui1 ,

under a virtual displacement, s1,
u + s1 u + s1
−ku [u ]u
u + s1
∫ −kudu =
W=
u
−ku ∫
u
du = =
−kus1 (9.9)
It is possible to remove the elastic force, − ku , from

the integral because this force remains unchanged by
the virtual displacement, and hence, it can be treated
as a constant.
In contrast, the work done by the same elastic force
under a real displacement, d , is
u+d
u+d  1   1 
W =∫ −kudu = − ku 2  =−kud −  − kd 2  (9.10)
u
 2 u  2 
In this case, the real work includes an additional term

that is quadratic in d and represents the work done by
the change in force that develops due to the stretching
of the spring.

Example 9.3 Equilibrium of a particle sliding on a

track
mgi1 − Ri1 + Pi 2 − Fi 2 =
0
(mg − R )i1 + ( P − F )i 2 =
0
Finally, R = mg F=P
Next, by PVW,
W = (mgi1 − Ri1 + Pi 2 − Fi 2 ) ⋅ ( s1 i1 + s2 i 2 ) = [mg − R]s1 + [ P − F ]s2 = 0 (9.11)

9.3.2 Kinematically admissible virtual displacement
 “arbitrary virtual displacements” : including those that violate the kinematic

constraints of the problem
• “kinematically inadmissible direction”, “infeasible direction” : s1 in the
track example → s = s2 i 2 kinematically admissible
• Reaction forces acts along the kinematically inadmissible direction
 Modified version of PVW : “a particle is in static equilibrium if and only if the

virtual work done by the externally applied forces
vanishes for all arbitrary kinematically admissible
virtual displacements”
• Constraint (reaction) forces are automatically eliminated.
• Fewer number of equations

9.3.3 Use of infinitesimal displacements as virtual displacements
• Special notation commonly used to denote virtual displacements

s =δu
Virtual work done by a force undergoing virtual displacement → δ W
• Convenient to use virtual displacements of infinitesimal magnitude
→ Often simplifies algebraic developments
1. Displacement dependent force → automatically remain unaltered
Ex 9.6 Consider a particle connected to an elastic spring. This is the same

problem treated in Ex 9.2
( )( )
δ W = mgi1 − kui1 ⋅ δ ui1 + δ vi 2 =[ mg − ku ]δ u =0
δ u = du
u + du
u + du  1 2 1
∫
u
−kudu =
 − 2 ku 
 u
=
−kudu − k (du ) 2 =
2
−kudu

2. Rigid bodies
• 2 point P, Q of a rigid body → must satisfy the rigid body dynamics
v P = v Q + ω × r QP
du P du Q dψ
= + × r QP
dt dt dt
du P = du Q + dψ × r QP (9.14)
• It is possible to write
δ u P = δ u Q + δψ × r QP
field of kinematically admissible virtual displacements for a rigid body

δ : virtual fictitious displacement, leave the forces unchanged, allowed to violate

the kinematic constraints
d : real, infinitesimal displacement, no requirement for forces, cannot violate the
kinematic constraints.
• δψ : vector quantity, but finite rotations are scalar quantity.
• Virtual displacements of infinitesimal magnitude greatly simplifies the treatment.

9.3.4 PVW for a system of particles
 For a particle i ,
 N 
δ Wi =+
 Fi ∑ f ij  ⋅ δ u i (9.15)
 =j 1, j ≠ i 
• Sum of virtual work : All particles must also vanish.
A system of particles is in static equilibrium if and only if
N  N  
δ W=i ∑  F i + ∑ f ij  ⋅ δ u i =
=i 1 
 0 (9.16)
 =j 1, j ≠ i  
for all virtual displacements,δ u= i , i 1, 2,3, ⋅⋅⋅, N
• 3N scalar eqn.s for a system of N particles → 3N D.O.F.’s

 Internal and external virtual work

• Internal forces : act and reacted within the system
• External forces : act on the system but reacted outside the system
N
δ=
WE ∑F
i =1
i ⋅ δ u ij
(9.17)
 N N 
=δ WI ∑  ∑ fij  ⋅ δ u ij
=i 1  =j 1, j ≠ i 
Eq. (9.16) becomes
δ W = δ WE + δ WI = 0 (9.18)

 Principle 4 (Principle of virtual work)

A system of particles is in static equilibrium if the sum of the virtual work done by
the internal and external forces vanishes for all arbitrary virtual displacements.
Actual displacements : W = WE + WI = 0 (9.19)
• Euler’s law
virtual displacement of a particle i
δ u i = δ u o + δψ × r i (9.20)
δ u o : virtual translation of a rigid body

δψ : virtual rotation → 6 independent virtual quantities, far few than 3N

  
( )
N N
W ∑  F i + ∑ f ij  ⋅ δ u o + δψ × r i
δ= 
=i 1 
 =j 1, j ≠ i  
   
( )
=  ∑ F i  ⋅ δ u o +  ∑∑ f ij  ⋅ δ u o + ∑ F i ⋅ δψ × r i + ∑∑ f ij ⋅ δψ × r i ( )
 i   i j  i i j
0 0
       
= δ u o ⋅  ∑ F i  + δ u o ⋅  ∑∑ f ij  + δψ ⋅  ∑ r i × F i  + δψ ⋅  ∑∑ r i × f ij 
 i   i j   i   i j 
0 0
   
= δ u o ⋅  ∑ F i  + δψ ⋅  ∑ ri × F i 
 i   i 
Necessary but not sufficient condition for static equilibrium.

9.4 Principle of virtual work applied to
mechanical systems
 Rigid body
δ u i = δ u O + δψ × r i
• Kinematically admissible virtual displacement field (3-dimensional)
• 2 vector eqn.s
N N N
∑F i =0 i i
=i 1 =i 1
∑r × F= ∑ M= i 0
i =1
or 6 scalar eqn.s
• 2-dimensional or planar mechanism, δ u i = δ u O + δψ × r i becomes
δ u i = δ u O + δφ i 3 × r i (9.21)
δψ = δφ i 3

mechanical systems
Example 9.7
Consider the simple lever subjected to two vertical end forces, Fa and Fb acting at
distance a and b, respectively, from the fulcrum.
- Classical eqn. of statics by free body diagram
H =0
V= Fa + Fb
aV cos φ= (a + b) Fb cos φ
aFa = bFb

mechanical systems
Example 9.7
- Principle of virtual work (kinematically admissible virtual displacement)
kinematically admissible virtual displacement field at A
(
δ u A = δφ i 3 × r OA = a sin φ i1 − cos φ i 2 δφ)
kinematically admissible virtual displacement field at B
(
δ u B =δφ i 3 × r OB =b − sin φ i1 + cos φ i 2 δφ )
virtual work
δ WE = (− Fa i 2 ) ⋅ δ u A + (− Fb i 2 ) ⋅ δ u B = δφ[aFa cos φ − bFb cos φ ]
- Principle of virtual work (kinematically violating virtual displacement)

kinematically violating virtual displacement field at A
(
δ u A =δ u1 i1 + δ u2 i2 =δ u O + a sin φ i1 − cos φ i 2 δφ )
kinematically violating virtual displacement field at B
(
δ u B= δ u1 i1 + δ u2 i2= δ u O + b − sin φ i1 + cos φ i 2 δφ )

mechanical systems
Example 9.7
- Principle of virtual work (kinematically violating virtual displacement)
virtual work
δ WE = (− Fa i 2 ) ⋅ δ u A + (− Fb i 2 ) ⋅ δ u B + ( H i1 + V i 2 ) ⋅ δ u O
= δ u1[ H ] + δ u2 [V − Fa − Fb ] + δφ[aFa cos φ − bFb cos φ ]
The virtual work done by the reaction forces at the fulcrum does not vanish.
Thus they must be included in the formulation.
Three bracketed terms must vanish, leading to the three equilibrium eqns
identical to those obtained by Newtonian approach
- Equivalence of PVW and Newton’s first law
- Kinematically admissible virtual displacement field automatically eliminates the

reaction forces when using PVW.

mechanical systems
9.4.1 Generalized coordinates and forces
 Not convenient to work with Cartesian coord. in many cases
• Will be represented in terms of N “generalized coord.”
=u u (q1 , q2 , q3 , ⋅⋅⋅, qN )
• Virtual displacement
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
δu
= δ q1 + δ q2 + δ q3 + ⋅⋅⋅ + δ qN
∂q1 ∂q2 ∂q3 ∂qN
• Virtual work done by a force F
 ∂u   ∂u   ∂u   ∂u 
δ W =F ⋅ δ u = F ⋅ δ
 1 
q + F ⋅ δ
 2 
q + F ⋅ δ
 3 q + ⋅⋅⋅ +  F ⋅  δ qN
 ∂q1   ∂q2   ∂q3   ∂qN 
• Generalized force ∂u
Q= F⋅ (9.22)
∂qi
i

mechanical systems
9.4.1 Generalized coordinates and forces
• Then,
N
δ W Q1δ q1 + Q2δ q2 + Q3δ q3 + ⋅⋅⋅ + QN=
= δ qN ∑Q δ q
i =1
i i
(9.23)
virtual work = generalized forces X generalized virtual displacements
• Externally applied load or internal force

N N
δ WI = ∑ Q δ qii
I
δ WE = ∑ QiE δ qi (9.24)
i =1 i =1
• PVW eqn.
N N N
δ WI + δ W
=E
=i 1
∑Q δ q + ∑Q
i
I
i i
E
=i 1 =i 1
i δ q ∑ QiI + QiE δ=
qi 0
QiI + QiE =
0 =i 1, 2,3, ⋅⋅⋅, N (9.25)
• If arbitrary virtual displacements, reaction forces must be included in QiE .
• If kinematically admissible displacements, reaction forces are eliminated.

truss structures
 Truss : like simple rectilinear spring of stiffness constant k = EA / L

bar slenderness = 100
9.5.1 Truss structures
 Elongation : displacement equations
displacement ∆ = ∆1 i1 + ∆ 2 i 2
e : elongation ( L + e)=
2
( L1 + ∆1 ) 2 + ( L2 + ∆ 2 ) 2
∆1 , and ∆ 2 small compared to the bar’s length → can be linearized.
L1 L2
e ≈ ∆1 + ∆ 2 = ∆1 cos θ + ∆ 2 sin θ (9.27)
L L
Elongation is the projection of the relative displacement along the bar’s direction

truss structures
9.5.1 Truss structures
 Internal virtual work for a bar : general planar truss member
Virtual work done by the root and tip forces
(
δ W = F r ⋅ δ u r + F t ⋅ δ u t = Fb ⋅ δ u t − δ u r )
Virtual work by the internal forces
δ WI =
−F ⋅δ u − F ⋅δ u =
r r t t
− Fb ⋅ δ u − δ u
t r
( ) (9.28)
Virtual elongation
δe = (
b⋅ δu −δu
t r
)
Then, δ WI = − F δ e (9.29)
δ e= ( sin θ i
1 )(
+ cos θ i 2 ⋅ δ u1t i1 + δ u2t i 2 − δ u1r i1 − δ u2r i 2 ) (9.30)
= (δ u − δ u ) sin θ + (δ u − δ u ) cos θ
t
1
r
1
t
2
r
2

truss structures
9.5.2 Solution using Newton’s law
 Internal virtual work for a bar : general planar truss member
5-bars planar truss

Newton’s law → equilibrium conditions at 4 joints A,B,C,D
Total 8 scalar eqn.s (method of joints)
PA − FAD =
0 H A + FAB =
0
PB − FBC − FBD sin θ =

0 − FAB − FBD cos θ =
0
(9.31)
FBC = 0 PC − FCD =
0
VD − FAD − FBD sin θ =

0 H D + FCD + FBD cos θ =
0

9.5 PVW applied to truss structures
9.5.3 Solution using kinematically admissible

virtual displacement
 Eq. (9.31)
 5 corresponding to equilibrium in an unconstrained direction, multiplied by
virtual displacements (kinematically admissible)
[ PA − FAD ]δ u1A + [ PB − FBC − FBD sin θ ]δ u1B
+ [ − FBC − FBD cos θ ] δ u2B + [ FBC ] δ u1C + [ PC − FCD ] δ u2C =0 (9.32)
 Regrouping
δWE

PAδ u1 + PBδ u1 + PCδ u2C
A B
( ) ( )
− FABδ u2B − FADδ u1A − FBC δ u1B − δ u1C − FBD δ u1B sin θ + δ u2B cos θ − FCDδ u2C =
  
0 (9.33)
δ WI = − FABδ eAB − FADδ eAD − FBCδ eBC − FBDδ eBD − FCDδ eCD (9.35)
⟶ δ W = δ WE + δ WI = 0 (9.36)
 Principle 5 (PVW)
A structure is in static equilibrium if the sum of the internal and external virtual
work vanishes for all kinematically admissible displacements.

9.5.4 Solution using arbitrary virtual displacements
 Eq. (9.31)
 8 equilibrium multiplied by a virtual displacement
[ PA − FAD ]δ u1A + [ H A + FAB ]δ u2A + [ PB − FBC − FBD sin θ ]δ u1B
+ [ − FBC − FBD cos θ ] δ u2B + [ FBC ] δ u1C + [ PC − FCD ] δ u2C
+ [VD + FAD + FBD sin θ ] δ u1D + [ H D + FCD + FBD cos θ ] δ u2D = 0 (9.37)
 Regrouping
 δ
WE

PAδ u1 + PBδ u1 + PCδ u2 + H Aδ u2 + VDδ u1 + H Dδ u2D
A B C A D
( ) ( ) (
− FAB δ u2B − δ u2A − FAD δ u1A − δ u1D − FBC δ u1B − δ u1C )
( ) ( ) (
− FBD  δ u1B − δ u1D sin θ + δ u2B − δ u2D cos θ  − FCD δ u2C − δ u2D =

)
0 (9.38)
δ WI
 Principle 6 (PVW)
A structure is in static equilibrium if the sum of the internal and external work
vanishes for all virtual displacements.
Example 9.13 Three-bar truss using PVW

- Simple hyperstatic truss with a single free joint
- Subjected to a vertical load P at joint O, where the three bars are pinned
together
- Cross sectional area of the bars A, B, and C: AA , AB , AC
- Young’s moduli: E A , EB , EC
- Axial stiffness of the three=
bars: k
A ( )A A ( )A
=EA L EA cos θ L ,
k B = ( EA ) B L ,
kC = ( EA )C cos θ L
- Hyperstatic system of order 1, can be solved using either the displacement or

force method (Example 4.4, 4.6)
Three-bar truss configuration with free-body diagram


- Virtual displacement vector for point O
δ u δ u1 i1 + δ u2 i2
=
- Bar virtual elongation for A, B, and C, by Eq. (9.30)
δ eA δ u1 cos θ + δ u2 sin θ ,
=
δ eB = δ u1 ,
δ eC δ u1 cos θ − δ u2 sin θ
=
- PVW: for kinematically admissible virtual displacements
δ=
W δ WE + δ WI
=Pδ u1 − FA (δ u1 cos θ + δ u2 sin θ ) − FBδ u1 − FC (δ u1 cos θ − δ u2 sin θ )
− [ FA cos θ + FB + FC cos θ − P ] δ u1 − sin θ [ FA − FC ] δ u2 =
= 0
- Two bracketed terms must vanish, leading to two equilibrium eqns.
FA cos θ + FB + FC cos θ= P, FA= FC


- PVW: for arbitrary virtual displacements
δ WE =VAδ u1A + H Aδ u2A + VBδ u1B + H Bδ u2B + VCδ u1C + H Cδ u2C + Pδ u1O
− FA ( cos θ i1 + sin θ i2 ) • (δ u1O − δ u1A ) i1 + (δ u2O − δ u2A ) i2 

δ WI =
− FB i1 • (δ u1O − δ u1B ) i1 + (δ u2O − δ u2B ) i2 
− FC ( cos θ i1 − sin θ i2 ) • (δ u1O − δ u1C ) i1 + (δ u2O − δ u2C ) i2 
- Invoking PVW Principle 6
[VA + FA cos θ ]δ u1A + [ H A + FA sin θ ]δ u2A + [VB + FB ]δ u1B + [ H B ]δ u2B

+ [VC + FC cos θ ] δ u1C + [ H C − FC sin θ ] δ u2C
+ [ P − FA cos θ − FB − FC cos θ ] δ u1O + [ FA sin θ − FC sin θ ] δ u2O = 0
- All the bracketed terms must vanish.

9.6 Principle of Complementary
Virtual Work
 Fig. 9.33
⋯ Basic equations of linear elasticity (Chap.1)
 3 Groups equilibrium equations


 strain-displacement relations
 constitutive laws
 Strain compatibility equations:

do not form an independent set
of equations and are not required
to solve elasticity problems
 However, it is a over-determined problem

since 6 strain components are expressed
in terms of 3 displacement components only

Virtual Work
 Solution of any elasticity problem requires 3 groups of basic eqn.s

(Fig. 9.33)
 PVW alone does not provide enough information to solve the problems
⟹ PCVW will augment equilibrium equations and constitutive laws to derive
complete solutions, entirely equivalent to the compatibility equations

Virtual Work
9.6.1 Compatibility equations for a planar truss
 Compatibility conditions
 Fig. 9.34 ⋯ 2-bar truss, arbitrary elongations eA , eC configuration of the truss

compatible with these elongations is easily found
⟶ intersection of 2 circles (of radii LA + eA , LC + eC ) ⟶ O’

Virtual Work
 Fig. 9.35 ⋯ 3-bar truss, again arbitrary elongations eA , eC but configurations of

bar B is now uniquely defined, since it must join B and O’
e=
B LB′ − LB 3 elongations are no longer independent
 Some conclusion can be reached by the elongation-displacement relationship

instead of the geometric reasoning
elongation ⋯ projection of displacement vector along bar`s direction. Eq. (9.27)
= eA u1 cos θ + u2 sin=θ , eC u1 cos θ − u2 sin θ
⋯ for a 2-bar truss, final configuration is uniquely determined if the
2 displacement components, u1 and u2 , are given

Virtual Work
 3-bar truss (Fig. 9.35)

= u1 , eC u1 cos θ − u2 sin θ
eA u1 cos θ + u2 sin θ , eB = = (9.44)
It is not possible to express the 2 displacement components in terms of
3 elongations. Because 3 elongations form an over-determined set for
2 unknown to eliminate 2 displacement components
 However, it is possible to express to eliminate 2 displacement components to obtain

the compatibility equation
eA − 2eB cos θ + eC =
0 (9.45)
⋯ 3 elongation in terms of 2 displacement components
⟶1 compatibility equation
 2-bar truss ⋯ isostatic, order of redundancy, number of equation = 0

3-bar truss ⋯ hyperstatic, number of compatibility equation
= order of redundancy of the hyperstatic problem
 3-bar truss ⋯ 3 force components, 2 equilibrium equations ⟶ hyperstatic of degree

1
3 elongation, 2 displacement components ⟶ 1 compatibility equation

Virtual Work
9.6.2 PCVW for truss
 3-bar truss under applied load
 Fig. 9.36 ⋯ assumed to undergo compatible deformations so that the 3-bar

elongations satisfy the elongation-displacement relationship, Eq.(9.44)
− [ eA − u1 cos θ − u2 sin θ ] δ FA − [ eB − u1 ] δ FB − [ eC − u1 cos θ + u2 sin θ ] δ FC
δW ′ = (9.46)
“Complementary VW” “virtual forces”

δW ′ =
−eAδ FA − eBδ FB − eCδ FC
+u1 (δ FA cos θ + δ FB + δ FC cos θ ) + u2 sin θ (δ FA − δ FC ) =
0 (9.47)

Virtual Work
 Free body diagram ⟶ equilibrium equations

FA cos θ + FB + FC cos θ= P, FA − FC= 0
⋯ A set of forces that satisfies these equilibrium equations is said to be
“statically admissible”
 “statically admissible virtual forces”

δ FA cos θ + δ FB + δ FC cos θ =
0
 (9.48)
δ FA − δ FC = 0
⋯ do not include the externally applied loads since δ P = 0,
geometry of the system is given ⟶ δθ = 0
 Eq. (9.47) becomes much simpler due to Eq.(9.48)

δW ′ =
−eAδ FA − eBδ FB − eCδ FC =
0 (9.49)
for all statically admissible virtual forces
 Eq. (9.49) ⋯ “internal complementary VW”

Nb
δ WI′ = −∑ eiδ Fi
−eAδ FA − eBδ FB − eCδ FC = (9.50)
i =1
Eq. (9.49) ⟶ W ′ δ=
δ= WI′ 0 (9.51)
Virtual Work
 3-bar truss under prescribed displacement
 Fig. 9.37 ⋯ instead of a concentrated load, downward vertical displacement is

prescribed of magnitude Δ
 “driving force” D required to obtain the specified displacement, as yet unknown

[ ] [
Eq. (9.46) ⟶ δ W ′ = − eA − u1 cos θ − u2 sin θ δ FA − eB − u1 + ∆ δ FB]
(9.52)
− [ eC − u1 cos θ + u2 sin θ ] δ FC =0
= −eAδ FA − eBδ FB − eCδ FC − ∆δ FB
(9.53)
+ u1 ( cos θδ FA + δ FB + cos θδ FC ) + u2 sin θ (δ FA − δ FC ) =
0

Virtual Work
 Set of statically admissible virtual forces that satisfy the following equilibrium eqns
δ FA cos θ + δ FB + δ FC cos=
θ 0, δ FA − δ F= 0, δ FB + δ D
= 0 (9.54)
  
 
 C
equilibrium at joint O equilibrium at joint B
 If the virtual forces are required to be statically admissible,

Eq. (9.53) will be simpler
δW ′ =
∆
δ D −eAδ FA − eBδ FB − eCδ FC =
0 (9.55)


external complementary VW ⟶ δ WE′ = ∆δ D (true displacement × virtual) (9.56)

Eq. (9.55) ⟶ δ W ′ = δ WE′ + δ WI ′ = 0 (9.57)
 Principle 7 (PCVW)
A truss undergoes compatible deformations if the sum of the internal and external
complementary VW vanishes for all statically admissible virtual forces

Virtual Work
 If the CVW is required to vanish for all arbitrary virtual forces, i.e., for all
independently chosen arbitrary δ FA , δ FB , δ FC , δ D
⟶ Eq. (9.55) eA = eB = eC = ∆ = 0 ⟶ truss can not deform
⟶ NOT correct
 For statically admissible virtual forces, must satisfy Eq. (9.54),

3 equations for 4 statically admissible virtual forces
⟶ possible to express 3 of the virtual forces in terms of the 4th:
δ FB =
−2δ FA cos θ , δ FC = δ FA , δ D = 2δ FA cos θ
∆ ( 2δ FA cos θ ) − eAδ FA − eB ( −2δ FA cos θ ) − eCδ FA
⟶ PCVW: δ W ′ =
=[ 2∆ cos θ − eA + 2eB cos θ − eC ] δ FA = 0

= 0 ⋯ compatibility equation

Virtual Work
9.6.3 CVW
{ CVW: work done by virtual forces acting through real displacement

VW: work done by real forces acting through virtual displacement
⤷ real quantities remain fixed
 Fig. 9.38 ⋯ not necessarily linear elastic material

u 1 2 1
=
W ∫0
=
kudu =
2
ku
2
Fu
linearly elastic material
F F 1 2 1
W′
= ∫ 0 k
=dF
2K
=F =
2
Fu W
only when linearly elastic material
 Fig. 9.38 ⋯ shaded areas for “VW” and “CVW”

Virtual Work
9.6.4 Application to truss
 Planer truss with a number of bars connected of N nodes
 PVW ⟶ 2N equilibrium equations

PCVW ⟶ n equations produced for a hyperstatic truss of order n
for an isostatic truss, no compatibility equations
 PCVW ⋯ enables the development of the force method,

in general, n≪N, only a few eqn generated ⟶ simpler solution procedure
But major drawback ⋯ must be statically admissible virtual forces,
self-equilibrating, requires much more extensive work for generation of
the equations ⟶ PVW is used much more widely used

Virtual Work
9.6.6 Unit load method for trusses
 PCVW ⟶ “unit load method” ⋯ determine deflections at specific points of structure
 Fig. 9.40 ⋯ 2-bar truss

PCVW, imagine the displacement ∆ prescribed at O,
external complementary work δ WE′ = ∆δ D
δ D : virtual driving force
 PCVW ⟶ δ WE′ + δ WI ′ =∆ −δ WI ′
0, δ D = (9.62)

Virtual Work
 Internal CVW: δ WI ′ = −eAδ FA − eCδ FC

then, Eq. (9.62) ∆δ D = eAδ FA + eCδ FC Nb
∑
for a more general truss consisting of N b bars, ∆δ D =eiδ Fi (9.63)
for all statically admissible virtual forces i =1
δ D, δ FA , δ FC ⋯ a set of statically admissible virtual forces, free body diagrams

⟶ δ FA − δ FC= 0, δ D − (δ FA + δ FC ) cos θ= 0
⋯ 2 equilibrium equations of the system linking 3 virtual forces
 Unit load method ⋯ the virtual driving force is selected to be a unit load, δ D =1
⟶ δ FA = δ FC = ∆δ D / ( 2 cos θ ) =
1/ ( 2 cos θ )
1 ⟶ δ FA
 Simplified notation ⋯ when δ D == δ=
FˆA , δ FC δ FˆC

Nb
Eq. (9.63) ⟶ ∆ =∑ i ei
F
i =1
(9.64)
Fi : actual forces that develop due to the externally applied load must satisfy all
equilibrium conditions, and the associated elongations must be compatible

Fi: the unit forces ⋯ a set of statically admissible forces.
must satisfy the equilibrium equations, but the associated elongations
are NOT required to be compatible.
Virtual Work
Fi Li
 For a linearly elastic material, ei =
 Ei Ai
FFL
Eq. (9.64) ⟶ ∆ =∑ i i i (9.65)
i Ei Ai
 To determine rotation of the structure ⟶ : “unit moment method”

Φδ M = −δ WI′ (9.66)

Virtual Work
 Example. 9.16: Joint deflection in a simple 2-bar truss
- Step 1: determination of the bar forces and extensions due to externally
applied loads
P FA LA FC LC
F= = =eA = , eC
A FC
( 2 cos θ ) ( EA) A ( EA)C
PL 1 PL 1
=eA = ,e
( EA) A 2 cos 2 θ C ( EA)C 2 cos 2 θ
- Step 2: unit load applied at the point and in the direction of the desired
direction component.
1
Fˆ= Fˆ=
A C
( 2 cos θ )

Virtual Work
 Example. 9.16: Joint deflection in a simple 2-bar truss
- Step 3: find the vertical displacement of joint O
 Nb
1 PL 1 PL
=∆1 ∑∑ i ei
=F
i i =1
+
2 cos θ 2 cos 2 θ ( EA ) A 2 cos θ 2 cos 2 θ ( EA )C
PL ( EA ) A + ( EA )C
=
4 cos3 θ ( EA ) A ( EA )C
- Horizontal deflection component

1 1
FˆA = , FˆC = −
( 2sin θ ) ( 2sin θ )
 Nb
1 PL 1 PL
=∆ 2 ∑∑
= Fi ei −
i i =1 2sin θ 2 cos 2 θ ( EA ) A 2sin θ 2 cos 2 θ ( EA )C
PL ( EA) A − ( EA)C
=
4sin θ cos 2 θ ( EA ) A ( EA )C

9.7 Internal virtual work
in beams and solid
9.7.1 Beam bending
( )
 Plane i1 , i2 ⋯ plane of symmetry
M 3 ( x1 ) bending moment, Φ 3 ( x1 ) rotation,
u2 ( x1 ) transverse displacement
 Infinitesimal slice of a beam (Fig. 9.48)

⟶ curvature of the differential element κ 3 =Φ′3 =u2′′
 Work done by the moment acting on the left-hand side: − M 3Φ 3

( (-) since moment and rotation are counted (+) about opposite axes)
Work done by the moment acting on the other side: M 3 ( Φ 3 + d Φ 3 )
 d Φ3 
net work done by the 2 moments: = M 3 d Φ=
dW 3 M 3  dx1
 1 
dx
total internal work done by the moment distribution acting along the beam
L d Φ3 L
−∫ M 3
WI = − ∫ M 3κ 3 dx1
dx1 = (9.66)
0 dx1 0
(-) due to internal moment, which is opposite to externally applied moment

in beams and solid
 Internal VW
L
δ WI = − ∫ M 3δκ 3dx1 (9.66)
0
 Internal CVW
L
δ WI′ = − ∫ κ 3δ M 3dx1
0

in beams and solid
9.7.2 Beam twisting
 Fig. 9.49
⋯ differential rotation of 2 cross section`s
⟶ twist rate of the differential element, κ1 = Φ1′
 Work done by the torque acting on the left-hand side: − M 1Φ1

( (-) due to the torque and rotation are (+) about opposite axes)
Work done by the torque acting on the other side: M 1 ( Φ1 + d Φ1 )
 d Φ1 
net work by 2 torques: = M 1d Φ=
dW 1 M 1  dx1
 1 
dx
total internal work done by the torque distribution
L d Φ1 L
−∫ M1
WI = − ∫ M 1κ1dx1
dx1 = (9.71)
0 dx1 0
(-) due to internal torque

in beams and solid
 Internal VW
L
δ WI = − ∫ M 1δκ1dx1 (9.72)
0
 Internal CVW
L
δ WI′ = − ∫ κ1δ M 1dx1
0
based on the kinematics of Saint-Venant’s theory of uniform torsion

in beams and solid
9.7.3 Three-dimensional solid
 Work done by each 6 stress components are computed separately and then are
summed up
 Axial Stresses
 Fig. 9.50 ⋯ infinitesimal differential element of a solid
work done by the force, σ 1dx2 dx3 , acting on the left side: − (σ 1dx2 dx3 ) u1
( (-) due to that force and displacement are counted (+) in opposite directions)
( )(
work done by the force acting on the other side: σ 1dx2 dx3 u1 + du1 )
 ∂u1 
net work by the 2=
forces: dW (σ=
1dx2 dx3 ) du1 (σ 1dx2 dx3 )   dx1
∂
 1
x
total internal work done by the axial stress distribution
∂u
− ∫ σ 1 1 dx1dx2 dx3 =
WI = − ∫ σ 1ε1dV (9.73)
V ∂x1 V
(-) due to the internal axial stresses

in beams and solid
 Shear stresses
 Due to the principle of reciprocity, shear stress components

will act on right, left edges, also on the top, bottom edges
 Work done by the force, τ 12 dx1dx3, acting on the bottom edges: − (τ 12 dx1dx3 ) u1
( (-) due to that force and displacement are opposite )
( )(
Work done by the force, τ 12 dx1dx3, acting on the top edges: τ 12 dx1dx3 u1 + du1 )
∂u2
=
 Net work done by these 2 forces: dW (τ=
12 dx1dx3 ) du1 (τ12 dx1dx3 ) dx2
∂x2
(
 Work done by τ 12 dx2 dx3 , acting on the left edge: − τ 12 dx2 dx3 u2 )
( (-) due to that force and displacement are counted (+) in opposite direction )
Work done by τ 12 dx2 dx3 , acting on the right edge: (τ 12 dx2 dx3 )( u2 + du2 )
∂u2
 Net work done by these =
2 forces: dW (τ=
12 dx2 dx3 ) du2 (τ12 dx2 dx3 ) dx1
∂x1

in beams and solid
 Total internal work by the shear stress distribution

 ∂u ∂u 
− ∫ τ 12  1 + 2  dx1dx2 dx3 =
WI = − ∫ τ 12γ 12 dV (9.72)
V ∂
 2x ∂x1 
V
( (-) due to the internal shear stresses )

in beams and solid
 Total work done by all 6 stress components

− ∫ (σ 1ε1 + σ 2ε 2 + σ 3ε 3 + τ 23γ 23 + τ 13γ 13 + τ 12γ 12 ) dV
WI = (9.75)
V
= − ∫ σ T ε dV (9.76)
V
 Internal virtual work δ WI = − ∫ σ T δε dV

V (9.77)
 Internal CVW work δ WI = − ∫ ε δσ dV
T
V

in beams and solid
9.7.4 Euler-Bernoulli beam
 Viewed as a 3-dim. Solid

⋯ in Euler-Bernoulli beam, all strain components vanish, except for the axial strain
− ∫ ∫ σ 1 ( ε1 + x3κ 2 − x2κ 3 ) dAdx1

L
Eq. (9.75) ⟶ WI − ∫ σ 1ε1dV =
=
V 0 A
=− ∫
0
L
{∫ σ dA ε + ∫ σ x dA κ + −∫ σ x dA κ } dx
A 1 1 A 1 3 2 A 1 2 3 1
↓ ↓ ↓
N1 by Eq. (5.8) M2 M 3 by Eq. (5.10)
− ∫ ( N1ε1 + M 2 x2 + M 3 x3 ) dx1
L
WI = (9.78)
0
− ∫ ( N1δε1 + M 2δκ 2 + M 3δκ 3 ) dx1

L
 Internal VW δ WI =
0
(9.79)
− ∫ ( ε1δ N1 + κ 2δ M 2 + κ 3δ M 3 ) dx1
L
 Internal CVW δ WI′ =
0

in beams and solid
9.7.6 Unit load method for beams
 If ∆ is prescribed of a point of the beam
 PCVW, Eq. (9.57) ⟶ ∆δ D + δ WI′ = 0

for statically admissible virtual forces, (δ D : virtual driving force)
 By Eq. (9.79b),
∫ (ε δ N + κ 2δ M 2 + κ 3δ M 3 ) dx1
L
δD
∆= 1 1 (9.80)
0
  
 δ D = 1 and δ N1 = N1 , δ M 2 = M 1 , δ M 3 = M 3: resulting
statically admissible axial forces and bending moments
  
∫( )
L
=∆ N1ε1 + M 2κ 2 + M 3κ 3 dx1 (9.81)
0

in beams and solid
{
 If linearly elastic material
the origin of the axis system is at the centroid of the cross section
⟶ sectional constitutive law, Eq. (6.13) is applicable
  
=

L N N
∆ ∫  1 1+
M 2 H C
33 M 2 + H C
(
23 M 3
+
M 3 H C
23 M 2 )
+ H C
22 M3( )  dx (9.82)
∆H ∆H
1
0
 S 
=
∆ H H 22
C C
H 33 − H 23
C C
H 23
 If the principal axes of bending
  
L  N1 N1 M 2 M 2 M 3 M 3 
=∆ ∫0

 S
+
H C
22
+
H C
33 
 dx1 (9.83)

in beams and solid
 Example. 9.19: Deflection of a tip-loaded cantilevered beam
• Cantilevered beam of length L subjected to a concentrated load P at beams
tip, α = 1
- evaluation of the bending moment distribution under the externally applied
loads
( x1 ) P ( x1 − L )
M3 =
- vertical unit load applied at the tip
Mˆ 3 ( x1 ) =
−1( x1 − L )
- tip deflection by Eq. (9.83)
Mˆ 3 M 3 L  P ( x1 − L )   − ( x1 − L )  PL3
∆=∫
L
dx1 = ∫     dx1 = −
0 H 33c 0 H 33c 3H 33c

9.8 Application of the unit method
to hyperstatic problem
 Unit load method

⋯ determination of 2 sets of statically admissible forces corresponding to
2 distinct loading cases
{① associated with the externally applied loads

② associated with the unit load
⟶ applied equally to iso- and hyperstatic systems
 Hyperstatic systems
{displacement or stiffness method

force or flexibility method
⋯ focuses on the determination of internal forces / moments and reactions
key step: development of the compatibility equations
PCVW ⋯ equivalent to the compatibility equations
⟶ logical to combine the force method with PCVW
 Force method
⋯ intuitively described as “method of cuts”
for each cut, the order of the hyperstatic system is decreased by 1.
statically admissible forces are then solely obtained from the equilibrium equations

 2 crucial step
① determine the relative displacements at the cuts under
the externally applied load alone
② evaluate the internal forces applied at the cuts that are required to eliminate
the relative displacements at the cuts
⟶ PCVW is a powerful total to solve both problems
 Fig. 9.65 ⋯ single bar of truss

 R: set of self-equilibrating forces applied at the cut
 C external VW δ WE′ = d1δ R − d 2δ R =( d1 − d 2 ) δ R
relative displacement at the cut: ∆= d1 − d 2
 PCVW, Eq. (9.57) ⋯ δ WE′ + δ WI′ = 0
⟶ ∆δ R = −δ WI′ (9.84)
⋯ very similar to Eq. (9.62), but ∆ : relative displacement at the cut,
δ R : set of self-equilibrating virtual forces applied at the cut

 Right of Fig. 9.65 ⋯ a cantilevered beam

 C external VW: δ WE′ =
θ1δ M − θ 2δ M =
(θ1 − θ 2 )δ M
 PCVW ⟶ Φδ M = −δ WI′ (9.85)

9.8.1 Force method for trusses
 Fig. 9.66
⋯ 3-bar hyperstatic truss, hyperstatic system of order 1,
a single cut is applied at the middle bar
Then, the actual system is viewed as a superposition of 2 problem

① Isostatic system subjected to the externally applied loads

 Unit load method is directly applicable
Nb
Fi Fi Li
∆C =∑ i =1 ( EA)i
(9.86)
where Fi : bar forces subjected to the externally applied loads


Fi : statically admissible virtual forces corresponding to the
self-equilibrating unit load system applied at the cut
F=A F=C P / ( 2 cos θ ) , F=B 0
  
FA = FC = −1/ ( 2 cos θ ) , FB =1
 1 1  PL
⟶ ∆ C =−  + 
 ( EA ) ( )C  4 cos3 θ
EA
 A
② Internal force system

⋯ Relative displacement at the cut, ∆1 , due to a unit internal force in bar B
2Nb
F L
 Eq. (9.84) ⟶ ∆1 =∑ i i (9.87)
i =1 ( EA )i
L k A + kC + 4k A kC cos3 θ
∆1 =
( EA)B 4 cos3 θ k A kC
③ Superposition of 2 loading cases

 Compatibility condition at the cut
∆ C + R∆1 =0 (9.88)
∆ k A + kC
⟶ R=
− C = (9.89)
∆1 k A + kC + 4k A kC cos3 θ

 Bar forces Fi + RFi , i = 1, 2,  , N b (9.90)

9.8.2 Force method for beams
 Beam structures becomes hyperstatic due to the presence of multiple supports
 Fig. 9.70
⋯ cantilevered beam with additional mid-span support
⟶ additional reaction R
 Eliminating or cutting the appropriate number of supports to render the beam isostatic

i) ∆ C is computed by unit load method, Eq. (9.83)

L M 3M 3
∆C =∫ 0 C
H 33
dx1 (9.91)
M 3 ( x1 ) : bending moment distribution in the isostatic beam subjected to the

 externally applied loads
M 3 ( x1 ): statically admissible bending moment distribution in the isostatic beam
subjected to a set of self-equilibrating unit forces applied at the support
ii) ∆1 relative deflection at the support due to a set of self-equilibrating,

unit load. Eq. (9.84)

M 32
L
∆1 =∫ dx1 (9.92)
0 HC
33
iii) Displacement compatibility equation at the support

∆ C + R∆1 =0 (9.93)  R = −∆ C / ∆1 (9.94)
reaction forces : FA + RFA
 at the root
bending moments : M A + RM A 
bending moments distribution M 3 ( x1 ) + RM 3 ( x1 )

 Alternative way to eliminate the support (or “releasing one constraint”)

⋯ Replacement of the root clamp by a simple support (Fig. 9.71)
i) Φ C : relative root rotation in the isostatic structure, Eq (9.85)

ii) Φ1 : associated root rotation
iii) root rotation compatibility eqn. : Φ + M Φ =0, M A = −Φ C / Φ1
C A 1

 Example. 9.29: Cantilevered beam with a tip support

• Cantilevered beam of length L subjected to a uniform loading distribution po
- Isostatic system: the tip support is eliminated (tip constraint is released)
- Tip deflection of the beam by unit load method
bending moment distribution in the isostatic beam
M 3 (η ) =
− po L2 (1 − η ) 2 2,η =
x1 L
- statically admissible bending moment distribution associated with a unit load
applied at the tip
Mˆ 3 (η
= ) L (1 − η )
- tip deflection of the isostatic beam
Mˆ 3 M 3 po L po L3
(1 − η ) dη =− c
L L
∆ c =∫ ∫
3
dx1 =−
0 H 33c 2 H 33c 0 8 H 33

- tip deflection of the isostatic beam subjected to a set of self-equilibrating tip

unit loads by unit load method
Mˆ 32 ( x1 ) L3 L3
∫ (1 − η )
L L
∆1 =∫ dη = c
2
dx1 =− c
0 H 33c H 33 0 3H 33
- Compatibility condition, Eq. (9.93), allows determination of the reaction force

at the tip support
∆ c po L4 3H 33c 3 po L
R=
− =c =
∆1 8 H 33 L 3
8
- Solution of the original hyperstatic problem: by superposition

Bending moment distribution
po L2 3 po L2 po L2 
(1 − η ) + (1 − η ) = 3 (1 − η ) − 4 (1 − η ) 
2
M 3 + RM 3 =
ˆ −
2 8 8

Q&A
Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

Chapter 09 - 1

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Aircraft Structures

Prof. SangJoon Shin

Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab.

Newton’s equilibrium condition : The sum of all force (regardless of externally

Analytical mechanics : powerful tools for complex problems

Principle of virtual work (PVW) Newton’s law

2 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

9.2.1 Static equilibrium conditions

• A particle is in static equilibrium if and only if the sum of the externally

• A particle is in static equilibrium iff ∑F = 0 (9.1)

(2) The vector polygon must be closed.

9.2.1 Static equilibrium conditions

Newton’s 3rd law : If particle A exerts a force on particle B, particle B

• Two interacting particles exert on each other forces of equal magnitude,

Euler’s 1st law

system consisting of N particles

Particle i subjected to an external force F i , N − 1

Newton’s 1st law

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9.2.1 Static equilibrium conditions

Summation of N eqns. for N particles

By Newton’s 3rd law,

Euler’s 1st law for a system of particles

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9.2.1 Static equilibrium conditions

Euler’s 2nd law

by r i , then summing over all particles

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9.2.2 Concept of mechanical work

1. force, displacement, collinear : F = Fu , d = du , W = Fd

2. not collinear : W = Fd cos θ , θ angle between u and v

• F = F1 e1 + F2 e 2 + F3 e3 , d r = dr1 e1 + dr2 e 2 + dr3 e3 , dW =F ⋅ d r =F1dr1 + F2 dr2 + F3 dr3

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9.2.2 Concept of mechanical work

• Why is work a quantity of interest for the static analysis?

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• “arbitrary virtual displacement”, “arbitrary test virtual displacement”

• arbitrary : Displacement can be chosen arbitrarily without any

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9.3.1 PVW for a single particle

particle in static equilibrium under a set of externally

virtual work done

Assume that one of the externally applied forces, F 1 , is

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9.3.1 PVW for a single particle

Example 9.1 Equilibrium of a particle

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9.3.1 PVW for a single particle

Example 9.2 Equilibrium of a particle connected to an

But, s1 = 0 is not valid because, as implied by the

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9.3.1 PVW for a single particle

Consider the work done by the elastic force, − kui1 ⋅ dui1 ,

It is possible to remove the elastic force, − ku , from

In this case, the real work includes an additional term

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9.3.1 PVW for a single particle

Example 9.3 Equilibrium of a particle sliding on a

W = (mgi1 − Ri1 + Pi 2 − Fi 2 ) ⋅ ( s1 i1 + s2 i 2 ) = [mg − R]s1 + [ P − F ]s2 = 0 (9.11)

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9.3.2 Kinematically admissible virtual displacement

 “arbitrary virtual displacements” : including those that violate the kinematic