Regents Chemistry – Mr.

Lin Master Outline

Unit 1 – Atomic Structure

I. Scientific Notation – simplifying a number by indicating the number of places that the decimal can be moved as to
eliminate the zeros present
A. This is based upon the rules for displaying numbers in powers of ten
i. Place the decimal point after the first non-zero digit
ii. Count the number of places the decimal point has moved.
a. If the decimal place has moved to the left then multiply by a positive power of 10; to the right will result
in a negative power of 10.
iii. Examples:
a. 1001 = 1.001 x 103
b. 0.00361 = 3.61 x 10-3
c. 6926300000 = 6.9263 x 109
d. -0.0038 = -3.8 x 10-3
II. The Metric System – the system of units used in Chemistry. We do not use the Imperial System (feet, inches,
pounds)

A. Prefixes used in the metric system

III. Dimensional Analysis - This method helps us convert one unit to another.
A. In each calculation we aim to cancel the given unit in order to convert to the desired unit.
i. Ex. How many eggs are there in 2 dozen eggs?
a. Format: (Given Unit) (Desired Unit)= Desired unit
(Given Unit)

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 b.
ii. Ex. How many grams are there in 5.5kg?

Format: (5.5 kg) (1000 g) = 5,500 g

(1 kg)
IV. Significant Figures - The numbers reported in a measurement are limited by the accuracy of the measuring tool and
therefore reported numbers must represent these inaccuracies
A. Significant figures in a measurement include the known digits plus one estimated digit
i. Counting Sig. Figs.
a. All non-zero digits in a measured number are significant
- 38.15 = 4 significant figures
- 5.6 = 2 sig. figs.
b. Leading zeros in decimal numbers are not significant
- 0.008 = 1 sig fig
- 0.0156 = 3 sig figs
c. Trailing zeros in numbers without decimals are not significant
- 25,000 = 2 sig figs
- 200 = 1 sig fig
d. Trailing zeros in numbers with decimals are significant
- 780. = 3 sig figs.
- 25,400.0 = 6 sig figs.
e. Zeros between nonzero numbers are significant.
- 2001 = 4 sig figs.
- 0.702 = 3 sig figs.

V. Significant Figures in Calculations - A calculated answer cannot be more precise than the least accurate measuring
tool therefore, a calculated answer must match the least precise measurement
A. Significant figures are needed for final answers from adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing
B. Adding and Subtracting
i. The answer has the same number of decimal places as the measurement with the fewest decimal places
a. Ex. 25.2 + 1.34 = 26.54 (normally) → 26.5 (correct answer)
b. Ex. 235.05 + 19.6 + 2.1 = 256.8
C. Multiplying and Dividing
i. Round the calculated answer until you have the same number of significant figures as the measurement with
the fewest significant figures.
a. Ex. 2.19 x 4.2 = 9.2
b. Ex. 4.311 / 0.07 = 60 (this answer is 1 sig fig)

VI. Chemistry – the study of matter, its properties, its composition, and the energy changes involved.
A. Matter - anything that has mass and occupies space
B. NOT matter examples: time, sound, heat, energy, gravity
C. Matter is broken down into two categories:
i. Substances - any variety of matter which have identical properties and composition
a. Element – cannot be broken down by chemical means
- Any element that reacts must be an element in the products of the reaction (the law of conversation
of mass)
b. Compound – Made up of many elements and can be broken down chemically

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 -Compounds are in a fixed ratio. (water will always be H2O / carbon dioxide will always be CO2)
-If a chemical formula in its entirety (ex. LiOH) is not listed as an element symbol on the Periodic
Table of Elements, it is not an element. LiOH is a compound made from the elements Li (lithium),
O (oxygen), and H (hydrogen).
ii. Mixtures - combinations of two or more pure substances in which each substance retains its own
composition and properties
- *There are no fixed ratios in mixtures.*
a. Homogeneous Mixture – does NOT contain any visibly different parts (same throughout)
- Salt water, air, milk (not expired)
- Solutions - A homogeneous mixture where something (solute) is dissolved in something else
(solvent)
o When something is dissolved in water, we call this an aqueous (aq) solution.
b. Heterogeneous Mixture – visibly different parts (not the same throughout)
- Sand in water, salad, cereal bar
VII. Particle Diagrams
A. How to draw/distinguish them for mixtures, compounds, and elements.

i. X is a compound (element A and B are combined as one)

ii. Y is an element despite having two white circles combined, they are still the same circles (element A)
iii. Z is a mixture (elements A and B are separated in the container but are in the same container)
VIII. Physical vs. Chemical Properties
A. Physical Property – quality of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing the substance’s
identity
i. Ex. Boiling point, Color, Slipperiness, Electrical conductivity, Melting point, Taste, Odor, Dissolves in
water, Shininess (luster), Softness, Ductility, Viscosity (resistance to flow), Volatility, Hardness,
Malleability, Density (mass / volume ratio)
B. Chemical Property – any of a material's properties that becomes evident during a chemical reaction.
i. Chemical properties cannot be determined just by viewing or touching the substance
- Flammability, Corrosion, Ability to Rust
IX. Physical vs. Chemical Changes
A. Physical Change – usually a change in phase while the substance stays constant. No changes are made chemically.
i. Ex. Ice melting, evaporation, condensation, freezing, cutting, chopping, breaking, crumpling
B. Chemical Change - involves changes in the chemical composition of the compounds, no matter the phase.
i. Ex. Burning, color change, cooking, corroding, rusting
X. Different separation techniques and their uses
A. Filtration – used to separate suspended particles from mixtures usually through filter paper and a simple funnel.
Liquids will go through the funnel while suspended particles will stay on the filter paper.

i.

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 B. Distillation – used to separate solid-liquid mixtures and liquid-liquid mixtures (boiling point difference) such as
water and alcohol

C. Chromatography – to separate dyes and other soluble (dissolvable) materials from insoluble ones (we learn what
these terms mean in a later unit) through different polarities of the materials.
D. Summary Chart

XI. History of the atom - the smallest particle of an element that retains the chemical identity of that element.
A. Democritus – Greek philosopher proposed that all matter was composed of tiny indestructible / indivisible particles
called atoms (atomos = Greek for indivisible).
B. Billiard Ball Model – viewed the atom as a small solid sphere (aka Solid Sphere Model)
i. Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. All elements are composed of atoms (Greek, “atomos” – indivisible)
2. All atoms of the same element are exactly alike: they have the same mass
3. Atoms of different elements are different.
4. Compounds are formed by the joining of atoms in different ratios
C. J.J. Thomson discovers electrons using the cathode ray experiment from William Crookes.
D. Plum Pudding Model – the atom was a sphere of positive electricity (which was diffused) with negative particles
imbedded throughout after discovering the electron

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 E. Gold Foil Experiment –
i. What discoveries were found from this experiment?
1. The atom is mostly empty space
2. Size of the nucleus is small compared to the rest of the atom
3. Nucleus is small but dense
4. Nucleus has a positive charge
F. Bohr Model (Planetary Model) – electrons travel in stationary orbits around the nucleus
1. the emission of light occurs when an electron moves into a lower energy orbit.

G. Electron Cloud Model/Wave Mechanical Model – An atom consists of a dense nucleus composed of protons and
neutrons surrounded electrons that exist in different regions or clouds in which electrons would most likely be found.

H. The modern model of the atom is based on the work of many scientists over a long period of time.
XII. Subatomic (smaller than the atom) particles and their properties
A. Protons (p+) – positive charge and weighs 1 amu (1 U) – located in the nucleus
B. Neutrons (no) – no charge and weighs 1 amu (1 U) – located in the nucleus
C. Electrons (e-) – negative charge and weighs nothing – located outside and orbits around the nucleus (doesn’t affect the
charge of the nucleus)
* Nucleons = protons or neutrons (things in the nucleus)*
XIII. The Periodic Table – Use Table S for more detailed properties of the elements
A. Chemical Symbol – shorthand notation of a chemical’s name
i. First letter is always capitalized. Second letter (if applicable) is lower-case
B. Atomic Number – identifying number of an element = number of protons = number of electrons (in a neutral atom).
i. Atomic number (or protons) cannot change without changing the element
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 C. Atomic Mass – the mass of an element based on isotopic abundances. It is also the average mass of the element as it
is found in nature (usually not a whole number)
XIV. Mass Number – equal to the number of neutrons + protons
i. Mass number is NOT the same as atomic mass (mass number is always a whole number)
ii. When not given the mass number, use the rounded atomic mass to calculate the number of neutrons.
XV. Isotope Notation/Nuclear Notation

XVI. Calculating Gram Formula Mass (GFM) – *sometimes called Molecular Weight* – The total atomic mass (in grams)
of all the elements in a given compound.
A. The total weight of all elements in a compound
i. Ex. CaCO3 (1 mole) = 1 calcium (Ca) + 1 carbon (C) + 3 oxygen (O)
➔ 40 + 12 + (3 x 16) = 100 g/mol
ii. Ex. K2CO3 (2 moles) = 2 potassium (K) + 1 carbon (C) + 3 oxygen (O)
➔ (2 x 39) + 12 + (3 x 16) = 138 g/mol
➔ 138 g/mol x 2 moles = 276 grams per 2 moles
XVII. Calculating Gram Atomic Mass (GAM) – The weighted average of all the relative abundances of the isotopes of a
given element.
A. Includes:
i. How many stable isotopes are found in nature
ii. The mass of each of the isotopes
iii. Percent abundance of each of the isotopes
B. The percentages become the decimals in your calculations
C. Ex. Bromine has two isotopes, Br-79 and Br-81. Their abundances are 51% and 49% respectively. Calculate
bromine’s GAM.
i. 79 x (.51) + 81 x (.49) = 79.98 g
*do not divide by the number of isotopes!*
XVIII. Isotopes - an element that has the same number of protons (same atomic number) but different number of
neutrons (different mass numbers).
A. Different atoms of the same element can have different mass numbers depending on how many neutrons they have.
XIX. Bohr Theory - Electrons travel in an orbit around the nucleus in Principal Energy Levels or PELs (discrete energy
states).
A. The PEL’s each have a level of energy content. PEL #1 is lowest in energy and energy increases as you go higher in
energy level. Lower energy levels are preferred by nature.
1. Each orbit (principal energy level) has a specific fixed energy
2. Fixed energies are called energy levels
3. Electrons move between the energy levels
4. To move from one level to another, an electron may either gain or lose a specific amount of energy
5. In general, the higher the electron is in energy, the further it is away from the nucleus
XX. Electron Configurations – how electrons are arranged in an atom/ion
A. Ground State – Lowest energy level of an electron where it has not absorbed any energy to become excited.
i. Ex. Ground state configuration of Cl = 2-8-7 (read straight from the periodic table)
ii. Ex. Ground state configuration of S = 2-8-6
B. Excited State – When an electron absorbs energy and shifts to a higher energy level.
i. Ex. Possible excited state configurations of Cl (answers may vary) = 2-7-8 / 1-8-7 / 2-8-6-1
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 ii. Ex. Possible excited state configurations of S (answers may vary) = 2-8-5-1 / 2-7-7 / 1-8-7
XXI. Quanta - Specific amount of energy released when an electron goes from excited state to a lower energy state.
A. An electron absorbs energy (such as heat) and jumps to a higher energy level. This higher energy state is unstable
therefore the electron wants to lose all this extra energy. When the energy is given off, it is given off in the form of
light which we can call quanta.

XXII. Valence Electrons – Electrons that are located in an atom’s outermost shell (energy level). These are the electrons
that determine the chemical properties of an element
A. The max electrons each principal energy level (P.E.L.) can hold follows the formula 2n2 where n is the number of
the energy level.
i. Ex. The third energy level can hold a max of 2(32) electrons, or 18 electrons.
XXIII. Lewis Dot Diagrams/Valence Dot Diagrams/Electron Dot Diagrams - Simple shorthand model representing the
number of valence electrons in an atom
A. Consists of: element symbol and dots surrounding the symbol representing valence electrons.
B. Each side (not corners) can hold a max of 2 dots or electrons, therefore the 4 sides around the element symbol can
hold a total of 8 electrons.
C. The dots in an electron dot diagram must follow this fill order: “First two go together, single, single, single, paired,
paired, paired”
i. Fill the electrons in the same direction as you started with. If you start filling clockwise, finish it clockwise
until you run out of valence electrons.
XXIV. Spectral Lines/Balmer Series – When electrons are excited to a higher energy state and then they fall back down, the
amount of energy that is released corresponds to a specific color of light.
A. Spectral Lines are unique to each element. No two elements will have the same set of spectral lines. Therefore,
spectral lines are often referred to as the fingerprints of elements.
XXV. Ions (definition and how do we find the ion of an element with its charge) – An atom that has gained or lost an
electron(s).
A. Cation - As an atom loses electrons it loses negative charge (because electrons are negative) and the atom will
become positive.
B. Anion - As atoms gain electrons they gain a negative charge and become more negative.
C. Drawing dot diagrams for Nonmetal Ions: Anions (Ex. F-, Cl-, O2-)
i. Draw element symbol
ii. Give the element full octet
iii. Draw square brackets around the diagram
iv. Write the charge of the ion on the outside right-hand corner of the bracket
D. Drawing dot diagrams for Metal Ions: Cations (Ex. Mg2+, Li+, Ca2+)
i. Write element symbol
ii. Do NOT give the element an octet
iii. Draw square brackets around the element symbol

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 iv. Write the charge of the ion on the outside right-hand corner of the bracket.
XXVI. Octet Rule – Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons in order to acquire a full set of valence electrons, which is 8
electrons.
A. The Noble Gases (Inert Gases = don’t react) - The noble gases all already have a full valence shell and are stable
therefore these gases do not tend to lose or gain electrons. Group 18 elements.
XXVII. Duet Rule - Some atoms do not have enough protons to hold onto 8 electrons, instead they are satisfied with 2
electrons in their outermost principle energy level.
A. Ex. H, He, Li, Be
B. Exception* - Boron prefers 6 electrons in its outermost P.E.L, making its ion configuration 2-6

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 Unit 2 – Periodic Trends

I. Periods and Groups

A. The Periodic Table can be viewed as horizontal rows (aka periods) and vertical columns (aka groups).
B. Elements in the same group are more similar to each other than elements in the same period due to elements in the
same group having the same number of valence electrons. Since valence electrons determine the properties of many
elements and are the key electrons involved in bonding, elements in groups (also called families) will behave
similarly to each other.
1. In general, metals are on the left side of the Periodic Table.
2. In general, nonmetals are on the right side of the Periodic Table.
3. Metalloids are on the right side of the Periodic Table. All elements on top of the staircase are metalloids and
the two elements in the middle below the staircase are metalloids as well.
a. Metalloids include B, Si, As, Te, At (on top of staircase) and Ge, Sb (below the staircase in the
middle)
II. The Trends – the Periodic Table is filled with trends that relate the elements and compare them to one another. The
Periodic Table is also arranged by increasing atomic number, since the atomic numbers are the identities of the elements,
if you change the atomic number, the element changes.
A. Electronegativity - the tendency of an element to attract electrons. Refer to Reference Table S for values.
1. aka how badly an element wants to hold onto its electrons.
2. As we go from left to right across a period on the periodic table the electronegativity will increase.
a. Fluorine (chemical symbol: F) is the most electronegative element.
1. Fluorine has an electronegativity of 4.0 (Reference Table S) and is the most electronegative element. Think
of fluorine as having a perfect 4.0 GPA (grade point average).
2. Fluorine is that student who gets a 99% on their test by getting 1 point off for a rounding error. They are the
most desperate for that one point. The points represent electrons.
b. As long as you remember that fluorine is the most electronegative element, you know that as you head
towards fluorine on a group or period, electronegativity is increasing.

B. First Ionization Energy - the amount of energy it takes to remove the first valence electron from an atom. Refer to
Reference Table S for values.
1. The higher this value, the harder it is the remove the first valence electron.
a. As we go from left to right across a period on the periodic table the first ionization energy will increase.
b. Going from left to right you are starting from metals (want to lose electrons for their octet) and ending in
nonmetals (want to gain electrons for their octet). Therefore, metals will have a lower first ionization
energy compared to nonmetals.
c. As we go from top to bottom in a group on the periodic table the first ionization energy will decrease.
d. The further down a group you go, the larger the elements get. Larger molecules are much easier to take
electrons from and thus have lower first ionization energy.
2. Think someone trying to hold onto 100 separate dollar bills versus someone trying to hold onto 1 dollar bill.
Who will have an easier time holding onto all their money?

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C. Atomic Radii - the size of the atom from the center of the nucleus to its outermost electron. Refer to Reference
Table S for values.
1. As we go from left to right across a period on the periodic table the atomic radii of atoms will decrease.
a. The reason for this is because as you go left to right on a period, the number of protons in the nucleus of
the atom increases, making the pull of the nucleus on the electrons stronger thus bringing them closer to
the center. Although the number of electrons also increases across a period, the electrons are still in the
SAME shell (outermost shell in this case) and having more electrons on the same shell doesn’t increase
the atom’s radius.
2. As we go from top to bottom in a group on the periodic table the atomic radii of atoms will increase.
a. As we go down a group, the atoms are holding much more electrons and have many more shells filled
with electrons and will be bigger.
3. Think francium (Fr) or cesium (Cs) as being the biggest elements. Every movement closer to those elements
will be an increase in atomic radius or size.
D. Density – how many particles are packed in a given volume. Refer to Reference Table S for values.
1. As we go from left to right across a period on the periodic table the density of atoms will increase for metals
and decrease for nonmetals
a. Density increases and you go towards the center of the Periodic Table.
2. As we go from top to bottom in a group on the periodic table the density of atoms will increase.

E. Metallic Character – how closely to a metal an element behaves.

a. As we go from left to right across a period on the periodic table the metallic character of an element will
decrease.
1. Left to right across and period is heading towards nonmetals and therefore the elements will start behaving
more like nonmetals and less like metals.
b. As we go from top to bottom in a group on the periodic table the metallic character of an element will
increase.
1. Think of Fr or Cs as being the most metallic elements. Heading towards those two elements will increase
metallic character.

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F. Nonmetallic Character - how closely to a nonmetal an element behaves.
A. As we go from left to right across a period on the periodic table the nonmetallic character of an element will
increase.
1. As you go left to right across a period, you are heading towards nonmetals so nonmetallic character
increases.
B. As we go from top to bottom in a group on the periodic table the nonmetallic character of an element will
decrease.
1. Once again, Fr and Cs are the most metallic elements so going from top to bottom within a group will be
heading towards more metallic elements, therefore there is a decrease in nonmetallic character.

G. Boiling/Melting Points – the temperature at which an element boils/melts. Refer to Reference Table S for values.
1. The trends for boiling and melting points are much less distinct that the other trends. Always write down the
values from Table S and use that information to help you solve the problem.
H. Reactivity – how reactive an element is. For metals, the more reactive: the more easily the metal loses electrons. For
nonmetals, the more reactive: the less easily a nonmetal loses electrons.
1. For nonmetals, reactivity increases as you go from left to right on a period and decreases as you go from
top to bottom within a group. Fluorine is the most reactive nonmetal
2. For metals, reactivity decreases as you go left to right on a period and increases as you go from top to
bottom within a group. Fr (or Cs) is the most reactive metal.

I. Ionic Radius – metals get smaller as they become ions because they lose electrons. Nonmetals get larger as they
become ions because they gain electrons.

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J. Properties of metals, nonmetals, and metalloids
Metals Nonmetals Metalloids

Ductile – roll into wires Brittle – break easily Have some properties of
metals and nonmetals

Malleable – can hammer into Lack luster

thin sheets
Good conductors of heat and Poor conductors of heat and
electricity electricity

Shiny luster Gain electrons to become anions

Lose electrons to become S, P, O, N, C, H, Se, F, Cl, Br, I B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, At
cations and Group 18. “Along the black line”
Not aluminum!

Make up 2/3 of Periodic Can be used as

Table. semiconductors for computer
technology.

K. The Families of the Periodic Table

1. Group 1 – Alkali Metals
a. The most reactive metals on the periodic table
b. Reactivity increases as a metallic character increases or as we go down the group.

2. Group 2 – Alkaline Earth Metals

a. Still reactive metals but not as reactive as Group 1 metals.
b. Reactivity increases as a metallic character increases or as we go down the group.

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3. Groups 14 and 15
a. Have nonmetals like carbon and nitrogen; semimetals like silicon and arsenic, and metals like tin, lead
and bismuth.
b. Carbon is essential to life. Carbon has many forms such as diamond, graphite, and coal (allotropes –
same element, different structures and properties). Si (silicon) – earth’s crust and computer chips.
4. Metalloids (purple shown below) – see I.B.3.a bullet above for details

5. Group 16 – Chalcogens (not that important to know)

a. comes from Greek “chalcos” meaning “ore formers”. They are all found in copper ores.

6. *Group 17 – Halogens*
a. Most reactive nonmetals on the periodic table.
b. F and Cl are diatomic gases. Br is a diatomic liquid at room temperature and I is a diatomic solid that
can sublime.

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 7. The Diatomic Elements – “start at 7, make a 7, don’t forget hydrogen!” / Professor Brinclhof (Br, I, N, Cl,
H, O, F)

a. Start at atomic number 7 (nitrogen), make the shape of a 7, and don’t forget to include hydrogen. These
are your diatomic elements therefore, in nature they are found in pairs only (H2, O2, Cl2, etc.) and never
by themselves (never as H, O, Cl, etc.).
8. Group 18 – The Noble Gases (aka Inert Gases)
a. Generally, these elements do not react because they have their octet already. They have high first
ionization energies.

9. Groups 3-12 – Transition Metals

a. Can form multiple ions with multiple oxidation states.
b. Transition elements are famous for forming colored solutions. Fe in hemoglobin is red, Cu in
solution is blue.

L. STP = Standard Temperature and Pressure (Table A)

a. Standard temperature is 0 Celsius = 273 Kelvin
b. Standard pressure = 1 atm
c. Room temperature is about 25 Celsius

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 Unit 3 – Bonding

A. Ionic Bonds - a bond formed between two ions by the transfer of electrons.
1. Metals lose electrons and become metal cations.
a. Driving force to lose or gain electrons is the octet rule.
i. Octet Rule – Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons in order to acquire a full set of valence
electrons, which is 8 electrons.
2. Nonmetals gain electrons and become nonmetal anions.
a. Driving force to lose or gain electrons is the octet rule.
i. Note: Hydrogen and Helium follow the duet rule. Boron follows its own rule where it is stable with 6
outer electrons.
B. Ionic Compounds
1. Compounds composed of cations and anions.
2. Usually composed of metals and nonmetals
3. Although the compounds are composed of ions, the final compound is neutral
4. Total (+) charge of cations = Total (-) charge of anions
a. Steps for Drawing Ionic Compounds
i. Determine the metal and nonmetal
ii. Draw the Lewis Diagrams for each element
iii. Draw arrows to show transfer of electrons
iv. Metals no electrons/ nonmetals octet
v. Add the charges for the ions after putting brackets around each element. Use a coefficient (number in
front of the bracket) to indicate more than 1 of each cation or anion.

Ex.
C. Criss-Cross Method
1. Bring down the charges of ions to find the subscripts and thus the formula of the compound
2. If you don’t see a number for the subscript or charge, assume it is 1
a. Ex. Mg+2 + Cl-1 → MgCl2
D. Naming Ionic Compounds
1. Write the name of metal first, then the nonmetal ion.
a. Monatomic cation = name of the element
Ca2+ = calcium ion
a. Monatomic anion = root + -ide
-
Cl = chloride
Ex. CaCl2 = calcium chloride
E. Properties of Ionic Compounds
1. Most are crystalline solids at room temperature
2. Have high melting points and high boiling points
3. Very hard
4. Ionic compounds can conduct an electric current when melted or dissolved in water (called aqueous) because
their ions are free to move around.
a. Electricity in short is the flow (movement) of electrons.
F. Bond Breaking/Forming
1. To break a bond, energy must be absorbed (endothermic)
2. To make a bond, energy must be released (exothermic)
a. “Break-In / Make-Out”
3. In general, the greater the difference in electronegativity the atoms involved with an ionic bond, the stronger the
bond between them.
4. The longer the bond, the weaker the bond is. Think about trying to break a long pencil in half vs a stubby pencil.
5. The smaller the atoms that are part of the ionic bond, the stronger the bond. Smaller atomic radii elements are
smaller in bond length.

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G. Polyatomic Ions
1. Polyatomic Ions (Table E) – Ions that consist of two or more atoms bonded together
2. Naming
a. We name compounds with polyatomic ions the same as ionic compounds without changing any endings and
taking the exact name of the polyatomic ion from Table E.
b. Ex. calcium sulfate = CaSO4
c. Ex.2. Magnesium carbonate = MgCO3
3. Naming Using Parentheses
a. If more than one polyatomic ion is used to make the compound neutral, use parentheses and write a
number as a subscript to indicate amount of the polyatomic ion.
i. Ex. NH4+ and CO32– = (NH4)2CO3
- Refer criss-cross rule
H. The Stock System
1. The Stock System - a system of naming (using roman numerals) used for naming compounds that contain
elements (such as transition metals) that have multiple oxidation states (possess multiple possible charges)
a. Ex. Cu2+ vs Cu1+ and Fe2+ vs Fe3+
b. This system is NOT used for ions that don’t form multiple ions.
c. Can also be used to name ANY covalent compound.
a. FeCl3 = iron (III) chloride
Fe ion = 3+ charge
Cl ion = 1- charge
I. Covalent Bonds
1. Just like ionic compounds, in covalent bonding, atoms still want to achieve a noble gas configuration (the octet rule).
2. Rather than losing or gaining electrons, atoms now share an electron pair(s).
3. Covalent Bonding occurs between nonmetals only
J. Drawing Covalently Bonded Compounds
1. Draw the regular Lewis Dot Diagram for each element.
2. Place element by itself (such as C in CF4) in the middle surrounded by the other elements.
3. Pair off the unpaired electrons between the middle element and the ones surrounding it.
4. Draw the entire molecule with all electrons together.

Ex.
K. Rules For Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
1. Binary Compound = contains 2 different elements
2. Rules for Naming: PREFIX METHOD CAN ONLY BE USED FOR COVALENT COMPOUNDS!
i. First element in the formula is named using the entire element name (least electronegative goes first)
ii. Second element in the formula is named using the root of the element and adding the suffix – ide
iii. Prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of each type that are present in the compound except
when there is only one atom of the first element where the prefix mono is dropped.
iv. When two vowels are placed next to each other such as “a” from tetra and “o” from oxide, the last letter
of the prefix is usually dropped. The “i” in di- or tri- are never dropped.
➢ Prefix for 1 atom – mono
➢ Prefix for 2 atoms – di
➢ Prefix for 3 atoms – tri
➢ Prefix for 4 atoms – tetra (think Tetris the game where every piece consists of 4 square blocks)
➢ Prefix for 5 atoms – penta
➢ Prefix for 6 atoms – hexa
➢ Prefix for 7 atoms – hepta
➢ Prefix for 8 atoms – octa
➢ Prefix for 9 atoms – nona
➢ Prefix for 10 atoms – deca

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 v. The stock system can also be used to name covalent compounds due to some nonmetals also containing
multiple oxidation states.
- No prefixes are used at all however the ending of the second element is still changed to – ide
- Ex. CCl4 = carbon (IV) chloride
L. Polar/Nonpolar Bonds
1. The characteristics and type of a chemical bond can be predicted using the electronegativity difference of the
elements that are bonded in the molecule.
M. Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
1. A pure covalent bond in which there is an equal attraction (equal sharing) of electrons between the two elements
involved.
2. Difference in the electronegativity (E.N.) values in nonpolar covalent bond is 0.0
i. Polar Covalent Bonds
- A polar covalent bond is formed between different elements when there is no equal sharing because
the elements have different values of electronegativity.
ii. Polar Covalent = UNEQUAL SHARING of electrons (Diff = 0.1 to 1.7)
- 0.1 → 0.4 is slightly polar
- 0.5 → 1.7 is very polar
N. Molecule Shapes
1. Due to the shape of the molecule, the overall molecule can be nonpolar but the bonds within the molecule can
still be polar.
a. Ex. CO2 contains polar bonds but is considered a nonpolar molecule. (CO2 has a linear shape)
b. Molecular polarity can be determined by the shape of the molecule and the distribution of electrons.
2. Nonpolar Molecule
a. Equal distribution of charge
b. Center of negative charges and center of positive charges are in the different places.
3. Polar Molecule
a. Unequal distribution of charge
b. Center of negative charges and center of positive charges are in different places.
4. Main Shapes of Molecules
a. *Linear (CO2)*
b. Trigonal Planar (BF3)
c. Tetrahedral (CH4)
d. Trigonal Pyramidal (NH3)
e. *Bent (H2O)*
5. Only the lone pairs of electrons around the central atom and the number of bonds around the central atom affect the
overall shape of the molecule
O. VSEPR Theory
1. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory: Atoms in a molecule try to spread from one another as much as
possible to reduce “like charge repulsion” between their outer electrons.
a. This happens to bonds as well (since bonds contain electrons) and this is why CH4 has all the bonds around the
central carbon as spread out as possible in a tetrahedral (square in a 2D drawing) shape.
P. Intermolecular Forces
1. Forces of attraction between covalent molecules in the liquid and solid states.
2. These forces are intermolecular (between molecules), meaning that one molecule is interacting with another
molecule
a. Dipole-dipole attraction (=dipole moment)
i. Dipole = 2 poles, one positive, one negative
ii. The (+) side of 1 molecule is attracted to the (-) side of another adjacent molecule
b. Hydrogen Bonding
i. Intermolecular bond between: hydrogen atom in 1 molecule & fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen atom in another
molecule
ii. “Hydrogen bonds are FONd” or “H-bonds like to have FON”
iii. Because hydrogen will have a partially positive charge in a polar molecule, it will be attracted to a partially
negatively charged (strongly electronegative) F, O, or N atom in an adjacent molecule.
iv. Hydrogen Bonding is the reason that water boils at an unusually high temperature.
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 c. London Dispersion Forces aka Van der Waals Forces (known as weak-attractive forces on the Regents)
i. Exist between nonpolar molecules. Van der Waals (VDW) forces are weak but get stronger as the
molecules or atoms get heavier (as atomic weight increases).
d. Molecule-Ion Attraction
i. Polar molecules such as water will dissolve salts by taking apart the solid and breaking it down into its
cations and anions. The cations will be surrounded by the partially negative side of a water molecule
and the anions will be surrounded by the partially positive side of a water molecule.
Q. Properties of Molecular Solids
1. They have low melting and boiling points.
2. They are soft/brittle
3. Poor conductors of heat and electricity.
R. Coordinate Covalent Bonds
1. One atom will donate both electrons to make the bond. Usually each atom of a covalent bond each donates a
single electron to make the bond.
Note: When drawing Lewis Structure of Polyatomic Ions, make sure to put brackets and charge around the entire
polyatomic ion after drawing

S. Metallic Bonds
1. The electrostatic attraction between metal ions arranged in the lattice structure and free floating electrons
a. Alternative definition - A metallic bond is the attraction of a metallic cation for delocalized electrons.
i. Delocalized electrons - electrons that aren’t associated with any one atom or covalent bond.
2. Metal atoms hold on to their valence electrons very weakly. Therefore, positive metal ions (cations) are floating in a
*sea of mobile electrons*.
3. Electrons are free to move through the solid.
4. Metals conduct electricity.
5. The valence electrons are not localized to any one particle. They are free to move to occupy the space between
the (+) ions.
6. The large attraction of the (+) ions for the (-) delocalized electrons are what holds the crystals together.
T. Alloys
1. We use lots of metals every day, but few are pure metals
2. Alloys are mixtures of 2 or more elements, at least 1 is a metal
3. Made by melting a mixture of the ingredients, then cooling
i. Ex. Brass: an alloy of Cu and Zn
ii. Ex.2.Bronze: an alloy of Cu and Sn
4. Alloys are used because their properties are often superior to that of the pure element
i. Ex. Sterling silver (92.5% Ag, 7.5% Cu) is harder and more durable than pure Ag, but still soft enough
to make jewelry and tableware
ii. Steel is a very important alloy that have considerable corrosion resistance, ductility, hardness, toughness,
low cost

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 Unit 4 – Matter and Energy Outline

I. Energy

A. Energy – the ability to do work

1. Energy is conserved (energy lost is equal to the energy gained)
2. It is not created nor destroyed.
3. Energy can be converted from one form to another.
4. Types of Energy – Examples;
i. Heat / Thermal
ii. Mechanical
iii. Sound
iv. Wave Mechanical
v. Electromagnetic
vi. Nuclear
vii. Electrical
viii. Kinetic
ix. Potential
5. Two main types of energy
i. Kinetic Energy – Energy that is in motion (the energy that an object possesses by being in motion)
ii. Potential Energy – Energy that is stored within an object
6. The unit for measuring heat energy (aka thermal energy) is the joule or calorie (1 calorie is 4.20 J).
7. A calorie (symbol:cal) or 4.2 joules (symbol:J) is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram/mL
of water by one degree Celsius.

B. Temperature - the average kinetic energy of a molecule

C. Kelvin (Absolute) Scale - A scale similar to that of the Celsius scale. The Kelvin scale marks the zero point as the
lowest temperature possible, Celsius can have negative numbers.
i. The freezing and boiling points of water are 273 and 373 K respectively.
ii. Formula: K = C + 273. Refer to Reference Table T.
Ex. –50C = 223 K
D. Exothermic Reaction - When a reaction occurs and more energy is released than absorbed, then the reaction is said to
be Exothermic.
i. exothermic means energy is released.
ii. Potential Energy Diagram for exothermic reactions

iii. More energy is released than absorbed. ΔH is negative (-)

iv. Reactant → Product + Heat
E. Activation Energy (Ea) – the minimum amount of energy the reactants need to gain in order for the reaction to progress.
F. ∆H or Enthalpy (Heat) of Reaction – the amount of heat or energy the reaction absorbs or releases. (can be thought of as
energy change)

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 i. See Table I of Reference Table for list of various chemical reactions and their heats of reactions. The reverse
reaction of each of these reactions would be the opposite sign (+ → - or vice versa) for the heat of reaction.
G. Endothermic Reaction - When more energy is absorbed than released, then the reaction is said to be Endothermic.
i. endothermic means energy is absorbed.
ii. Potential Energy Diagram for exothermic reactions

iii. More energy is absorbed than released. ΔH is positive (+)

iv. Reactant + Heat → Product
H. Activated Complex – the structure associated with the maximum energy point along the reaction pathway.
I. Catalyst – increases the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to
proceed. Catalysts do NOT affect the reaction in any other way!

J. Three main ways you can determine if a reaction is exothermic or endothermic;

i. Sign of heat of reaction (see footnote of Table I)
ii. Which side of the chemical equation energy (or heat) is on
iii. The shape of the PE diagram
K. System: the part of the universe that is of interest
L. Surrounding: the rest of the universe
M. Universe: everything including the system and its surroundings
N. Heat Flow - “Heat will flow from high to low”

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II. Heating Curve

III. Cooling Curve

IV. Phase Changes

A. Freezing: changes from a liquid to a solid.
B. Melting: changes from a solid to a liquid.
C. Condensation: changes from a gas to a liquid.
D. Vaporization: changes from a liquid to a gas.
E. Sublimation: changes from a solid to a gas without passing through the intermediate state of a liquid.
F. Deposition: changes from a gas to a solid without passing through the intermediate state of a liquid.
V. Energy Equations
A. To calculate the heat absorbed use equation H =mcT.
B. H may also be q (energy) for problems not specifically heat energy.
C. If there is a change in temperature then the problem requires an equation that has T in it.
D. If temperature is changing then the amount of (kinetic energy/potential energy) is changing.
E. H = mcT / q = mcT (Table T)
i. H = change in energy (usually heat energy) OR q = energy

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 ii. m = mass of the substance
iii. c = specific heat of the substance
iv. T = change in temperature (|final – initial|)
VI. Energy Changes

VII. When to use which equation

i. Segment AB
➢ The thermometer is increasing (temperature is increasing) but stops at 0ºC
➢ During this time, since temperature is increasing then so is kinetic energy.
➢ Q=mcT
ii. Segment BC
➢ Now there is a phase change and no temperature change. During this phase the mixture is gaining (kinetic
energy/potential energy).
➢ To calculate the energy needed to melt (or freeze) the ice at 0ºC, use the equation H = mHf. The Heat of
Fusion (Hf) for water has a value of 334 J/g - refer to Reference Table B.
iii. Segment CD
➢ The ice has all melted and now the thermometer has started to rise again. If we wanted to calculate the heat
absorbed then use H =mcT. Kinetic Energy is changing
iv. Segment DE
➢ The thermometer now stops at 100ºC. The water starts to boil. Again, we have a phase change so then we
will have no temperature change. Potential Energy is changing.
➢ H = mHv. The Heat of Vaporization (Hv) for water is 2260 J/g - refer to Reference Table B.

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 ➢ Compare the values of Hf and Hv. Does it take more energy to vaporize or melt water? Liquids becoming a
gas requires a lot more energy since gas particles are much more active and spread out than liquids.
Compounds in liquid phase are only slightly more spread out than their solid phase counterparts.
v. Segment EF
➢ Eventually all of the water will evaporate. Kinetic Energy is changing
VIII. Energy Equation Summary Chart

State of Number of Change of PE change? Temp KE change? Equation

matter. phases. phase? Change? for Q.

s 1 No No Yes Yes Q=mc∆T

s-l 2 Yes Yes No No Q=mHf

l 1 No No Yes Yes Q=mc∆T

l-g 2 Yes Yes No No Q=mHv

s 1 No No Yes Yes Q=mc∆T

IX. Kinetic Molecular Theory - The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) describes behavior of gases by treating them as
particles with specific properties of size, motion, and energy.
A. Besides having an indefinite volume, no definite shape and being spread out far apart, gases have also been known to
exhibit the following properties:
i. They are individual particles that travel in a straight-line random motion because of the thermal energy
involved. This will continue until they collide or are acted upon by another force.
ii. Collisions between gas particles or collisions with the walls of the container are perfectly elastic. None of the
energy of a gas particle is lost when it collides with another particle or with the walls of the container.
iii. The volume of the individual gas molecules is negligible compared to the volume (or space) that they occupy.
iv. No forces of attraction are considered to exist between the gas molecules.
X. S.T.P. = Standard Temperature and Pressure
A. Standard Temperature = 273 K or 0 degrees Celsius – Table A
B. Standard Pressure = 101.3 kPa or 1 atm (know that both of these = 760 torr) – Table A
C. Gases can exert pressures on objects
D. Gas particles exert pressure when they collide with a container. Though gas particles are small, a lot of gas particles can
exert a lot of pressure.
XI. The Gas Laws (remember that gases are homogeneous!)
A. Boyle’s Law (P1V1 = P2V2)
i. Relates the Pressure and Volume of a gas
ii. Pressure and Volume are inversely proportional
iii. If volume goes up, pressure goes down
iv. If volume goes down, pressure goes up

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 A. Charles’ Law → V1 = V2
T1 T2
i. Relates the Volume and Temperature of a gas
ii. Volume and Temperature are directly proportional
iii. As volume goes up, temperature goes up
iv. As volume goes down, temperature goes down

A. Combined Gas Law

i. The combined gas law states a relationship between pressure, volume, and temperature of a fixed amount of gas.

XII. Avogadro’s Principle - Relates the NUMBER OF PARTICLES to volume, temperature and pressure.
E. Equal volumes of gases at the same temp. and pressure contain equal numbers of particles.
F. The number of molecules in a specific volume of gas is independent of the size or mass of the gas molecules. The
number of molecules doesn’t depend on atomic masses.
G. 1 mol of any gas occupies a volume of 22.4 L at STP. (22.4L / 1 mol)
H. 1 mole (mol) contains 6.02 x 1023 particles
XIII. Real vs. Ideal Gases
A. Real gas is how a gas particle really behaves
B. Ideal gas is how a gas particle should behave
C. No gas is truly 100 % ideal
D. Real Gas: All gas particles have some volume, and are subject to certain intermolecular attractions.
i. (Gases that are closest to ideal are hydrogen (H2) and helium (He) due to their small size and light mass)
E. Ideal Gas: Have no forces of attraction on each other.
Real Gas Ideal Gas

Gases in this room: • Are small with little mass. Like H2 and He.
• They have attraction for each other. • Have no forces of attraction on each other.
• They have some volume. • Most ideal when the gases are far apart – High
Temperature and Low Pressure

XIV. Effusion
A. Graham’s Law of Effusion – at the same temperature and pressure, gases diffuse at a rate inversely proportional to the
square roots of their molecular masses.
i. the lighter (less dense) gases travel faster than heavier (more dense) gases.
 Ex. Assume we punch a hole in a container and these gases start to escape. Arrange the following in order from lowest
rate of effusion to greatest.
 Cl2, Ar, F2, O2, N2, Ne, NH3, H2 (already in correct order)
XV. Properties of Liquids
A. Molecules are closer together than in gas phase.
B. Have definite volume.
C. Take the shape of the bottom of the container.
D. Can’t be compressed.

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XVI. Vapor Pressure - the equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid (or solid); that is, the pressure of the vapor resulting
from evaporation of a liquid (or solid) above a sample of the liquid (or solid) in a closed container.
A. All liquids are evaporating at their surface, NO MATTER WHAT TEMPERATURE.
B. As the liquid evaporates (which is constantly happening), the molecules in the vapor (gas) phase exert a pressure.

C. At higher temperatures, more liquid molecules can leave the liquid phase and become vapors, therefore exerting a greater
pressure.
i. This is a directly proportional relationship
D. Vapor Pressure and Temperature
i. Temperature: at a higher temperature, more molecules have enough energy to escape from the liquid or solid. At
a lower temperature, fewer molecules have sufficient energy to escape from the liquid or solid.
ii. Note* - Volume has no effect on the vapor pressure of a sample.
E. Vapor Pressure and the Types of Molecules
i. Types of Molecules: the types of molecules that make up a solid or liquid determine its vapor pressure. If the
intermolecular forces between molecules are:
ii. relatively strong, the vapor pressure will be relatively low.
iii. relatively weak, the vapor pressure will be relatively high.
F. Boiling Point
i. Liquids boil when their vapor pressure is equal to the current atmospheric pressure.
XVII. Properties of Solids
A. Have a definite shape and definite volume.
B. All solids have a crystalline structure arranged in a rigid, fixed, regular geometric pattern.
C. Atoms vibrate constantly, but in place.
D. Diamond and graphite are different in their molecular structure and properties, but are both made from carbon.

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 Unit 5 – Moles and Stoichiometry

I. Chemical Formulas - Tells us which elements (qualitative) and how many atoms (quantitative) of each element are
present.
A. Symbols - represents a single atom or one mole of atoms
B. Structural Formula – The entire molecule is drawn out showing all covalent bonds.
C. Molecular Formula - indicates the total number of atoms of each element needed to form a covalently bonded
substance.
➢ Ex. CH4 - One molecule has one C atom and 4 H atoms. One mole would have one mole of C atoms and 4
moles of H atoms.
D. Empirical Formula - The lowest ratio of the elements
➢ all ionic compounds are written as empirical formulas
➢ Question: A compound has an empirical formula of CH2 and a molecular weight of 70. What is the
molecular formula of this compound?

II. Counting Atoms

A. What is the total number of atoms of each element in:
➢ CH3CH2CH2COOH: (4 carbons, 2 oxygen, 8 hydrogen)
➢ (NH4)2SO4: (2 nitrogen, 8 hydrogen, 1 sulfur, 4 oxygen)
➢ CuSO4•5H2O: (1 copper, 1 sulfur, 9 oxygen, 10 hydrogen) : the dot means the water is attached to the
compound before it. This is referred to as a hydrated compound.

III. How to tell if a chemical reaction has taken place

A. Temperature changes (absorb/release heat)
B. Other form of energy released (light, sound)
C. Color change
D. Odor
E. Gas bubbles
F. Appearance of a solid (precipitate)

IV. Chemical Equations

A. Reactants- starting substances
B. Products- substances formed
C. Chemical Equation- written form of the reaction showing:
➢ Reactants
➢ Products
➢ Direction in which reaction is occurring (using an arrow)
D. Word equations - Using words to describe what is happening in the reaction.
➢ Reactant 1 + Reactant 2 → Product 1
➢ Ex. iron(s) + chlorine(g) → iron(III) chloride(s)
o Read: Solid iron and gaseous chlorine react to produce
solid iron(III)chloride
E. Skeleton Equations use chemical formulas rather than words to identify reactants and products.
➢ Ex. Fe(s) + Cl2(g) → FeCl3(s)

V. Balancing Chemical Equations

A. The Law of Conversation of Mass - Matter is neither created nor destroyed. Therefore, chemical equations
must show that matter is conserved.
B. The equation must show that the number of atoms of each reactant and of each product is equal on both sides of
the arrow. (mass must be conserved)
C. To balance an equation you must find the correct coefficients for the chemical formulas in the skeleton equation.
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 ➢ Coefficient- the number written in front of a reactant or product. They are usually whole numbers. If you do
not see a number written, the value is 1. A coefficient tells us the smallest number of particles of the
substance involved in the reaction.
D. Steps To Balance A Chemical Equation
i. Count the number of atoms of each element on both sides of the arrow.
ii. Start by inserting coefficients in front of substances that are compounds. Insert coefficients in front of
elements or diatomic molecules later.
iii. Recount to see if you have the same number of atoms on both sides of the arrow.
Ex. C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 4H2O (g) + 3CO2 (g) = SUM OF COEFFICIENTS IS 14

VI. The Mole

A. 1 mole (mol) of a substance = 6.02 x 1023 particles of that substance (Avogadro’s Number)
B. Calculating GFM - The Gram Formula Mass (GFM) of a compound is the sum of the masses of all the
elements contained in the compound. THE GFM IS ALWAYS FOR ONE MOLE OF THE SUBSTANCE.
➢ Ex. Molar Mass of CaBr2 = (40.078 g/mol) + 2(79.904 g/mol) = 199.896 g/mol

C. Mole Ratio - In a given balanced equation (make sure it is balanced first), the coefficients of each species (or
substance) represents the number of moles of that species in the chemical equation.
➢ Therefore, the mole ratio of two different species (or substances) will be equal to the ratio between the
coefficients of these species.
➢ Ex. C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 4H2O (g) + 3CO2 (g)
Mole ratio between O2 and CO2 is 5:3
D. The mole ratio in a chemical equation is also a Volume Ratio – provided the substances in question are all gases.
This is because the moles represented by the coefficients have the same conversion factor of 22.4 liters.

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 E. Representative Particles

Substance Representative Particle Chemical Formula # of particles in 1 mole

nitrogen element Atom N 6.02 x 1023

nitrogen gas Molecule N2 6.02 x 1023

water Molecule H2O 6.02 x 1023

calcium ion Ion Ca2+ 6.02 x 1023

calcium fluoride Compound CaF2 6.02 x 1023

sucrose Molecule C12H22O11 6.02 x 1023

VII. Mole Conversions (in order to convert from one species to another, you must convert your given to moles first then
use a mole ratio)
A. 3H2 + N2 -> 2NH3
B. At STP, how many moles of nitrogen gas is needed to react with 44.8 liters of hydrogen gas to produce ammonia
gas?

C. Mg(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 -> 2H2O + MgSO4 + 2NH3

➢ 4.28 grams of ammonia (NH3) are produced from the reaction between magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2)
and ammonium sulfate ((NH4)2SO4). How many grams of ammonium sulfate was reacted? 16.63 g of
(NH4)2SO4

VIII. Percent Composition

A. AKA percent by mass
B. Ratio of the total mass of an element in a compound to the total mass of the compound.
C. Reference Table T
➢ Equation = % composition by mass = mass of part x 100
mass of whole
➢ Ex. What is the percent Ca in CaSO4? 29%

D. Percent Hydration
➢ Sometimes ionic compounds have definite amounts of water bonded to them – this is referred to as the water
of hydration.
➢ Water appears in the empirical formula and is part of its crystalline structure.
➢ When finding the percent hydration, we look at the ratio of the total mass of the water to the total gram
formula mass of the hydrated salt.
 Ex. What is the percent hydration in Na2CO3·10H2O? 63%

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IX. Types of Chemical Equations
A. Synthesis = A + B → AB = reactants combine
B. Decomposition = AB → A + B = reactants break apart
C. Single Replacement (substitution) = AB + C → CB + A or AB + D → AD + B = only part of the compound is
replaced.
D. Double Replacement (Exchange of Ions) = AB + CD → AD + CB = Inside and outside switch partners and get
together
E. Combustion = CnH2n+2 (g) + O2 (g) → H2O (g) + CO2 (g)
➢ A reactant (hydrocarbon like C3H8) in the presence of oxygen gas produces water and carbon dioxide.

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 Unit 6 – Solutions

I. Solutions - Is a homogeneous mixture made up of two or more substances. An aqueous solution has two
components – water and the solute.
A. Solute - The substance that is being dissolved. Generally, changes phase when mixed.
B. Solvent - The substance that is the “dissolver”. Generally, does not change phase when mixed. The universal
solvent is water.
C. The components of a mixture will combine only if they are miscible.
D. If they do not combine, they are considered immiscible.
E. Like polarities mix, different polarities do not mix – “Like dissolves like”
1. Oil and water don’t mix because they have different polarities.
→ Water is polar and oil is nonpolar.
F. Three Types of Solutions
1. Unsaturated – has “room” to hold more solute
2. Saturated – solvent has dissolved as much solute as possible at a given temperature
3. Supersaturated – solvent contains more solute than it “normally” can hold.
i. Supersaturated solution – more than the maximum amount of solute is dissolved; an unstable state
that reverts to a saturated solution if the solution is disturbed in any way.
ii. In order to create a supersaturated solution, you heat a solution until all the solute dissolves – then
cool it back to its original temperature. This is a very delicate procedure and even the smallest
disturbance can cause the excess solute to leave the solution.

Note* - Saturated solutions are heterogeneous solutions if there is leftover solute in the solution. Both unsaturated and
supersaturated solutions are homogeneous.

II. Solubility Curves (Table G)

A. Shows how many grams of solute can be dissolved in 100 grams of water at a given temperature.
B. At or on the line, the solution is saturated.
C. Above the line it is supersaturated.
D. Below the line is unsaturated.
➔ Important Note: If the question asks you for an amount of solute dissolved in 50 grams of water, you would
read the chart normally and divide that amount by half (since normally it is dissolved in 100 grams of water).
➔ Important Note: If the question asks you for an amount of solute dissolved in 200 grams of water, you would
read the chart normally and multiply that amount by two (since normally it is dissolved in 100 grams of water).
E. Most solutes are solid, and their solubility increases with increasing temperature. (upwards lines or positive
slopes)
F. Others are gases, and their solubility decreases with increasing temperature. (downwards lines or negative
slopes)

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• Which salt on Table G is the most soluble in 100 grams of water at 10 degrees C? KI
• If 100 grams of water at 25 degrees C have 15 grams of NaCl dissolved in it, is the solution saturated, unsaturated or
supersaturated? Unsaturated
• At 30 degrees C, 100 grams of water has 80 grams of NaNO3 dissolved in it. How much more sodium nitrate is needed
to saturate this solution? ~15g
• Which salt and gas have the same solubility at 75 degrees C? KCl and HCl
• A saturated solution of KClO3 is cooled from 90 degrees C to 20 degrees C. How much KClO3 will precipitate out of
solution? ~43g

III. Concentration - the measure of how much solute is dissolved in a specific amount of solvent or solution.
A. Solutions can be described qualitatively as: Concentrated or Dilute
1. Concentrated - relatively large amounts of solute
2. Dilute - relatively small amounts of solute
B. Molarity = molar concentration
Molarity (M) = moles of solute
Liters of solution (L)

1. If I have 40 grams of glucose (C6H12O6) dissolved in a 1.5L solution, what is the molarity of the
resulting solution? 0.15M
2. Calculate the molarity when 150.0 grams of MgCl2 is dissolved in 500.0 mL of solution. 3.2M
3. 100.0 grams of sucrose (C12H22O11) is dissolved in 1.50 L of solution. What is the molarity? 0.19M
C. Dilutions
1. Dilution Equation → M1V1=M2V2
i. M = Molarity
ii. V = Volume
iii. 1 = initial
iv. 2 = final
v. 2.0 L of HC2H3O2 (acetic acid) is made by diluting 75 mL of 17.6M acetic acid. What is the
molarity of the new solution? 0.66M

IV. Parts Per Million - Another Way of Showing Concentration besides Molarity
A. Good unit for when you are measuring for minute amounts of a substance

1. A 2.50 gram sample of ground water was found to contain 5.40 micrograms of zinc ion. What is the total
ppm of zinc ion in the ground water? 2.16 ppm
2. How many moles of glucose (C6H12O6) need to be
dissolved in water in order to make 100. grams of a 250. ppm solution? 0.000139 moles

V. Colligative Properties
A. A physical property of a solution that is affected by the number of dissolved particles, but not the identity of the
dissolved solute.
B. Freezing Point – dissolving solute lowers the freezing point of the solution
C. Boiling Point – dissolving solute raises the boiling point of the solution
D. The more ions the solute breaks apart into, the greater the colligative properties of the solution.
E. Another way to look at it is: as the number of particles in the solution increases, the greater the effect they have
on the boiling and freezing points of a solution.
F. The freezing point will decrease more and the boiling point will increase more depending on the number of
particles in the solution. (more particles = more change)

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 G. Electrolytes – solutes that dissolve in water and will dissociate into ions. The solution is capable of conducting
electricity because ions can carry the current.
1. Ex. NaCl, CaCl2, MgCl2, LiOH
2. Strong Electrolytes – three groups
i. Strong acids – HCl, HI, HBr, HClO4, HClO3, HNO3, and H2SO4.
ii. Strong bases – Group IA (1) or IIA (2) metal hydroxides (OH-). Examples: KOH, NaOH, Ca(OH)2.
iii. Ionic salts that are soluble in water – Table F
H. Non-electrolytes – solute that dissolves in water will not break up into ions. The solution will not conduct
electricity due to no ions being formed.
1. Ex. C6H12O6, C3H7OH
I. Examples:
1. MgCl2 vs. NaClO3 (first one contributes more colligative properties because it breaks down into 3 ions. The
second choice breaks down in two ions. Na+ and ClO3-, which is a polyatomic ion listed on Table E.
2. MgCl2 vs. C6H12O6 (first one contributes more colligative properties because non-electrolytes or soluble
organic compounds such as C6H12O6 do not break down in solution and only contribute 1 colligative
property)
3. 1M MgCl2 vs. 2M MgCl2 (second one contributes more colligative properties because the higher
concentration indicates more solute being dissolved per liter of solution, therefore greater effect on boiling
and freezing points)
4. 1M MgCl2 vs. 2M NaCl (second one contributes more colligative properties because the concentration being
higher means that there are 2 particles dissociated for every 1 mole of compound of NaCl, therefore the
second option will contribute 4 colligative properties while the first choice contributes 3)
➔ Note* - Remember that compounds containing acetate can be considered to be ionic compounds if bonded with a
cation and will therefore dissociate in water.

VI. Solubility Rules and Guidelines (Table F)

A. Reference Table F has the solubility guidelines of different ions and how soluble they would be in water.
B. The soluble ions will form aqueous compounds (because they will dissociate in water)
C. The insoluble ions will form solid compounds (because they will precipitate out of the solution)
D. The exceptions shown in the column right after the always soluble ions will list the different ions that when
combined with the soluble ions will form insoluble compounds (solid).
E. The exceptions shown in the column right after the insoluble ions will list the different ions that when combined
with the insoluble ions will form soluble compounds (aqueous).
• Examples: Predict the solubility of the following compounds by writing soluble or insoluble on the line.
soluble k. Fe(NO3)3 insoluble n. PbBr2

insoluable l. BaSO4 soluble o. MgCl2

soluble m. KOH insoluble p. Ag2CO3

Ex. Given the reaction that takes place in water: AgNO3 + CaCl2 → AgCl + Ca(NO3)2

If the reaction were rewritten to reflect the phases of the compounds, which ones would be labeled as solids and which
would be aqueous?

AgNO3 (aq) + CaCl2 (aq)→ AgCl (s) + Ca(NO3)2 (aq)

This means that when AgNO3 and CaCl2 are reacted, the AgCl will precipitate out of solution (a solid will come out of
the solution and the solution becomes heterogeneous).

Insoluble (according to Table F) = solid

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Soluble (according to Table F) = aqueous

Unit 7 – Kinetics and Equilibrium

➢ Potential Energy Diagrams

A = Potential Energy of Reactants E = Potential Energy of Products

B = Activation Energy of Forward Reaction “X” mark = activated complex

C = Activation Energy of Reverse Reaction

D = Change in Heat / Enthalpy of Reaction (∆H)

A. Exothermic Reaction - More energy is released than absorbed

1. Reactant → Product + Heat

B. Endothermic Reaction – More energy is absorbed than released.

A. Reactant + Heat → Product

C. Presence of a catalyst
1. Increases the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to
proceed by giving reactants an alternate pathway to the products. Catalysts do NOT affect the reaction in any
other way!
1. Make sure when drawing catalyst on PE diagrams that there is still a noticeable hill as part of the activation
energy and the new activation energy still starts from the PE of the reactants and ends at the PE of the
products.
2. Activation Energy (Ea) – the minimum amount of energy the reactants need to gain in order for the reaction
to progress.
➢ ∆H or Enthalpy (Heat) of Reaction – the amount of heat or energy the reaction absorbs or releases. (can
be thought of as energy change)
➢ PEPPER → Potential Energy of Products – Potential Energy of Reactants
A. Heat content of a system
B. We cannot measure the enthalpy at a precise moment but we can measure the change in enthalpy using: ∆Hreaction
= Hproduct – Hreactant (Think PEPPER = potential energy products – potential energy reactants)
C. Negative (-) ∆H = exothermic reaction
D. Positive (+) ∆H = endothermic reaction
A. Check Table I, footnote reminds you of the two bullets above.

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Example: Construct a PE diagram where the PE of the reactants is 50 kJ/mole, the PE of the activated complex is 90 kJ/mole and
the PE of the products is 25 kJ/mole. Label (with arrows) and find the values of H and Ea. Is the reaction exo/endothermic?

➢ Rates of Reaction
- Collision Theory
A. Atoms and/or molecules must collide in order to react.
B. They must collide in a correct orientation otherwise no reaction will occur. They also must have enough
energy to form products.
- Activated Complex (peak of PE diagram) - The unstable species that momentarily exist in the
instant where old bonds break and new temporary bonds form.
- Factors that affect rate of reaction
1. Presence of a Catalyst
2. The Nature of the Reactants – The speed of a reaction sometimes depends upon the bonds between the
atoms. Aqueous ionic compounds generally react faster than covalently bonded compounds.
3. Concentration - Higher concentration leads to more effective collisions between the molecules.
3. Note* - As a reaction proceeds, the concentration of the reactants will decrease and the reaction will slow
down.
4. Temperature - At a higher temperature the molecules will collide more frequently and with more kinetic
energy. The collisions will occur more often and will be more effective.
5. Surface Area - Smaller pieces of a larger portion react faster than the larger portion as a whole because more
surface area has been exposed.
6. Pressure - An increase in pressure will move the gas molecules closer together. This will make more
collisions and increase the rate of reaction.

➢ Phase Equilibrium - Phase changes are reversible in a closed system and an equilibrium may be attained.
Ex. H2O(I) →H2O(g)
When equilibrium is reached, for every liquid molecule that enters the gas phase, a gas molecule will enter the liquid
phase.

Ex. 2. NaCl(s)→NaCl(aq)
Provided that the solution is saturated, for every molecule of solute that enters solution, a molecule of solute in
solution will precipitate out of solution. While the rates are equal, the amounts of excess solute and solute
dissolved do not have to be equal.

➢ Chemical Equilibrium
1. In a closed system, where no reactants, products, or energy can be added to or removed from the reaction, a
reversible reaction will reach equilibrium.
2. At equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction becomes equal to the rate of the reverse reaction
3. Graph of Concentration vs. Time

4. Graph of Rate vs. Time

5. **Chemical Equilibrium: Forward and reverse reactions are occurring at the same time at the same RATE.
Concentration of reactants and products appear to be CONSTANT, not necessarily equal.**
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 6. Stress - any kind of change in a system that upsets (disturbs) the equilibrium.
Ex. Pressure, Volume, Temperature, Concentration, Addition of a catalyst

➢ *Le Châtelier’s Principle* - equilibrium position shifts as a result of changing conditions. When a
system in chemical equilibrium is disturbed by a change of temperature, pressure, or a concentration, the
equilibrium will shift in such a way that tends to relieve the effects of the stress and a new point of
equilibrium is established (in a closed system). The equilibrium always responds in such a way so as to
counteract the stress
I. Changing concentration of reactant or product.

II. Changing temperature of reactant or product.

4. Increase in temperature causes the equilibrium to shift in the same direction of the endothermic reaction.
Ex. Consider heat as a reactant or product.

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)  2NH3 (g) H =-92 kJ

Since H is negative the endothermic reaction is the reverse direction. An increase in temperature causes the reaction to shift to
the left, resulting in an increase in N2 and H2 and a decrease in NH3

III. Increasing Pressure (Decreasing Volume)

5. Think Boyle’s Law!
A. Pressure and volume have a inversely proportional relationship.
B. Therefore, if you increase pressure, then volume decreases.
6. Pressure affects only gases of an equation at equilibrium
7. An increase in pressure causes the equilibrium to shift in the direction that has the fewer number of moles
(less volume).
Ex. 3O2(g) → 2O3(g)

An increase in pressure results in a decrease in O2 and an increase in O3.

IV. Effect of a Catalyst

8. Catalysts affect both the forward and reverse directions equally.
9. A catalyst does not change the point of equilibrium but reduces the time required for the system to
come to equilibrium.
10. It lowers the activation energy by providing an alternative pathway.

➢ Homogeneous Equilibrium - All reactants and products are in the same state of matter
➢ Heterogeneous Equilibrium - Reactants and products are in different states of matter
➢ Spontaneous Processes – processes that can proceed without any outside intervention.
1. Processes that are spontaneous in one direction are nonspontaneous in the reverse direction.
2. Depends on Enthalpy and Entropy

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3. Processes that are spontaneous at one temperature may be nonspontaneous at other temperatures. Such as ice
melting and ice freezing both being spontaneous processes that occur at different temperatures.
4. Entropy - a measure of the randomness, disorder, messiness of a system.
1. The change in entropy is designated with a S.
2. S (+) means that there is an increase in disorder, S (-) means that there is a decrease in disorder.
3. S = Sfinal − Sinitial
4. The entropy tends to increase with increases in: Temperature, Volume, more molecules formed in product,
phase of matter change to a more mobile state
Such as S(g) > S(l) > S(s).
5. Generally, when a solid is dissolved in a solvent, entropy increases. But when gas is dissolved in solvent,
entropy decreases.
5. Nature’s Preferences
➢ Reactions tend to proceed in the direction that decreases the energy of the system (H, enthalpy). ∆H= “-”
➢ Reactions tend to proceed in the direction that increases the disorder of the system (S, entropy). ∆S= “+”
H S
- + Spontaneous
+ - Non-spontaneous

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 Unit 8 – Acids, Bases, and Salts

I. Properties of Acids
A. Taste sour
B. Most acids contain a hydrogen group
C. Reacts with certain metals to produce hydrogen gas/H2(g) (the metal must be above H2 on Table J)
1. Example: Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 (metal + acid → salt + hydrogen gas)
➢ These reactions are generally not reversible because the hydrogen gas can escape, not allowing for products to
further react with each other.
D. The common acids are found on Table K (note the hydrogen group that all of these acids have)
1. The strong acids:
➢ HI : hydroiodic acid
➢ HBr : hydrobromic acid
➢ HCl : hydrochloric acid
➢ HNO3 : nitric acid
➢ H2SO4 : sulfuric acid
➢ HClO4 : perchloric acid
2. For the above acids, note that hydrogen + a halogen (group 17) besides fluorine forms a strong acid. The other three
acids you should commit to memory and familiarize yourself with them. HF is not a strong acid because fluorine has a
hard time letting go of the hydrogen due to its high electronegativity and acids tend to give off H +.
3. Very common weak acid : acetic acid : HC2H3O2

II. Properties of Bases

A. Taste bitter
B. Feel slippery
C. Most of the time contains a hydroxide group (remember that NH 3/ammonia is a base) and take the form of a metal +
hydroxide.
D. The common bases are found on Table L
1. The strong bases:
➢ Any group 1 or group 2 metal hydroxides.
o Examples: LiOH, NaOH, Ca(OH)2

III. Arrhenius Theory

A. An acid is a substance that yields only H+ ions as the only cations in solution.
1. HBr + H2O → H3O+ + Br-
B. A base is a substance that yields only OH- ions as the anions in solution.
1. KOH + H2O → K+ + OH-
C. Problems with the Arrhenius Model of Acids & Bases
1. Although the Arrhenius model is useful in describing many acids and bases, it does not describe them all
2. For example NH3 contains no OH- ions, but it is a base
3. Not all compounds that have hydrogen are acids

IV. Hydronium (H3O+) vs. hydrogen ion (H+)

A. They are interchangeable because an acid is defined by the fact that it INCREASES the H +1 concentration of an aqueous
solution.
B. When H+1 combines with water it becomes H3O+1.
1. HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl-

V. Bronsted-Lowry Theory (aka the Alternate Acid-Base Theory or the Other Acid-Base Theory)
A. A Brönsted-Lowry acid: any molecule or ion that can lose an H + to another species. It is a proton donor.
B. A Brönsted-Lowry base: any molecule or ion that can gain an H + from another species. It is a proton acceptor.
C. In short, acids are proton (H+) donors and bases are proton (H+) acceptors.
D. Conjugate acids/conjugate bases
1. Take this example: NH3(aq) + H2O(l) → NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
➢ NH3(aq) is the base because it accepts an H+ from H2O(l) which is the acid because it donates an H+ to NH3(aq).
➢ NH4+(aq) is the conjugate acid because it is now capable of donating an H + (to become NH3) and it is the species
that resulted from the base
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 ➢ OH-(aq) is the conjugate base because it is now capable of accepting an H + (to become H2O) and it is the species
that resulted from the acid.
2. conjugate acid - species produced when a base accepts a hydrogen ion from an acid
3. conjugate base - species that results when an acid donates a hydrogen ion to a base.
E. Water is an amphiprotic substance meaning it can act as either an acid or base depending on whether it accepts (base) or
donates (acid) a proton.
1. H2O + HCl → H3O+ + Cl- (water acts like a base)
2. H2O + NH3 → NH4+ + OH- (water acts like an acid)

VI. Electrolytes
A. Compounds that dissociate (breaks apart) in water in order to form ions that can carry an electric current.
B. Both acids and bases can dissociate into ions in solution. These ions can carry an electric current. The stronger the acid or
base, the more ions will be formed and the solution will be a better conductor of electricity.
C. Strong Electrolyte = Completely dissociates into ions in water (first beaker in diagram below)
D. Weak Electrolyte = Coexist as ions and compounds in water. Does not fully dissociate into ions, leaving less ions to carry
current compared to strong acids (second beaker in diagram below)

VII. Neutralizations and salts

A. Neutralization Reaction - a reaction in which an acid and a base react in an aqueous solution to produce a salt and water:
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
1. Example: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
2. Example: H2SO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
3. Neutralization is a double-replacement reaction.
4. Practice neutralization reactions and balancing:
➢ HNO3 + KOH →
➢ HCl + Zn →
➢ H2SO4 + LiOH →
B. Salts
1. Salts are ionic compounds
2. The salt created from a neutralization can be used to predict whether the solution was acidic, basic, or neutral
3. If the salt is formed from a reaction of a strong acid with a weak base, the salt is considered acidic
➢ NH4Cl (the salt) comes from the reaction of HCl (strong acid) and NH4OH (weak base) therefore this salt is
considered acidic
4. If the salt is formed from a reaction of a weak acid with a strong base, the salt is considered basic
➢ NaC2H3O2 (the salt) comes from the reaction of NaOH (strong base) and HC2H3O2 (weak acid) therefore this salt is
considered basic
5. If the salt is formed from a reaction of a strong acid with a strong base, the salt is considered neutral
➢ K2SO4 (the salt) comes from the reaction of KOH (strong base) and H 2SO4 (strong acid) therefore this salt is
considered neutral
6. Note* - In all three reactions above, water is also a product along with the salt and is not shown above
VIII. pH
A. pH stands for “pouvoir hydrogene” or hydrogen power = = how great is the concentration of hydrogen ions (H 3O+, H+) in
the solution
B. The pH scale is a mathematical scale in which the concentration of hydronium (hydrogen) ions in a solution is expressed as
a number from 0 to 14.
1. pH of 7 is neutral. (H+ = OH-)
2. pH less than 7 is acidic. (H+ > OH-)
3. pH greater than 7 is basic. (H+ < OH-)
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 C. Each change in the pH value going by whole numbers is a change in 10x more or less acidic/basic.
1. Example: going from a pH of 5 to a pH of 3, there are 100x more H + ions and 100x less OH- ions in the solution than
before
2. Example: going from a pH of 7 to 10, there are 1000x more OH - ions and 1000x less H+ ions in the solution than before
D. Note* - Adding a stronger acid to a solution will LOWER the pH value. Adding a stronger base to a solution will RAISE
the pH value.
1. Example: What would happen to the pH of a solution containing 6.0 M HCl if 4.0 M HCl was added to it? The pH
value would decrease
E. Indicators - Acids and bases change the colors of indicators.
1. Indicators – changes colors according to what the approximate pH of the solution is.
2. Table M – shows the list of common indicators that chemists use.
➢ When using this table every pH value before the first number in the range for a specific indicator will be the initial
color. Every pH value after the last number in the range for a specific indicator will be the final color. The range
between the two values is when the color starts to change.
o Example: Phenolphthalein will show colorless in an acid (pH<7), then start to turn pink between pH
values of 8.2 – 10 if I start adding base, and then it will become fully pink once the pH of my solution is
greater than 10 when enough base is added.
F. pH can be calculated using : pH = -log[H+] because the pH of a solution depends on the concentration of H + in the solution.
1. Example: What is the pH of a solution whose H+ concentration is 1 x 10-3 M? pH = 3
2. Example: What is the pH of a solution whose H+ concentration is 3.0 x 10-10 M? pH = 9.5
3. Example: What is the H+ concentration in acid rain that has a pH of 5.6? H+ = 2.5 x 10-6
G. Because strong acids completely ionize (dissociate) in solution. Their concentration will also be the concentration of ions in
solution.
1. Example: one mole of HCl will yield one mole of H+ ions and one mole of Cl- ions. Therefore, a 0.01M solution of
HCl would have [H+] = 0.01M and [Cl-] = 0.01M.
IX. Titrations
A. Titration – The process by which the molarity of an unknown acid or base can be determined by slowly neutralizing it with
a solution of a known molarity.
1. Note*- you will also need to know the volumes of the known and unknown solutions.
2. When the acid and base have neutralized each other, the number of moles of acid (H+) equals the number of moles of
base (OH-). This is called the titration’s endpoint.
B. Titration Equation (Table T)
1. MaVa = MbVb
➢ a = acid, b = base, M = molarity → moles of solution/liters of solution, V = volume
2. Note* - Volume can be in milliliters or liters – just be consistent using the same unit for both the volume of the acid
and the volume of the base.
3. Example: A 30mL sample of HCl is completely neutralized by 10mL of a 1.5 M NaOH solution. What is the molarity
of the HCl solution? 0.5 M HCl
C. Modified Titration Equation
1. (ma)MaVa = (mb)MbVb
➢ Same variables are original titration equation except:
o ma = moles of H+ ions the acid releases
o mb = moles of OH- ions the base releases
2. Example: How many milliliters of 1.0M NaOH will neutralize 50 milliliters of 0.6M H 2SO4?
➢ 60 mL of NaOH

X. Naming Acids and Bases (not on the Regents)

A. Rules of naming acids (name the original compound first then try to name the acid)
1. hydrogen ________ide ending: “ic acid”
➢ When H combines with one element, such as halogens (HCl) put “hydro” at the beginning of the name, like hydro-
chlor-, then, put “ic acid”: hydro-chlor-ic acid.
➢ Example: H2S = hydrogen sulfide (original compound) → hydrosulfuric acid (acid)
2. hydrogen ________ate ending:
➢ Drop hydrogen and -ate ending, and add “-ic acid.”
➢ Example: hydrogen sulfate (H2SO4) → sulfuric acid (H2SO4 (aq))
3. hydrogen ________ite ending:
➢ Drop hydrogen and -ite ending, and add “-ous acid.”

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 Formula for Compound Name of compound Name of acid
HF hydrogen fluoride hydrofluoric acid
HClO hydrogen hypochlorite hypochlorous acid
HNO3 hydrogen nitrate nitric acid
H2SO3 hydrogen sulfite sulfurous acid
HClO4 hydrogen perchlorate perchloric acid

B. Rules for naming bases

1. Name metal part without any changes then name the hydroxide part without any changes
➢ NaOH = sodium hydroxide
➢ LiOH = lithium hydroxide
➢ Ca(OH)2 = calcium hydroxide
➢ KOH = potassium hydroxide

~ 40 ~
 Unit 9 – Redox and Electrochemistry

I. Redox - Redox is short for Reduction and Oxidation

A. Redox reactions occur when atoms compete for electrons
B. Reduction and oxidation occur simultaneously; one cannot occur without the other.
C. Oxidation is the loss of electrons
1. Any substance that loses electrons has been oxidized (LEO: Losing Electrons Oxidation) and is called the Reducing Agent
a. Reducing agents cause the other species in the chemical equation to become reduced. Think about travel agents, real
estate agents, etc. – they help you find a vacation, find a home, etc.
➢ Reducing agents are substances that were oxidized, they lose electrons.
2. The oxidation number of the oxidized element will increase (ex. 0 → +2) going from reactant to product
D. Reduction is the gaining of electrons
1. Any substance that gains electrons has been reduced (GER: Gaining Electrons Reduction) and is called the Oxidizing Agent
a. Oxidizing agents cause the other species in the chemical equation to become oxidized
➢ Oxidizing agents are substances that were reduced, they gain electrons. The strongest oxidizing agent is
fluorine due to its high electronegativity.
2. Reduction gets its name from the charge/oxidation number of a species decreasing in value because gaining negative
electrons will cause this numerical value to decrease.
E. LEO the lion says GER | OIL RIG
1. Losing Electrons Oxidation, Gaining Electrons Reduction
2. Oxidation Is Losing, Reduction Is Gaining

Practice: State whether the following is being oxidized or reduced. Also, state how many electrons are being lost or gained.

1. Na → Na1+ (oxidized and lost 1 electron)

2. Ca → Ca2+ (oxidized and lost 2 electrons)
3. S → S2- (reduced and gained 2 electrons)
4. Al3+ → Al0 (reduced and gained 3 electrons)
5. Cu → Cu2+ (oxidized and lost 2 electrons)
6. Br1- → Br20 (oxidized and lost 1 electron)

II. Oxidation Numbers

A. We cannot look into redox reactions until we can find the oxidation number of an element.
B. Oxidation numbers are the charges assigned to an atom. Oxidation numbers help us keep track of which substances were reduced
or oxidized in a chemical equation.
C. Keep in mind that nonmetals are generally very electronegative and metals are not very electronegative. Therefore,
nonmetals generally will have negative oxidation numbers while metals will generally have positive oxidation numbers.
D. Rules for assigning oxidation numbers/states (keep in mind that earlier rules overrule later ones)
1. Free elements (elements by themselves) each have an oxidation number of zero
a. Na(s), Cl2(g), Br2(l), S8 are all zero.
2. Single ions have an oxidation number equal to their charge
a. Na+, Ca2+, and N3- are +1, +2 and -3 respectively.
3. Group 1 and 2 metals form ions that always have a +1 and +2 oxidation number respectively
a. Na in NaOH will be +1, Mg in MgCl2 will be +2
4. Fluorine always has an oxidation number of –1 in its compounds
5. Hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1 except in metal hydrides (a metal + hydrogen ONLY) it has an oxidation number of
-1
a. CaH2 and LiH, hydrogen has an oxidation number of -1 in both examples
6. Oxygen has an oxidation number of -2. However, in a peroxide it is -1, or when bonded to fluorine it could be +1 or +2.
a. H2O, H2O2, OF2, are –2, -1 and +2 respectively
➢ Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is considered a peroxide and a compound like CO2 is not. Peroxides have an oxygen-
oxygen bond. Hydrogen peroxide looks like this: H-O-O-H. Carbon dioxide looks like this: O=C=O. Carbon dioxide
doesn’t have the O-O bond. HOWEVER, even if you didn’t know that H2O2 is a peroxide, using rule 5 you can
assign each hydrogen to have an oxidation number of +1, leaving each oxygen needing to have an oxidation number
of -1. Remember, the sum of the oxidation numbers of a substance must be equal to its charge.
E. When assigning oxidation numbers of elements in a compound, always start by assigning the oxidation numbers of the elements
you know using the rules above, then move onto the elements that don’t have rules. DO NOT LOOK AT COEFFICIENTS as they
would affect each species in the compound anyway.
➢ You can double check if your assigned oxidation numbers are correct by looking at your Periodic Table in the top
right hand corner of each element box and seeing if your assigned oxidation number for a certain element is listed

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 there. Our Regents Chemistry Periodic Table has most of the oxidation states but not all. The Regents will only use
an oxidation state listed on the table.

Practice: Find the oxidation numbers for each element in the following compounds/ions:

1. O in H2O (-2)
2. O in Na2O2 (-1)
3. Ca in CaCl2 (+2)
4. Na in NaOH (-1)
5. F in HF (-1)
6. H in NaH (-1)
7. O in O3 (0)
8. K in K+ (+1)
III. The Conservation of Charge
A. The charge of a polyatomic ion or a molecule is equal to the sum of the oxidation numbers of its elements.

Practice: Assign oxidation states to each of the elements in the following compounds.

1. KCl = K is +1, Cl is -1
2. CaCl2 = Ca is +2, Cl is -1
3. Al2O3 = Al is +3, O is -2
4. CO2 = C is +4, O is -2
5. NO2- = N is +3, O is -2
6. SO42- = S is +6, O is -2
7. PO43- = P is +5, O is -2
8. KClO3 = K is +1, Cl is +5, O is -2
9. H2C3O4 = H is +1, C is +2, O is -2
10. Na2HPO4 = Na is +1, H is +1, P is +5, O is -2

IV. Determining if a reaction is Redox or not

A. When given a chemical equation and you are asked to determine whether or not it is a Redox reaction, you should always assign
oxidation numbers to all of the elements in the equation first.
B. If any given element’s oxidation number changes from reactant to product, the reaction is a Redox reaction. There will always be a
species that is being oxidized and another that is being reduced.
1. Mg + Br2 → MgBr2 (redox)
2. NH4NO3 → N2 + H2O (redox)
3. HCl + NaOH → H2O + NaCl (not redox)
4. BaCl2 + 2KIO3 → Ba(IO3)2 + 2KCl (not redox)

V. Half-reactions - Shows the oxidation reaction and the reduction reaction of a Redox reaction separately.
A. There is a conservation of charge and mass in a redox reaction
B. Steps for finding the half-reactions (Ex. Mg + Cl2 → MgCl2)
1. Find the oxidation state for each element (from left to right → 0,0,+2,-1)
2. Separate the substances that had a change in oxidation state
a. Mg0 → Mg2+
➢ The Mg lost two electrons and was oxidized (is the reducing agent)
b. Cl20 → 2Cl-
➢ The Cl2 gained two electrons and was reduced (oxidizing agent)
➢ Note* - The diatomic molecule of chlorine will break apart into 2 ions of chlorine (mass is conserved)
3. Balance the charges with electrons – conserves the charge.
a. Mg0 → Mg2+ + 2e-
b. Cl20 + 2e- → 2Cl-
4. The “Drudy” Rule - the electrons go on the more positive side of the half reaction
C. Steps for balancing half-reactions (Ex: Cu + Ag+ → Cu2+ + Ag)
1. Step 1: Divide the reaction into half-reactions, one for oxidation and the other for reduction.
Ox Cu ---> Cu2+
Red Ag+ ---> Ag
2. Step 2: Balance each side of the reactions for mass by adding coefficients, NOT subscripts. (Already done in this case)

3. Step 3: Balance each half-reaction for charge by adding electrons.

Ox Cu ---> Cu2+ + 2e-

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 Red Ag+ + e- ---> Ag
4. Step 4: Multiply each half-reaction by a factor so that the reducing agent supplies as many electrons as the oxidizing agent
requires. (In this example, the entire Ag half-reaction was multiplied by a factor of 2. You may want to think about math rules
where if you change one side of the equation by a factor, you must multiple each term by the same factor to keep the entire
equation consistently equal)
Reducing agent Cu ---> Cu2+ + 2e-
Oxidizing agent 2 Ag+ + 2 e- ---> 2 Ag
5. Step 5: Add half-reactions to give the overall net equation. (Combine all the reactants of both half-reactions, then combine all
the products of both half-reactions)
Cu ---> Cu2+ + 2e-
+ 2 Ag+ + 2 e- ---> 2 Ag
--------------------------------------------------------------
Cu + 2Ag+ + 2e- → Cu2+ + 2Ag + 2e-
6. Step 6: Cancel out the electrons from both sides of the equation. We are allowed to cancel out these electrons because we
purposely made them equal in Step 4 and there is the same amount of electrons on both sides of the equation.
7. Final balanced reaction: Cu + 2Ag+ → Cu2+ + 2Ag

Practice: Balance the following reactions

1. Cu+ + Fe →Fe3+ + Cu
2. Zn + Fe3+ → Zn2+ + Fe
3. Ce3+ + Pb → Ce + Pb4+
4. Fe3+ + Sn2+ → Fe2+ + Sn4+

Answers in order: *Fe + 3Cu+ → Fe3+ + 3Cu || 3Zn + 2Fe3+ → 3Zn2+ + 2Fe || 4Ce3+ + 3Pb → 4Ce + 3Pb4+ || 2Fe3+ + Sn2+ → 2Fe2+ + Sn4+*

VI. Electrochemistry - Electron transfer reactions are oxidation-reduction or redox reactions, this results in electric current
A. The Electrochemical Cell (Chemical → Electrical)
1. An electrochemical cell is an apparatus that uses a redox reaction to produce electrical energy or uses electrical energy
to cause a chemical reaction.

The Voltaic aka Galvanic Cell:

2. Parts of a Voltaic Cell

a. Electrode – the metals that are the sites of reduction and oxidation
b. Anode – the electrode where oxidation occurs (AN OX = ANode OXidation)
➢ Anions are headed to the anode. That’s why it’s called ANode. (Negative Electrode in Voltaic Cells)
c. Cathode – the electrode where reduction occurs (RED CAT = REDuction CAThode)
➢ Cations are headed to the cathode. That’s why it’s called CAThode (Positive Electrode in Voltaic Cells).
d. Salt Bridge – allows for the migration if ions into the two beakers (half-cells). Neutralizes the solutions to prevent
buildup of charge while the cell is producing electricity.
e. Wire – carries the electrons between the anode and cathode
f. Lightbulb/Voltmeter – Indicates the cell is producing electricity

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 g. Switch – can be used to start/stop the voltaic cell progress
h. Ion solutions – each beaker/half-cell contains solutions that contain the ions of the metals being used in the Voltaic Cell
3. The anode will begin to get smaller as the system reaches equilibrium at which point the voltage will be zero and the Voltaic
Cell will no longer product electricity
4. The cathode will begin to become larger as the Voltaic Cell continues to run
B. Cell Notation – a way of writing the structure of the Voltaic Cell without drawing it
1. Zn│Zn2+ ║ Cu+2│Cu
a. The notation above represents a Voltaic Cell going from left to right. This particular Voltaic Cell is Zn metal in a Zn 2+
solution in one half-cell. The other half-cell is a Cu2+ solution with Cu metal. Each │ of cell notation presents a
boundary. The first │ is the boundary between the first metal and its ion solution. The ││ represents the salt bridge and
wire. The second │ represents the boundary between the second ion solution and its corresponding metal.
b. From cell notation, you can also easily find the half-reactions of the Voltaic Cell. Using cell notation you can see from
the first half of the notation that one half-reaction will be
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-. From the second half to the notation you can see that the other half-reaction will be Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
C. The Electrolytic Cell (Electrical → Chemical)
1. The use of electrical energy to bring about a chemical reaction that wouldn’t happen otherwise (example: NaCl → Na + Cl2,
table salt (NaCl) does not become sodium metal and chlorine gas by you leaving it on a counter)
2. Often used to take a compound and break it into the elements that the compound is composed of

3. Parts of an Electrolytic Cell

a. Inert Electrodes – electrodes that conduct electricity
b. Anode – the site of oxidation
c. Cathode – the site of reduction
d. Battery – takes electrons from anode and gives it to the cathode using electricity. It is a power source that forces the
opposite reaction of one that normally occurs by itself
e. Molten substance – the hot, liquid state of the compound you wish to separate
4. Comparison between Voltaic/Galvanic Cells and Electrolytic Cells

➢ Remember for Electrolytic Cells: The anode is positive and the cathode is negative. Think PANIC : Positive Anode
Negative Is Cathode
5. Purpose of using Electrolytic Cells
a. Recharging a battery or galvanic cell.
b. Electroplating
6. Electroplating – coating (plating) a metal with another metal
a. The cathode is the object to be electroplated, where reduction occurs.

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 b. The anode is a piece of the metal being transferred over such as silver (maybe gold), where silver is oxidized and silver
ions are transferred to the cathode.

VII. Spontaneous Redox Reactions (Table J)

A. The Hydrogen Half-Cell - Chemists used the hydrogen half-cell as an arbitrary standard. The reaction
between hydrogen gas and its ions is the reference point by which all other activities are measured against.
B. Table J
1. According to Table J, the more reactive elements are listed closer to the top and the least active ones are on the bottom. Using
this table we know that metals that are higher on the list will lose their electrons to metals that are lower than them. “Electrons
will flow from high to low”
a. If you have two metals connected in a Voltaic Cell, the metal that is higher on this list will be the anode and lose its
electrons to the other metal. Electrons ALWAYS flow from anode to cathode.
2. Given: Fe2+ + Sn → Sn2+ + Fe
a. You can determine if the above reaction will occur spontaneously by analyzing the species that is oxidized (losing
electrons) and reduced (gaining electrons) in the given equation. If your analysis agrees with what Table J reads, then the
reaction will occur spontaneously.
➢ Sn → Sn2+ + 2e- (losing electrons)
2e- + Fe2+ → Fe (gaining electrons)
➢ Table J says that Fe will lose its electrons to Sn because Fe is higher on Table J. Therefore, these results disagree
and this reaction will NOT occur spontaneously.

Practice: For the following redox reactions tell whether the reactions occur spontaneously.

1. 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl (spontaneous)

2. Au3+ + Cr → Au + Cr3+ (spontaneous)
3. Mg2+ + H2 → Mg + 2H+ (nonspontaneous)

C. You can also use Table J to determine if a metal will replace another metal (that’s part of a compound) during a single
replacement reaction OR if a nonmetal will replace another nonmetal (that’s part of a compound) during a single replacement
reaction.
➢ Which reaction occurs spontaneously?
(1) I2(s) + 2NaBr(aq) →Br2(l) + 2NaI(aq)
(2) Cl2(g) + 2NaF(aq) →F2(g) + 2NaCl(aq)
(3) I2(s) + 2NaF(aq) →F2(g) + 2NaI(aq)
(4) Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) →Br2(l) + 2NaCl(aq)
➢ According to Table J, fluorine is the most active nonmetal, then comes chlorine, then comes bromine, then comes
iodine.
➢ This means that the MORE ACTIVE nonmetal or metal will stay in the compound.
➢ Choice 1: Iodine is less reactive than bromine and therefore will NOT replace the bromine and bond with Na as the
products show
➢ Choice 2: Chlorine is less reactive than fluorine and therefore will NOT replace the fluorine and bond with Na as the
products show
➢ Choice 3: Iodine is less reactive than fluorine and therefore will NOT replace the fluorine and bond with Na as the
products show
➢ Choice 4: Chlorine is more reactive than bromine and therefore WILL replace the bromine and bond with
Na as the products show

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Practice: Which reaction occurs spontaneously?

(1) Al(g) + 3NaF(aq) →3Na(l) + AlF3(aq)

(2) Zn(g) + 2NaF(aq) →2Na(g) + ZnF2(aq)

(3) K(s) + NaF(aq) →Na(l) + KF(aq)

(4) Co(s) + 3NaF(aq) →3Na(g) + CoF3(aq)

*Choice 3 is correct because according to Table J, potassium (K) is more active than sodium (Na) and will therefore replace the
Na and bond with the nonmetal in its place*

*Note: Metals will fight for the metal spot in the compound and nonmetals will fight for the nonmetal spot in the compound*

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 Unit 10 – Organic Chemistry

I. Organic chemistry studies all compounds containing the element carbon (C)
A. Carbon is special because carbon is tetravalent – loves to form four bonds due to having four valence electrons → dot
diagram = one electron on each side
B. Carbons usually shares electrons with other nonmetals to make a covalent bond.
C. Carbon can form single, double, or triple bonds and carbon-carbon bonds are strong enough to form long chains.

II. Properties of organic compounds (generalizations)

A. They are nonpolar (usually) and won’t mix with water (which is polar).
B. They are non-electrolytes meaning they won’t form ions that can conduct electricity.
C. They have low melting and boiling points. Usually below 300ºC.
D. They have a low density (usually 0.7-0.8 g/ml) and float on water.
E. Flammable!
F. They react slowly because they contain covalent bonds (not as fast as aqueous ionic) to break down/reassemble.

III. Hydrocarbons (hydro = hydrogen / carbon = carbon, hydrocarbons contain only hydrogen and carbon)
A. Alkanes - contains only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms
1. General formula = CnH2n+2 (where n = number of carbons)
B. Straight-chain alkanes contain any number of carbon atoms, one after the other, in a chain pattern
C. Names of alkanes will always end with –ane
1. A prefix is used to indicate how many carbons are in the longest continuous chain (Table P)
a. meth = 1 / eth = 2 / prop = 3 / but = 4 / pent = 5 / hex = 6 / hept = 7 / oct = 8 / nona = 9 / deca = 10
- Ex. a carbon chain with three carbons connected together with hydrogens filling the remaining bonds will be
called propane. Prop = prefix for three, ane = suffix for alkanes
b. Note* - when finding the longest chain, you can start counting the carbons from ANY direction and doesn’t
necessarily have to be left to right (could be top to bottom, right to left, etc.)
c. When drawing alkanes;
- Count the number of carbons
- Line them up in a row next to each other
- Place 4 single bonds (lines) around each carbon (this connects several carbons together in a chain)
- Add hydrogens to the remaining bonds that are not connecting carbons
D. Alkenes – contains at least one double bond between carbon atoms.
1. Named the same way as with alkanes but have an –ene ending
a. You need to indicate between which two carbons the double bond is located. You do this by assigning the carbons
in the longest chain a number (count off) and giving the carbon that starts the double bond the lowest number
assignment possible.
- Hint* = if the molecule can be reflected (mirror image of itself) and the double bond receives a lower carbon
number assignment this way, it will take that lower carbon number in its name.
- Ex. a five carbon chain with a double bond between carbons 2 and 3 will be called
2-pentene
b. Note* - alkyl (including alkyl halides) groups are written before naming the alkene or alkyne part (but alkenes and
alkynes take number priority). See alkyl section of outline.
2. General formula = CnH2n (where n = number of carbons)
E. Alkynes – contains at least one triple bond between carbon atoms.
1. Named the same way as alkenes but have an –yne ending
2. General formula = CnH2n-2 (where n = number of carbons)
F. Saturated hydrocarbon - only contains single covalent bonds between carbon atoms
1. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons
a. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons because they (the carbons) are saturated (holding) as many hydrogens as
possible.
G. Unsaturated hydrocarbon - contains double or triple bonds between carbon atoms
1. Alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons
a. Alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons because their double (or triple) bonds take the place of
hydrogens that could be bonded to the carbons (like an alkane), thus they are not bonded with as many hydrogens
as possible

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IV. Homologous Series - A group of organic compounds with similar properties and related structures (differ from each other by
CH2), you can also think of them as families.
A. Alkanes series: methane (C2H6) → ethane (C3H8) → propane (C4H10) → butane (C5H12)
B. Alkenes series: methene (C2H4) → ethene (C3H6) → propene (C4H8) → butene (C5H10)
C. Alkynes series: methyne (C2H2) → ethyne (C3H4) → propyne (C4H6) → butyne (C5H8)
1. Note* - all of the above series differ by CH2 going from previous in the series to the next

V. Fractional Distillation - because hydrocarbons exhibit physical properties based upon their molecular weights and number of
carbon atoms present, we can separate them based upon their boiling points using fractional distillation.
A. Lighter / smaller molecules are separated from a crude mixture at lower temperatures.
B. Lighter / smaller molecules have fewer bonds to break than larger ones and therefore have lower melting and boiling
points.

C. During fractional distillation, the smaller hydrocarbons will be boiled off first out of the crude oil mixture (contains various
hydrocarbons) and will therefore gather at the top of the fractionating tower first and can be collected. The heavier
hydrocarbons will take longer to boil and will remain at the base of the fractioning tower for longer (until their boiling
points are reached).

VI. Types of Formulas

A. Molecular Formula - shows the formula of the molecule using element symbols and subscripts
1. Ex. C3H6, C4H8, C6H10
2. Using the molecular formula only tells you how many of each type of element there are in the molecule and does not
tell you anything about the bonding in the molecule or the structure.
B. Structural Formula - Shows the entire molecule drawn out using lines to represent covalent bonds
1. The structural formula shows the entire structure of the molecule drawn out including H’s to represent hydrogens, C’s
to represent carbons, O’s to represent oxygens, etc.

2. Ex.
C. Condensed Structural Formula - shows the structure of the molecule as read from left to right (or right to left) without
showing all bonds written as a line of text
1. Ex. CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH
2. Note* - Similar adjacent parts can be grouped together using parenthesis such as (using above example) –
CH₃(CH₂)4CH
3. Note* - When given a condensed formula such as: CH3CH2CH(OH)CH3, a parenthesis is sometimes used to indicate a
group (aka branch) coming off of the previous carbon
D. Skeletal Formula - similar to the structural formula except hydrogens attached to carbons are not shown

1. Ex. (every end and every bend with no element symbol written is automatically a carbon)
Note* - Try to use the structural formula at all times with all bonds and all elements written out.

VII. Isomers - Have the same molecular formula but a different structure (and structural formula), thus also having different
properties

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 A. Ex. CH3CH2CH2CH3 and CH3CH(CH3)CH3 are isomers

B. Ex. ethanol and dimethyl ether are isomers

C. Ex. THE BELOW MOLECULES ARE NOT ISOMERS!!

1. Remember that molecules are free-floating and can rotate and spin freely. For this reason, mirror images of molecules
(think 180 degree horizontal or vertical flips) are NOT isomers. Isomers need to be some sort of bond rearrangement
while maintaining the same quantity of each type of element.

VIII. Alkanes with branches

A. Step 1: Find the longest carbon chain (continuous without lifting your pen off the paper if you were to trace it)
1. Note* You may circle the longest chain if you would like. It will come in handy soon to name via this method.
2. Note* - when finding the longest chain, you can start counting the carbons from ANY direction and doesn’t necessarily
have to be left to right (could be top to bottom, right to left, etc.)
3. Note* - The chain below is still considered to be a straight-chain hydrocarbon even if it is drawn rigid (angled). Do not
make the mistake in thinking carbon 1 below is a branch.

B. Number the carbons of the continuous chain (1-10 since we only go up to deca-)
C. Name the branches called alkyl groups (the parts of your molecule that are not part of the longest chain (they won’t be
circled if using the method mentioned above).
1. Note* - you may want to box your branches to organize the molecule before naming it
2. Alkyl groups - the branches off of the longest carbon chain are called alkyl groups and named somewhat differently
than hydrocarbons
a. When naming these branches, you still name them using the same prefixes as naming alkanes, alkenes, and
alkynes.
b. However, instead of the –ane, -ene, and –yne endings, you use an –yl ending representing alkyl groups.
c. Ex. alkyl branch containing 1 carbon = methyl group
d. Ex. alkyl branch containing 3 carbons = propyl group
D. Identify the number of the carbon in which the branch is bonded to. Use the lowest number possible (you may need to start
counting your longest chain from the opposite direction to achieve this).
1. The number is written first followed by a hyphen (-) and then the alkyl group combined with the straight chain
hydrocarbon name as one word
a. Ex. CH3CH(CH3)CH2CH2CH3 = 2-methylpentane

b. Ex. = 4-ethyloctane

IX. Alkanes with multiple branches

A. Number of the carbon that the branch is attached to is still written first followed by a hyphen then full name.

~ 49 ~
 B. However, you will now indicate ALL of the carbons that have a branch attached to them and separate their numbers using a
comma (,).
C. Then you will use normal prefixes (di = 2, tri = 3, tetra = 4) to indicate how many of each type of branch you have before
naming the full name.
D. Note* - If you have branches that are different, you name the branches alphabetically (butyl → ethyl → methyl)

E. Ex. is 2,3-dimethylbutane

F. Ex. is 2,2-dimethylpentane

X. Haloalkanes - halogen attached to an alkane. These compounds are also referred to as alkyl halides.
A. Haloalkanes are named similarly to alkanes with alkyl groups attached to them. However, the prefixes are changed to the
beginning of the halogen’s name with an –o attached. See top of Reference Table R.

B. When naming haloalkanes, you still need to follow the rules as naming alkanes with alkyl groups.
C. Therefore, you MUST associate the halogen with the lowest carbon number possible of the longest chain.

1. Ex. is 1-chloropropane
D. When naming hydrocarbons with alkyl groups and with halogen groups, whichever comes first alphabetically is named first.

1. Ex. is 2-chloro-3-methylbutane
E. When naming alkanes that have multiple branches and double or triple bonds, branches are written first and ordered
alphabetically but the double or triple bonds get longest-chain carbon numbering priority.

1. Ex. is 1-chloro-3-methyl-2-butene

XI. Functional Groups - a set of atoms responsible for a molecule’s characteristics. These functional groups are often used to
identify the type of molecule a molecule is. Always refer to Reference Table R when asked about functional groups.
A. Alcohols - a class of organic compounds that contain a C bonded to OH (or R-OH). The –OH group is referred to as the
hydroxyl group
1. “R” - represents any bonded atom or groups of atoms (a variable)
a. Ex. R = -CH2CH2CH2CH3
b. Ex. R = -CH2CH3
2. R’ (R prime) – represents another group of atoms or bonded atom that can (but doesn’t have to be) the same as regular
R.
3. Monohydroxy alcohol - Has just one –OH group in it.
a. Primary alcohols – 0-1 carbons attached to the carbon that has the –OH group attached to it
b. Secondary alcohols – 2 carbons attached to the carbon that has the –OH group attached to it
~ 50 ~
 c. Tertiary alcohols – 3 carbons attached to the carbon that has the –OH group attached to it

4. When naming alcohols, you follow the same rules as naming alkanes with branches (using a number to indicate which
carbon the –OH is attached to) but change the –e ending to an –ol ending.

a. Ex. is 1-propanol
5. Dihydroxy Alcohol (aka glycols) - two –OH groups

a.
Must know* - 1,2-ethandiol aka ethylene glycol (do not confuse –ene ending with a double bond, it
doesn’t have a double bond)
B. Carboxylic Acids (aka Organic Acids) - can give off H+ ions.
1. To name a carboxylic acid we replace the final “e” of the alkane name with the ending “-oic acid”
2. Carboxylic acids all have the following functional group: R-COOH

a. Ex. CH3COOH = ethanoic acid

C. Aldehydes - have the functional group: R-CHO
1. To name an aldehyde we replace the final “e” of the alkane name with “-al”.

a. Ex. CH3CHO = ethanal

D. Ketone - have the functional group: R-CO-R’
1. There are two ways to name a ketone;
a. Name the longest alkane chain, drop the final “e” and add “-one” → Regents method
b. Name the “R” groups on both sides of the C=O and add the word “ketone” (smaller R group is named first) with
spaces between the words

c. Ex. CH3COCH3 = dimethyl ketone / 2-propanone

E. Ether - Have the functional group: R-O-R’
1. Name both “R” groups then end in the word “ether” – similar to method 2 of naming ketones

a. Ex. CH3OCH3 = methyl methyl ether → dimethyl ether

2. Ethers can be made from the dehydration of an alcohol
a. 2ROH → H2O + R-O-R

2
F. Ester - have the functional group: R-COO-R
1. Esters are known for their sweet odors and fruity smells, therefore they are used in perfumes.
a. Think “Esther” being a girl’s name and associate that with perfumes.
2. Esters are named by naming the R group (that doesn’t contain the C=O) followed by the other R group (with the C=O)
and an “–oate” ending

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 a. Ex. CH3CH2CH2COOCH2CH3 = ethyl butanoate

G. Amine - Have the functional group: NH2

1. To name an amine we replace the final “e” of the alkane name with the ending “-amine” while also indicating which
carbon of the longest chain has the –NH2 group.

a. Ex. CH3CH2CH(NH2)CH3 = 2-butanamine

2. Amino acids – contain an amine group (-NH2) and an organic acid group (-COOH) and they make up proteins

a.
b. Proteins are made from the dehydration of amino acids.
1. Peptide bonds are formed = links carbon of acid group to nitrogen of amine group

H. Amides - have the functional group: -CONH2

1. Amides are named in a similar way to organic acids. Instead of ending in “–oic acid” we end with the word “amide”.
Longest chain → drop “e” → add amide

a. Ex. CH3CH3CH2CONH2 = butanamide

XII. Organic Reactions

A. Substitution - replacement of an alkane’s hydrogen atom with a halogen
1. Alkane + Diatomic Halogen → Haloalkane + Hydrogen Halide
a. Ex. CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl
B. Addition – a diatomic halogen or hydrogen (called hydrogenation instead) is added at the double bond location in an alkene,
and it becomes a single bond attached to the element added
1. Note* - to remember this, think of the DD in aDDition to represent this reaction starting with a double bond

C. Oxidation (Combustion) - the addition of oxygen (or the removal of hydrogen)

1. Hydrocarbon + O2 → CO2 + H2O
a. Ex. CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
D. Fermentation - Glucose is broken down into ethanol (CH3CH2OH) and carbon dioxide
1. C6H12O6 → C2H5OH + CO2
E. Esterification - the process of making an ester
1. Organic Acid + Alcohol → Ester + Water
a.
F. Saponification – the process of making soap
1. Fat + Base → Glycerol + Organic Acid Salt
G. Polymerization - the formation of large molecules from smaller ones. We start with many simple monomer units that are
joined to form one large polymer.
1. Two types of polymerization

~ 52 ~
a. Addition Polymerization - double bonds (or triple bonds) are broken forming single bonds and then the single
bonds join together.

- Ethane (shown above) will form polyethylene used in plastics, polyester, polystyrene, etc.
- polyethylene is easy to clean and chemically resistant- milk bottles, plastic wrap

- Another Example:
b. Condensation Polymerization - Monomers are joined together by a dehydration reaction. Water is removed. Each
monomer must have two functional groups for this type of polymerization to take place.

Another example of condensation polymerization:

~ 53 ~
 Unit 11 – Nuclear Chemistry

I. Nuclear Reactions vs. Normal Chemical Changes

A. Nuclear reactions involve the nucleus of an atom.
B. The nucleus opens, and protons and neutrons are rearranged.
C. The opening of the nucleus releases a tremendous amount of energy that holds the nucleus together.
D. Transmutation - In nuclear reactions, elements can transform into other elements (atomic number changes). See
transmutation part of outline further on.

II. Natural Reactivity – Unstable nuclei will try to become stable through various methods depending on their size,
number of neutrons and number of protons.
A. Elements with atomic numbers 84 or greater are said to be radioactive.
1. They have an unstable nucleus that decays (falls apart).
B. You can also have radioactive isotopes of elements below number 84.
1. Isotope – same element but different number of neutrons resulting in different mass numbers.
2. Example: C-14 (carbon-14) is the radioactive isotope of carbon (normally carbon-12).
a. C-14/carbon-14 stands for “element name-mass number”
C. A higher ratio of neutrons to protons will dictate beta decay (below atomic number 84). The ratio is usually
above 1.5 neutrons : 1 proton
D. A lower ratio of neutrons to protons will dictate positron decay or electron capture
1. Electron capture – an electron from the inner shell of an atom combines with a proton in the nucleus to form
a neutron.
E. An atomic number of 84 or greater will dictate alpha decay.

III. Uses of Radiation and Side Effects

A. Good Uses (Memorize for the Regents: Element name and mass)
1. Cobalt-60 (Co-60): Gamma radiation from cobalt 60 can be aimed at cancerous tumors
2. Iodine-131 (I-131): Detection and treatment of thyroid cancer – tracer
a. Tracer – finds locations of targeted cells usually through injection or ingestion
3. Carbon-14 (C-14): Carbon dating
a. Carbon dating – a method of determining the age of an object containing organic material (carbon
based)
4. Uranium-238 (U-238): Uranium dating
a. Uranium dating is able to date much further back in time compared to carbon dating. Usually used on
minerals and rocks.
b. Uranium-235 is also commonly used in nuclear power plants.
5. Smoke detectors
6. Good source of energy
B. Bad Uses
1. Can hurt the body if dose is too high
2. Can hurt the environment especially nuclear waste from power plants
3. Weapon use

IV. Radioactive Emanations (Reference Table O)

A. Isotope Notation – A method of writing elements showing their mass numbers and atomic numbers followed by
their element symbol
1. Example: 22286Rn (222 is the mass number, 86 is the atomic number for radon, and Rn is the element symbol
for radon)
B. As the nuclei of atoms disintegrate, they emit certain types of particles. Particles that are given off as a result of
nuclear decay are always shown as products in the chemical equation.
1. Alpha Decay – An alpha particle is given off. The 42He is called an Alpha Particle () or alpha decay and are
positive (+) particles.

~ 54 ~
 a. They contain only 2 neutrons and 2 protons (the nucleus of a helium atom hence the He) and are
therefore +2 in charge.
b. Example: 22688Ra → 22286Rn + 42He
- Radium is undergoing alpha decay and is therefore losing mass and protons resulting in a new
element (if the number of protons changes then the element changes) and an alpha particle.
- Note* - Mass number and atomic numbers (top numbers and bottom numbers of isotope notation)
must be equal on both sides of the chemical equation, reactants and products (conservation of mass).
2. Beta Decay – The nucleus of an atom converts a neutron into a proton and electron. 0-1e is called a Beta
Particle (-) or an electron and are negative (-) particles (-1 in charge).
a. Note* - this is not an example of an excited electron.
b. Example: 21482Pb → 21483Bi + 0-1e
- Note* - The lead (Pb) nucleus converts a neutron into a proton (which is why atomic number
increased by 1) and a beta particle (electron)
- Note* - loss of a beta particle doesn’t affect the mass
- Note* - Mass number and atomic numbers (top numbers and bottom numbers of isotope notation)
must be equal on both sides of the chemical equation, reactants and products (conservation of mass).
3. Gamma Radiation (00) - Gamma rays are not particles at all. They are high-energy radiation that is neutral
(o) in charge.
a. Example: 9943Tc → 9943Tc + 
- Note* - Neither mass nor the element changes in this case. The only change is in the amount of
energy since gamma radiation is high-energy radiation.
C. Increasing charge: beta (negative) → gamma (neutral) → alpha (positive)
Type of Decay Alpha -  - 42He Beta - - - 0-1e Gamma Ray - 
Mass He nucleus 1/1836 AMU None
2p + 2n = 4 AMU (atomic
mass unit)
Charge +2 -1 0
Speed 1/10 speed of light Almost speed of light Speed of light
3 x 108 m/s
Penetrating Power Weak, easily stopped Requires a thicker material Requires several inches of
lead
Damage Breaks gas molecules Breaks gas molecules Breaks down cells, DNA,
larger molecules

Note* - Gamma rays have greatest penetrating → beta particles → alpha particles
4. Other Types of Nuclear Particles (Reference Table O)
a. Neutron (10n)
b. Position – positive electron (0+1e or +), +1 charge
c. Proton – usually referred to as hydrogen-1 (11H or 11p)
- Note* - loss of a positron doesn’t affect the mass

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V. Identifying the Unknown Particle (Example: 146C → 147N + ____)
A. Rules
1. The mass on each side of the equation must be equal
2. The charges on each side of the equation must be equal
3. General format:
a. AZX → azX + A-aZ-zY
B. Question: What do we need to add to this equation so that the numbers (mass number and atomic number) will
be equal on both sides?
C. If given a problem where you are asked to identify the unknown particle, use Reference Table O to find the
particle (or radiation) that makes the equation true – the mass numbers and atomic numbers on the reactant and
product side of the chemical equation are equal.
1. Example: Given 22688Ra → X + 22286Rn, what particle would make this equation true?
a. Alpha particle because an alpha particle is 42He and 226–4 = 222, 88-2 = 86 (from Rn)
2. Example: Given 23992U → X + 23993Np, what particle would make this equation true?
a. 0-1e or -
3. Example: Given 74Be + X → 73Li, what particle would make this equation true?
a. 0-1e or -

D. Isotope Decay (Reference Table N)

A. Reference Table N shows certain isotopes and their half-lives (covered later), decay mode, and their names.
The decay mode tells you what type of decay a specific isotope will undergo.
1. Note* - Read the decay modes carefully because there are - and + which look similar but are different.
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 B. Example: What type of decay does cobalt-60 undergo? -
1. Follow-up: Write the nuclear equation for the spontaneous decay of Co-60.
a. 6027Co → 6028Ni + 0-1e
C. Example: What type of decay does Th-232 undergo? 
1. Follow-up: Write the nuclear equation for the spontaneous decay of Th-232.
a. 23290Th → 22888Ra + 42He
- Note* - After calculating what the atomic number should be, always double check your
reference table and see what element corresponds to that atomic number. Remember that atomic
numbers are the identity of elements.

D. Example: (choice 2 is correct)

VI. Types of Transmutation (spontaneous decay of an atom)

A. Natural Transmutation - Only one reactant becomes a different one via release of a radioactive particle or
radiation.
a. Alpha decay, Beta decay, positron emission, etc.
b. Note* - Every radioisotope on Table N decays by natural transmutation.
B. Artificial Transmutation - Bombardment of one element with another particle (often a nucleus such as the
nucleus of a helium atom/alpha particle (42He)
a. Two reactants
b. Example: 3517Cl + 10n → 3516S + X

VII. Half-life
A. Definition 1 - Half of a radioactive isotope’s mass is lost after its half-life time has elapsed.
B. Definition 2 - Half-life is the time required for half of a substance’s mass to disintegrate.
C. Note* - The half-life of an isotope does not change; there is a constant rate of decay. This is regardless of
pressure, temperature, amount already decayed, etc. Half-lives are often very long in length of time and that’s
why nuclear waste materials pose a problem.
D. Example: Suppose we have a 100 g sample of a substance that has a half-life of one year. What will happen to
the mass of that substance over the one, two, three, etc. years?
1. Methods to solving problems with half-life
a. Write out each individual half-life as they occur
- half-life 1 (one year has gone by) = 100g → 50g
- half-life 2 (two years has gone by) = 50g → 25g
- half-life 3 (three years has gone by) = 25g → 12.5g
- Total half-lives = 3
b. As half-lives go by or occur, count using your fingers how many half-lives went by and the new mass as
you put up a finger.
- half-life 1 (one year has gone by) = 1 finger goes up, new mass is 50g
- half-life 2 (two years has gone by) = 2 fingers are up, new mass is 25g
- half-life 3 (three years has gone by) = 3 fingers are up, new mass is 12.5g
- Total half-lives = 3 (three fingers are up)
E. Example: The half-life of Iodine-131 is eight days. After 32 days how many grams of a 4 gram sample will
remain? How many half-lives occurred?
1. Method 1
a. half-life 1 (8 days has gone by) = 4g → 2g
b. half-life 2 (16 days has gone by) = 2g → 1g
c. half-life 3 (24 days has gone by) = 1g → 0.5g
d. half-life 4 (32 days has gone by) = 0.5g → 0.25g
e. Total half-lives = 4 (32 days elapsed)
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 2. Method 2
a. half-life 1 (8 days has gone by) = 1 finger goes up, new mass is 2g
b. half-life 2 (16 days has gone by) = 2 fingers are up, new mass is 1g
c. half-life 3 (24 days has gone by) = 3 fingers are up, new mass is 0.5g
d. half-life 4 (32 days has gone by) = 4 fingers are up, new mass is 0.25g
e. Total half-lives = 4 (four fingers are up)

VIII. Nuclear Fission

A. The energy released by nuclear reactions results primarily from the conversion of mass into energy.
B. The splitting of nuclei. The splitting of a nucleus is accompanied by the release of energy, so each split of a
nucleus will release more and more energy.
1. Example: 23592U + 10n → 14156Ba + 9236Kr + 310n + energy
C. Nuclear fission occurs in two parts;
1. Initiation. Reaction of a single atom starts the chain (such as 235U + neutron)
2. Propagation. 236U fission releases neutrons that initiate other fissions

IX. Nuclear Fusion

A. The energy released by nuclear reactions results primarily from the conversion of mass into energy.
B. Small nuclei combine which releases energy. This occurs in the sun and other similar stars.
1. Mass Defect – the mass of the products will still be lower than mass of the reactants because some of the
mass is converted to energy.
2. *Example: 21H + 31H → 42He + 10n + energy* - notice hydrogen nuclei are combining

End Master Outline

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